Assignment No # 2

Course Code [Link] & Evaluation(8602)

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Level: B. ed (1.5) year
Semester: 1 (Spring 2024)

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

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Question No 1
Explain the importance of validity for meaningful assessment.

Any useful evaluation must have validity in order to guarantee that it measures the things is
supposed to measure.
This is the significance of validity:

1. Accuracy of
Results:
Tests that are considered valid yield answers that accurately represent the aptitude,
expertise, or knowledge that the test is intended to gauge. If the results lack validity, they
could be deceptive and lead to the wrong assumptions regarding the performance or
talents of the individual.

2. Choosing:

The outcomes of assessments are frequently the basis for choosing important decisions in
education, the workplace, and other areas. By ensuring that these choices are supported
by pertinent and reliable data, valid evaluations assist lower the possibility of mistakes
that could have serious repercussions.

3. Fairness:

The procedure is fair and equitable when all participants are assessed using the same
criteria, which is ensured via valid assessments. There is a chance that certain participants
will unfairly benefit or suffer from an invalid assessment.
4 Reliability:

While reliability refers to the consistency of an assessment, validity is necessary for

reliability to be meaningful. An assessment can be reliable (consistent) but not valid
(accurate). Therefore, validity is essential for the reliability of the assessment to matter.

[Link] of Educational Practices:

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 Valid assessments provide educators and administrators with meaningful data that can be
used to improve teaching methods, curricula, and educational policies. This data-driven
approach is essential for continuous improvement in educational settings.

7. Stakeholder Confidence:

Validity enhances the credibility of the assessment process, leading to greater trust and
confidence among students, parents, educators, and other stakeholders in the results and
the decisions based on them.

In summary, validity is the cornerstone of meaningful assessment, ensuring that the assessment
results are accurate, reliable, and useful for making informed decisions. Without validity, the
assessment loses its value and can lead to ineffective or unfair outcomes.

Expanding on the importance of validity for meaningful assessment, we can delve deeper into
several key aspects that highlight its critical role:

1. Accuracy of Measurement

Validity ensures that an assessment accurately measures the specific construct it is intended to
evaluate. For example, if an assessment is designed to measure mathematical reasoning, a valid
assessment would focus solely on that skill, avoiding the inclusion of unrelated factors such as
reading comprehension. If an assessment lacks validity, it might inadvertently measure
something else, like test-taking skills or general intelligence, rather than the intended construct.
This misalignment can lead to inaccurate results, which may not truly reflect a student's abilities
in the specific area being assessed.

2. Informed Decision-Making

Assessments are often used to make important decisions, such as student placements,
promotions, or certifications. Validity is critical in ensuring these decisions are based on accurate
and relevant information. For instance, in educational settings, teachers and administrators rely
on valid assessments to identify students' strengths and areas for improvement. A valid
assessment provides actionable data that can guide instruction, curriculum adjustments, and
resource allocation. Without validity, decisions could be based on flawed data, leading to
inappropriate interventions, misallocation of resources, or unjust outcomes.

3. Fairness and Equity

Validity is intrinsically linked to fairness in assessment. A valid assessment ensures that all
participants are evaluated under the same criteria and that the assessment does not favor or
disadvantage any group. For example, if a test is intended to measure knowledge of science but
includes language that is culturally biased or unfamiliar to certain groups, it may disadvantage
those groups. Valid assessments are designed to be free from such biases, ensuring that every
participant has an equal opportunity to demonstrate their abilities. This equity is crucial in
maintaining the integrity of the assessment process and in promoting social justice.

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[Link] and Uniformity

The consistency of an assessment's findings across several administrations or item sets is referred
to as reliability. Although reliability is important, an assessment needs to be legitimate in order
for reliability to be sufficient. For example, an assessment may be valid even when it regularly
produces the same results (dependable) but is unable to measure the target construct precisely.
As a result, validity serves as the cornerstone for reliability. Measurements from a valid and
reliable assessment are consistent and accurate, which are necessary for a meaningful
assessment.

5. Enhancement of Educational Practices

Valid assessments provide educators with meaningful data that can inform and improve teaching
practices, curriculum design, and educational policies. For example, standardized tests that are
valid for assessing student learning outcomes can help identify gaps in the curriculum or
teaching methods. Educators can then use this information to refine their instruction, target
interventions for struggling students, and ensure that the curriculum aligns with desired learning
objectives. This continuous improvement cycle is vital for raising educational standards and
promoting student success.

6. Building Stakeholder Confidence

The validity of assessments enhances trust and confidence among stakeholders, including
students, parents, educators, employers, and policymakers. When stakeholders believe that
assessments are valid, they are more likely to trust the results and the decisions based on them.
For example, employers rely on the validity of professional certification exams to ensure that
certified individuals possess the required knowledge and skills. If these assessments are
perceived as valid, the certifications carry more weight, leading to better employment outcomes
and career advancement opportunities.

7. Implications for Law and Ethics

Additionally, validity has moral and legal ramifications, particularly in situations where testing is
highly stakes. For example, the validity of the test is essential to preventing possible legal
problems when it comes to standardized testing used for employment or college admissions.
Lawsuits or policy changes may result from the discovery that an exam is invalid—that is, if it
fails to evaluate the expected abilities or is biased against particular groups. Furthermore, tests
must be created and given in a way that fairly represents the skills of every test-taker while
avoiding prejudice or injury due to ethical concerns.

8. Encouragement of Lifelong Learning

In the context of lifelong learning and professional development, valid assessments play a key
role in helping individuals track their progress, set learning goals, and achieve personal and
professional growth. For example, in adult education or professional certification programs, valid
assessments can help learners identify areas where they need to focus their efforts, ultimately
leading to more effective learning and skill acquisition. This targeted approach to learning is

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only possible when the assessments used are valid and accurately reflect the learner's
competencies and knowledge.

Question No 2

Discuss general consideration in constructing essay type test items with

suitable examples.
General Considerations in Constructing Essay-Type Test Items

Essay-type test items are commonly used in educational assessments to evaluate students'
understanding, critical thinking, and ability to articulate ideas. When constructing these test
items, educators need to consider various factors to ensure that the assessment is fair, reliable,
and effective. Below are some key considerations, along with examples to illustrate these
principles.

1. Question Clarity

• Considering:

To ensure that students understand exactly what is expected of them, the question should
be precise and straightforward. Uncertain or perplexing cues may cause
misunderstandings and have a detrimental influence on the student's capacity to reply.
• Example:

Instead of asking, "Discuss the importance of ethics," a clearer prompt would be,
"Discuss the importance of ethics in business decision-making, providing specific
examples to support your argument."

2. Focus on Higher-Order Thinking

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 Consideration:
Essay questions should challenge students to demonstrate higher-order thinking skills, such as
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Avoid questions that only require recall of factual
information.
 Example:
A prompt like "Analyze the impact of World War II on the global economy" encourages critical
thinking and analysis, whereas "List the causes of World War II" merely tests recall.
3. Compliance with Educational Goals
 Consideration:
The essay question should align with the learning objectives of the course. This ensures that the
assessment measures what it is intended to measure.
 Example:
If a learning objective is to evaluate students' ability to argue a position, a suitable question
might be, "Argue for or against the implementation of universal basic income, using economic
theories discussed in class."
4. Scoring Criteria

 Consideration:
Clearly defined scoring criteria should be established to ensure consistent and fair grading.
Rubrics can be helpful in this regard, specifying how different levels of performance will be
assessed.
 Example:
For a question asking students to "Compare and contrast two leadership styles," the rubric could
include categories such as clarity of comparison, depth of analysis, use of examples, and writing
quality.
5. Appropriate Scope

 Consideration:
The scope of the essay question should be appropriate for the time and space available.
Questions that are too broad may overwhelm students, while those that are too narrow may not
allow for sufficient depth of response.
 Example:
Instead of asking, "Discuss the history of human rights," a more appropriately scoped question
might be, "Discuss the evolution of human rights in the 20th century, focusing on key milestones
and challenges."
6. Avoiding Bias

 Consideration:
Questions should be free from cultural, gender, or socioeconomic bias. This ensures that all
students, regardless of background, have an equal opportunity to perform well.
 Example:

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 A biased question might ask, "Describe the advantages of living in a two-parent household,"
assuming that this is the norm for all students. A more neutral prompt would be, "Discuss the
impact of family structure on children's education."
7. Encouraging Originality

 Consideration:
Essay prompts should encourage original thought and personal reflection rather than rote
memorization. This helps to differentiate between students' understanding and engagement with
the material.
 Example:
A prompt like "Reflect on a time when you faced an ethical dilemma and how you resolved it"
allows students to bring their personal experiences and insights into their response.
8. Providing Clear Instructions

 Consideration:
The instructions should specify any constraints, such as word count, required structure (e.g.,
introduction, body, conclusion), and any specific components that must be included.
 Example:
"In a 500-700 word essay, analyze the key factors contributing to climate change. Your response
should include at least three peer-reviewed sources."
9. Timing and Length

 Consideration:
The length and complexity of the essay should be appropriate for the time allocated. Students
should have enough time to plan, write, and revise their responses.
 Example:
For a 30-minute essay, a question like "Summarize the main points of the Treaty of Versailles"
may be appropriate, while a more complex question would be suitable for a longer time frame.
10. Ensuring Fairness

 Consideration:
Essay questions should be designed to give all students an equal chance to succeed. This means
avoiding overly specialized questions that only a few students can answer well.
 Example:
Rather than asking, "Discuss the role of a specific theorist in educational psychology," a more
inclusive question might be, "Compare and contrast different theories of learning."
Conclusion

Constructing effective essay-type test items requires careful consideration of clarity, alignment
with learning objectives, fairness, and the promotion of higher-order thinking. By taking these
factors into account, educators can create assessments that not only evaluate students' knowledge
but also encourage deeper engagement with the material. Through clear instructions, appropriate

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 scope, and well-defined scoring criteria, essay questions can be a powerful tool for measuring
student learning outcomes.

Question No 3

Write a note on the uses of measurement scales for students' learning assessment.
Different measuring scales are used in statistics to define and classify variables, or numbers.
Specific characteristics of each measuring scale level dictate the different applications of
statistical analysis. We shall study four different kinds of scales in this article: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio scales.

How Does the Scale Work?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

Characteristics and measurement scales

The way variables are defined and categorized is through scales of measurement. The
characteristics of each scale of measurement dictate how the data should be analyzed. Identity,
magnitude, equal intervals, and a minimum value of zero are the properties that are assessed.
Characteristics of Measurement

 Identity:
Identity refers to each value having a unique meaning.
 Magnitude:
Magnitude means that the values have an ordered relationship to one another, so there is a
specific order to the variables.
 Equal intervals:
Equal intervals mean that data points along the scale are equal, so the difference between data
points one and two will be the same as the difference between data points five and six.
 A minimum value of zero:
A minimum value of zero means the scale has a true zero point. Degrees, for example, can fall
below zero and still have meaning. But if you weigh nothing, you don’t exist.

The four scales of measurement

By understanding the scale of the measurement of their data, data scientists can determine the
kind of statistical test to perform.
1. Nominal scale of measurement

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 The nominal scale of measurement defines the identity property of data. This scale has certain
characteristics, but doesn’t have any form of numerical meaning. The data can be placed into
categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added or subtracted from one another. It’s also not
possible to measure the difference between data points.

Examples of nominal data include eye colour and country of birth. Nominal data can be broken
down again into three categories:

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

 Nominal with order:

Some nominal data can be sub-categorised in order, such as “cold, warm, hot and very hot.”
 Nominal without order:
Nominal data can also be sub-categorised as nominal without order, such as male and female.
 Dichotomous:
Dichotomous data is defined by having only two categories or levels, such as “yes’ and ‘no’.
2. Ordinal measurement scale
The ordinal scale defines data that is placed in a specific order. While each value is ranked,
there’s no information that specifies what differentiates the categories from each other. These
values can’t be added to or subtracted from.
Example

An example of this kind of data would include satisfaction data points in a survey, where ‘one =
happy, two = neutral and three = unhappy.’ Where someone finished in a race also describes
ordinal data. While first place, second place or third place shows what order the runners finished
in, it doesn’t specify how far the first-place finisher was in front of the second-place finisher.

3. Interval scale of measurement

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The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered data, but the difference between
data points can be quantified. This type of data shows both the order of the variables and the
exact differences between the variables. They can be added to or subtracted from each other, but
not multiplied or divided. For example, 40 degrees is not 20 degrees multiplied by two.

This scale is also characterised by the fact that the number zero is an existing variable. In the
ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not exist. In the interval scale, zero has meaning –
for example, if you measure degrees, zero has a temperature.

Data points on the interval scale have the same difference between them. The difference on the
scale between 10 and 20 degrees is the same between 20 and 30 degrees. This scale is used to
quantify the difference between variables, whereas the other two scales are used to describe
qualitative values only. Other examples of interval scales include the year a car was made or the
months of the year.

4. Ratio scale of measurement

Ratio scales of measurement include properties from all four scales of measurement. The data is
nominal and defined by an identity, can be classified in order, contains intervals and can be
broken down into exact value. Weight, height and distance are all examples of ratio variables.
Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided and multiplied.
Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true zero’. The number zero
means that the data has no value point. An example of this is height or weight, as someone
cannot be zero centimetres tall or weigh zero kilos – or be negative centimetres or negative kilos.
Example

Examples of the use of this scale are calculating shares or sales. Of all types of data on the scales
of measurement, data scientists can do the most with ratio data points.

Ratio Data

•ordered, constant scale, natural zero. e.g., height, weight, age, length.
Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio can all be thought of as being ranked concerning one
another. There are three levels of sophistication: interval is simpler than ratio, ordinal is simpler
than interval, and nominal is simpler than ordinal.

To summarise, nominal scales are used to label or describe values. Ordinal scales are used to
provide information about the specific order of the data points, mostly seen in the use of
satisfaction surveys. The interval scale is used to understand the order and differences between

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them. The ratio scales gives more information about identity, order and difference, plus a
breakdown of the numerical detail within each data point.

Measurement Scale Applications in Learning Assessment

3.1. Assessment of Scholarly Achievement

Measurement scales help teachers assign grades and levels of achievement. Scales like letter
grades or GPA, often ordinal in nature, rank students according to performance, helping to
identify high achievers and those who may need additional support.

 Example:

Letter grades or GPA can rank students from top to bottom in terms of performance, but
may not accurately reflect the differences in their learning.

3.2. Tracking Students' Progress Over Time

Interval and ratio scales are useful for longitudinal tracking of students’ academic growth. For
example, teachers use score ranges on standardized tests to compare a student's current
performance with their previous results, helping to highlight improvement areas.

 Example:

Tracking scores in standardized testing (e.g., SAT, GRE, national achievement tests) over
several semesters provides valuable insights into a student’s learning curve.

3.3. Identifying Learning Gaps

Assessment tools with well-defined measurement scales can highlight specific areas where
students struggle. This allows for tailored instruction and interventions.

 Example:

Using diagnostic tests (scored on interval or ratio scales) to assess specific skills in
mathematics, reading, or writing.

3.4. Differentiated Instruction

Teachers can use measurement scales to create differentiated learning paths for students. For
example, an assessment scale may help categorize students into different learning groups based
on performance (low, medium, high achievers).

 Example:

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 Use of ordinal scales to group students for targeted instruction in reading comprehension,
offering remedial classes to the lower groups and advanced material to the higher groups.

3.5. Goal Setting for Students

Measurement scales provide a concrete way for students to understand their current performance
and set achievable goals. This helps students become more self-directed in their learning.

 Example:

A student seeing that they scored in the "B" range on an ordinal scale might set a goal of
improving to the "A" range by the next term, with specific strategies to close that gap.

4. Advantages of Using Measurement Scales

benefits that measurement scales bring to learning assessments.

 Objectivity:

Measurement scales provide a more objective and standardized method of assessing

student performance, reducing the subjectivity that often accompanies grading.

 Consistency:

Measurement scales ensure that assessments are consistent across students, classrooms,
and even schools or districts.

 Data-Driven Decision-Making:

The data gathered through measurement scales can guide educational policy, curriculum
development, and teaching strategies.

 Customization:

Educators can use the results from these scales to create personalized learning plans that
fit the needs of individual students.

5. Challenges and Limitations of Measurement Scales

While measurement scales provide numerous benefits, there are limitations and challenges as
well.

 Over-Reliance on Quantitative Measures:

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 Some argue that scales like GPA or standardized test scores reduce a student's overall
learning experience to mere numbers, failing to capture qualitative aspects of growth,
such as creativity or critical thinking.

 Misinterpretation of Results:

Measurement scales may be misunderstood or misused. For example, ordinal scales, such
as letter grades, may not clearly reflect the gap between student performances, leading to
incorrect assumptions.

 Limited Scope:

Scales sometimes focus too much on academic performance and do not account for
emotional, social, or psychological development, which are also critical components of
learning.

6. Examples of Measurement Scales in Use

Examples of how measurement scales are implemented in schools and educational systems.

 Example 1:

The use of standardized tests like SAT and ACT, which use interval scales, helps in
comparing student performance across a wide demographic range.

 Example 2:

Letter grades (ordinal scale) are still widely used in schools to provide feedback on
student performance.

 Example 3:

Some progressive schools use competency-based assessments, which often use ratio
scales to measure how well students have mastered certain skills.

7. Impact on Educational Policy and Curriculum Design

Measurement scales inform not only individual assessments but also broader educational
practices. Schools and districts often use data from these assessments to shape their curricula,
allocate resources, and set educational priorities.

 Example:

A district may adjust its math curriculum after identifying through assessment data that
students consistently struggle with algebraic concepts.

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  Curriculum Alignment:

Scales can help ensure that assessments are aligned with learning objectives and
standards, leading to more effective teaching practices.

8. Conclusion
To sum up, measurement scales are essential instruments for evaluating students'
academic development and determining the course of their education. These scales give
teachers a systematic and standardized way to assess student performance, monitor
growth, and modify their lessons to fit each student's unique learning requirements. Each
of the four scale types—nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio—has a unique function,
ranging from classifying students to providing accurate, data-driven insights into their
accomplishments.
Furthermore, by promoting objectivity and consistency in evaluations, measurement
scales lessen prejudice and facilitate meaningful comparisons between various
educational contexts. But there are issues that need to be resolved, such as the over-
reliance on quantitative measures, the possibility of misinterpreting the results, and the
omission of qualitative aspects of student development.

Despite these limitations, measurement scales continue to play a crucial role in improving
educational practices, guiding curriculum design, and fostering data-driven decision-
making in schools. As education evolves, especially with the integration of technology,
these scales will likely become even more refined, offering more personalized, adaptive,
and comprehensive assessments of student learning. In the end, using measuring scales
effectively guarantees that teachers and students may participate in a more
knowledgeable and introspective teaching and learning process.

Question No 4

Explain measures of variability with suitable examples.

Measures of Variability:

A summary statistic that illustrates the degree of dispersion in a dataset is called a measure of
variability. To what extent do the values vary? measurements of variability specify the distance
that the data points typically fall from the center, whereas measurements of central tendency
characterize the average value. We discuss variability in relation to a value distribution. The
tendency of the data points to be closely grouped about the center is indicated by a low
dispersion. Elevated dispersion indicates a tendency to fall farther apart..

In statistics, variability, dispersion, and spread are synonyms that denote the width of the
distribution. Just as there are multiple measures of central tendency, there are several measures
of variability. In this blog post, you’ll learn why understanding the variability of your data is

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critical. Then, I explore the most common measures of variability—the range, interquartile
range, variance, and standard deviation. I’ll help you determine which one is best for your data.

The two plots below show the difference graphically for distributions with the same mean but
more and less dispersion. The panel on the left shows a distribution that is tightly clustered
around the average, while the distribution in the right panel is more spread out.

Why Variability is Important?

Let’s take a step back and first get a handle on why understanding variability is so essential.
Analysts frequently use the mean to summarize the center of a population or a process. While the
mean is relevant, people often react to variability even more. When a distribution has lower
variability, the values in a dataset are more consistent. However, when the variability is higher,
the data points are more dissimilar and extreme values become more likely. Consequently,
understanding variability helps you grasp the likelihood of unusual events..

Variability is everywhere. Your commute time to work varies a bit every day. When you order a
favorite dish at a restaurant repeatedly, it isn’t exactly the same each time. The parts that come
off an assembly line might appear to be identical, but they have subtly different lengths and
widths.

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These are all examples of real-life variability. Some degree of variation is unavoidable.
However, too much inconsistency can cause problems. If your morning commute takes much
longer than the mean travel time, you will be late for work. If the restaurant dish is much
different than how it is usually, you might not like it at all. And, if a manufactured part is too
much out of spec, it won’t function as intended.

Some variation is inevitable, but problems occur at the extremes. Distributions with greater
variability produce observations with unusually large and small values more frequently than
distributions with less variability.

.Example of Different Amounts of Variability

Let’s take a look at two hypothetical pizza restaurants. They both advertise a mean delivery time
of 20 minutes. When we’re ravenous, they both sound equally good! However, this equivalence
can be deceptive! To determine the restaurant that you should order from when you’re hungry,
we need to analyze their variability.

The graphs below display the distribution of delivery times and provide the answer. The
restaurant with more variable delivery times has the broader distribution curve. I’ve used the
same scales in both graphs so you can visually compare the two distributions.

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In these graphs, we consider a 30-minute wait or longer to be unacceptable. We’re hungry after
all! The shaded area in each chart represents the proportion of delivery times that surpass 30
minutes. Nearly 16% of the deliveries for the high variability restaurant exceed 30 minutes. On
the other hand, only 2% of the deliveries take too long with the low variability restaurant. They
both have an average delivery time of 20 minutes, but I know where I’d place my order when
I’m hungry!

As this example shows, the central tendency doesn’t provide complete information. We also
need to understand the variability around the middle of the distribution to get the full picture.
Now, let’s move on to the different ways of measuring variability!

Range

Let’s start with the range because it is the most straightforward measure of variability to
calculate and the simplest to understand. The range of a dataset is the difference between the
largest and smallest values in that dataset. For example, in the two datasets below, dataset 1 has a
range of 20 – 38 = 18 while dataset 2 has a range of 11 – 52 = 41. Dataset 2 has a broader range
and, hence, more variability than dataset 1.

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While the range is easy to understand, it is based on only the two most extreme values in the
dataset, which makes it very susceptible to outliers. If one of those numbers is unusually high or
low, it affects the entire range even if it is atypical.

Additionally, the size of the dataset affects the range. In general, you are less likely to observe
extreme values. However, as you increase the sample size, you have more opportunities to obtain
these extreme values. Consequently, when you draw random samples from the same population,
the range tends to increase as the sample size increases. Consequently, use the range to compare
variability only when the sample sizes are similar.

The Interquartile Range (IQR) . . . and other Percentiles

The interquartile range is the middle half of the data. To visualize it, think about the median
value that splits the dataset in half. Similarly, you can divide the data into quarters. Statisticians
refer to these quarters as quartiles and denote them from low to high as Q1, Q2, and Q3. The
lowest quartile (Q1) contains the quarter of the dataset with the smallest values. The upper
quartile (Q4) contains the quarter of the dataset with the highest values. The interquartile range is
the middle half of the data that is in between the upper and lower quartiles. In other words, the
interquartile range includes the 50% of data points that fall between Q1 and Q3. The IQR is the
red area in the graph below.

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The interquartile range is a robust measure of variability in a similar manner that the median is a
robust measure of central tendency. Neither measure is influenced dramatically by outliers
because they don’t depend on every value. Additionally, the interquartile range is excellent for
skewed distributions, just like the median. As you’ll learn, when you have a normal distribution,
the standard deviation tells you the percentage of observations that fall specific distances from
the mean. However, this doesn’t work for skewed distributions, and the IQR is a great
alternative.

I’ve divided the dataset below into quartiles. The interquartile range (IQR) extends from the low
end of Q2 to the upper limit of Q3. For this dataset, the range is 39 – 20 = 19.

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Using other percentiles

When you have a skewed distribution, I find that reporting the median with the interquartile
range is a particularly good combination. The interquartile range is equivalent to the region
between the 75th and 25th percentile (75 – 25 = 50% of the data). You can also use other
percentiles to determine the spread of different proportions. For example, the range between the
97.5th percentile and the 2.5th percentile covers 95% of the data. The broader these ranges, the
higher the variability in your dataset.

Variance

Variance is the average squared difference of the values from the mean. Unlike the previous
measures of variability, the variance includes all values in the calculation by comparing each
value to the mean. To calculate this statistic, you calculate a set of squared differences between
the data points and the mean, sum them, and then divide by the number of observations. Hence,
it’s the average squared difference.

There are two formulas for the variance depending on whether you are calculating the variance
for an entire population or using a sample to estimate the population variance. The equations are
below, and then I work through an example in a table to help bring it to life.

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Population variance

The formula for the variance of an entire population is the following:

In the equation, σ2 is the population parameter for the variance, μ is the parameter for the
population mean, and N is the number of data points, which should include the entire population.

Statisticians refer to the numerator portion of the variance formula as the sum of squares.

Sample variance

To use a sample to estimate the variance for a population, use the following formula. Using the
previous equation with sample data tends to underestimate the variability. Because it’s usually
impossible to measure an entire population, statisticians use the equation for sample variances
much more frequently.

In the equation, s2 is the sample variance, and M is the sample mean. N-1 in the denominator
corrects for the tendency of a sample to underestimate the population variance.

Example of calculating the sample variance

I’ll work through an example using the formula for a sample on a dataset with 17 observations in
the table below. The numbers in parentheses represent the corresponding table column number.
The procedure involves taking each observation (1), subtracting the sample mean (2) to calculate
the difference (3), and squaring that difference (4). Then, I sum the squared differences at the
bottom of the table. Finally, I take the sum and divide by 16 because I’m using the sample
variance equation with 17 observations (17 – 1 = 16). The variance for this dataset is 201.

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Because the calculations use the squared differences, the variance is in squared units rather the
original units of the data. While higher values of the variance indicate greater variability, there is
no intuitive interpretation for specific values. Despite this limitation, various statistical tests use
the variance in their calculations. For an example, read my post about the F-test and ANOVA.

While it is difficult to interpret the variance itself, the standard deviation resolves this problem!

Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is the standard or typical difference between each data point and the
mean. When the values in a dataset are grouped closer together, you have a smaller standard
deviation. On the other hand, when the values are spread out more, the standard deviation is
larger because the standard distance is greater.

Conveniently, the standard deviation uses the original units of the data, which makes
interpretation easier. Consequently, the standard deviation is the most widely used measure of
variability. For example, in the pizza delivery example, a standard deviation of 5 indicates that

22
the typical delivery time is plus or minus 5 minutes from the mean. It’s often reported along with
the mean: 20 minutes (s.d. 5).

The standard deviation is just the square root of the variance. Recall that the variance is in
squared units. Hence, the square root returns the value to the natural units. The symbol for the
standard deviation as a population parameter is σ while s represents it as a sample estimate. To
calculate the standard deviation, calculate the variance as shown above, and then take the square
root of it. Voila! You have the standard deviation!

In the variance section, we calculated a variance of 201 in the table.

Which is better, the standard deviation, the interquartile range, or the range?

To begin with, you have undoubtedly noticed that I left the variance out of the list of alternatives
in the title above. This is due to the variance's squared unit representation, which makes it
difficult to understand. That's checked off the list, then. Now, let us discuss the last three metrics
of variability.
Consider using the range as the measure of variability when comparing samples of the same size.
It's a statistic that makes some sense. Just be mindful that the range can become distorted by a
single outlier. The range has a lesser chance of producing an outlier and is especially useful for
small samples when there is insufficient data to compute the other measures with accuracy.

When you have a skewed distribution, the median is a better measure of central tendency, and it
makes sense to pair it with either the interquartile range or other percentile-based ranges because
all of these statistics divide the dataset into groups with specific proportions.

Reporting the mean and the standard deviation together is a tried-and-true method for handling
regularly distributed data, or even data that aren't too skewed. This is by far the most typical
combination. You can still enhance this strategy with percentile-base ranges as you require.
Because the statistics in this post employ the measurement units of the original variable, they are
absolute measurements of variability, with the exception of variances.

Question No 5

Discuss functions of test scores and progress reports in detail.

INTRODUCTION

The "Reporting Test Scores" unit focuses on assessing students' performance by presenting a
profile of their development and publishing test results in various ways according to various

23
goals. It has long been practiced to use certain testing methodologies to gauge a student's
proficiency. Testing results in a score, which is used as a "yardstick" to compare one student to
the others and/or to track their development. Tests and test results are used by educators in a
multitude of ways by teachers and other educators.

The purpose of test results and student progress reports following any test is the first main topic
covered in this section.. As there are different functions of grading and reporting systems with
respect to its uses like instructional uses, providing feedback to students for administrative use
and guidance and informing parents about their children’s performance. The second key topic in
the unit discussed is the “Types of Test Scores and Progress Reports”. Here two types of
reporting test scores are discussed. First is Norm-referenced tests which include raw scores,
grade norms, percentiles, stanines, and standard scores. Second is Criterion-referenced test which
include system of pass-fail and the other types of the practices that are used to report the progress
of students. The third major theme is “Calculating CGPA and Assigning Letter Grades” It
includes the method of calculating CGPA and different steps which are concerned with assigning
letter grades in reporting test scores such as combining the data, selecting the proper frame of
reference for grading and determining the distribution of grades etc. The last major theme of the
unit is “Conducting Parent-Teacher Conferences”. This section includes the information and
important preparations for conducting the parent teacher conferences, mentioning the “Do’s” and
“Don’ts” of the parent teacher conferences.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the Unit, the students will be able to:

1. understand the purpose of reporting test scores

2. explain the functions of test scores

3. describe the essential features of progress report

4. enlist the different types of grading and reporting systems

5. calculate CGPA

6. conduct parent teacher conferences 208

9.1 Functions of Test Scores and Progress Reports

The task of grading and reporting students’ progress cannot be separated from the procedures
adopted in assessing students’ learning. If instructional objectives are well defined in terms of
behavioural or performance terms and relevant tests and other assessment procedures are
properly used, grading and reporting become a matter of summarizing the results and presenting
them in understandable form. Reporting students’ progress is difficult especially when data is

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represented in single letter-grade system or numerical value (Linn & Gronlund, 2000). Assigning
grades and making referrals are decisions that require information about individual students. In
contrast, curricular and instructional decisions require information about groups of students,
quite often about entire classrooms or schools (Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

There are three primary purposes of grading students.

First, grades are the primary currency for exchange of many of the opportunities and rewards
our society has to offer. Grades can be exchanged for such diverse entities as adult approval,
public recognition, college and university admission etc. To deprive students of grades means to
deprive them of rewards and opportunities.

Second, teachers become habitual of assessing their students’ learning in grades, and if teachers
don’t award grades, the students might not well know about their learning progress.

Third, grading students motivate them. Grades can serve as incentives, and for many students
incentives serve a motivating function. The different functions of grading and reporting systems
are given as under:

1. Instructional uses
The focus of grading and reporting should be the student improvement in learning.

This is most likely occur when the report:

a) clarifies the instructional objectives;

b) indicates the student’s strengths and weaknesses in learning;

c) provides information concerning the student’s personal and social development; and

d) contributes to student’s motivation. The improvement of student learning is probably best

achieved by the day-to-day assessments of learning and the feedback from tests and other
assessment procedures.

A portfolio of work developed during the academic year can be displayed to indicate student’s
strengths and weaknesses periodically. Periodic progress reports can contribute to student
motivation by providing short-term goals and knowledge of results. Both are essential features of
essential learning. Welldesigned progress reports can also help in evaluating instructional
procedures by identifying areas need revision. When the reports of majority of students indicate
poor progress, it may infer that there is a need to modify the instructional objectives. 209

2. Feedback to students
Grading and reporting test results to the students have been an on-going practice in all
the educational institutions of the world. The mechanism or strategy may differ from
country to country or institution to institution but each institution observes this practice in
any way. Reporting test scores to students has a number of advantages for them. As the

25
 students move up through the grades, the usefulness of the test scores for personal
academic planning and self-assessment increases. For most students, the scores provide
feedback about how much they know and how effective their efforts to learn have been.
They can know their strengths and areas need for special attention. Such feedback is
essential if students are expected to be partners in managing their own instructional time
and effort. These results help them to make good decisions for their future professional
development. Teachers use a variety of strategies to help students become independent
learners who are able to take an increasing responsibility for their own school progress.
Self-assessment is a significant aspect of self-guided learning, and the reporting of test
results can be an integral part of the procedures teachers use to promote self-assessment.
Test results help students to identify areas need for improvement, areas in which progress
has been strong, and areas in which continued strong effort will help maintain high levels
of achievement. Test results can be used with information from teacher’s assessments to
help students set their own instructional goals, decide how they will allocate their time,
and determine priorities for improving skills such as reading, writing, speaking, and
problem solving. When students are given their own test results, they can learn about
self-assessment while doing actual self-assessment. (Iowa Testing Programs, 2011).
Grading and reporting results also provide students an opportunity for developing an
awareness of how they are growing in various skill areas. Self-assessment begins with
self-monitoring, a skill most children have begun developing well before coming to
kindergarten.
3. Administrative and guidance uses

Grades and progress reports serve a number of administrative functions. For example,
they are used for determining promotion and graduation, awarding honours, determining
sports eligibility of students, and reporting to other institutions and employers. For most
administrative purposes, a single letter-grade is typically required, but of course,
technically single letter-grade does not truly interpret student’s assessment. Guidance and
Counseling officers use grades and reports on student’s achievement, along with other
information, to help students make realistic educational and vocational plans. Reports
that include ratings on personal and social characteristics are also useful in helping
students with adjustment problems.

4. Informing parents about their children’s performance

Parents are often overwhelmed by the grades and test reports they receive from school
210 personnel. In order to establish a true partnership between parents and teachers, it is
essential that information about student progress be communicated clearly, respectfully
and accurately. Test results should be provided to parents using;
a) simple, clear language free from educational and test jargon, and
b) explanation of the purpose of the tests used (Canter, 1998). Most of the time parents
are either ignored or least involved to let them aware of the progress of their children. To
strengthen connection between home and school parents need to receive comprehensive
information about their children achievement. If parents do not understand the tests given
to their children, the scores, and how the results are used to make decisions about their
children, they are prohibited from helping their children learn and making decisions.
According to Kearney (1983), the lack of information provided to consumers about test

26
data has sweeping and negative consequences. He states; Individual student needs are not
met, parents are not kept fully informed of student progress, curricular needs are not
discovered and corrected, and the results are not reported to various audiences that need
to receive this information and need to know what is being done with the information. In
some countries, there are prescribed policies for grading and reporting test results to the
parents.

Example :
For example, Michigan Educational Assessment Policy (MEAP) is revised periodically
in view of parents’ suggestions and feedback. MEAP consists of criterionreferenced tests,
primarily in mathematics and reading, that are administered each year to all fourth,
seventh and tenth graders. MEAP recommends that policy makers at state and local levels
must develop strong linkages to create, implement and monitor effective reporting
practices. (Barber, Paris, Evans, & Gadsden, 1992). Without any doubt, it is more
effective to talk parents to face about their children’s scores than to send a score report
home for them to interpret on their own. For a variety of reasons, a parent-teacher or
parent-student-teacher conference offers an excellent occasion for teachers to provide and
interpret those results to the parents.
1. Teachers tend to be more knowledgeable than parents about tests and the types of
scores being interpreted.
2. Teachers can make numerous observations of their student’s work and consequently
substantiate the results. In-consistencies between test scores and classroom performance
can be noted and discussed.
3. Teachers possess work samples that can be used to illustrate the type of classroom
work the student has done. Portfolios can be used to illustrate strengths and to explain
where improvements are needed.
4. Teachers may be aware of special circumstances that may have influenced the scores,
either positively or negatively, to misrepresent the students’ achievement level. 211
5. Parents have a chance to ask questions about points of misunderstanding or about how
they can work. The student and the teacher in addressing apparent weaknesses and in
capitalizing on strengths wherever possible, test scores should be given to the parents at
the school. (Iowa Testing Program, 2011). Under the Act of 1998, schools are required to
regularly evaluate students and periodically report to parents on the results of the
evaluation, but in specific terms, the NCCA guidelines make a recommendation that
schools should report twice annually to parents – one towards the end of 1st term or
beginning of 2nd term, and the other towards the end of school year. Under existing data
protection legislation, parents have a statutory right to obtain scores which their children
have obtained in standardized tests. NCCA have developed a set of reports card templates
to be used by schools in communicating with parents and taken in conjunction with the
Circular 0138 which was issued by the Department of Education in 2006. In a case study
conducted in the US context ([Link]) it was found that ‘the school
should be a source for parents, it should not dictate to parents what their role should be’.
In other words, the school should respect all parents and appreciate the experiences and
individual strengths they offer their children.

9.2 Reporting and Marking Types for Tests

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In schools, two types of tests are typically used: norm-referenced and criterion-
referenced. Instead than ranking or comparing student performance to that of another,
criterion-referenced assessments are meant to gauge how well students have understood
the curriculum or instructional objectives. They are frequently employed as benchmarks
to pinpoint a curriculum's strong and/or poor points. Exams that are norm-referenced
place more emphasis on relative achievement than absolute performance by comparing a
person's results to those of their peers. Test results that are norm-referenced show how
the pupils rank in relation to that group. Standard scores, percentiles, stanines, grade
norms, raw scores, and percentiles are commonly utilized in norm-referenced
assessments.

1. Raw scores
The raw score is simply the number of points received on a test when the test has
been scored according to the directions.
For example, if a student responds to 65 items correctly on an objective test in which
each correct item counts one point, the raw score will be 65. Although a raw score is
a numerical summary of student’s test performance, it is not very meaningful without
further information. For example, in the above example, what does a raw score of 35
mean? How many items were in the test? What kinds of the problems were asked?
How the items were difficult? 212
2. Grade norms

Grade norms are widely used with standardized achievement tests, especially at
elementary level. The grade equivalent that corresponds to a particular raw score
identifies the grade level at which the typical student obtains that raw score. Grade
equivalents are based on the performance of students in the norm group in each of
two or more grades.

3. Percentile ranking
A percentile is a score that indicates the rank of the score compared to others (same
grade/age) using a hypothetical group of 100 students. In other words, a percentile
rank (or percentile score) indicates a student’s relative position in the group in terms
of percentage of students. Percentile rank is interpreted as the percentage of
individuals receiving scores equal or lower than a given score. A percentile of 25
indicates that the student’s test performance is equal or exceeds 25 out of 100
students on the same measure.
4. Standard scores
A standard score is also derived from the raw scores using the normal information
gathered when the test was developed. Instead of indicating a student’s rank
compared to others, standard scores indicate how far above or below the average
(Mean) an individual score falls, using a common scale, such as one with an average
of 100. Basically standard scores express test performance in terms of standard
deviation (SD) from the Mean. Standard scores can be used to compare individuals of
different grades or age groups because all are converted into the same numerical
scale. There are various forms of standard scores such as z-score, T-score, and

28
 stanines. Z-score expresses test performance simply and directly as the number of SD
units a raw score is above or below the Mean. A z-score is always negative when the
raw score is smaller than Mean. Symbolic representation can be shown as: z-score =
X-M/SD. T-score refers to any set of normally distributed standard cores that has a
Mean of 50 and SD of 10. Symbolically it can be represented as: T-score = 50+10(z).
Stanines are the simplest form of normalized standard scores that illustrate the
process of normalization. Stanines are single digit scores ranging from 1 to 9. These
are groups of percentile ranks with the entire group of scores divided into nine parts,
with the largest number of individuals falling in the middle stanines, and fewer
students falling at the extremes (Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

5. Norm reference test and traditional letter-grade system

It is the most easiest and popular way of grading and reporting system. The traditional
system is generally based on grades A to F. This rating is generally reflected as:
Grade A 213 (Excellent), B (Very Good), C (Good), D (Satisfactory/Average), E
(Unsatisfactory/ Below Average), and F (Fail). This system does truly assess a
student’s progress in different learning domains. First shortcoming is that using this
system it is difficult to interpret the results. Second, a student’s performance is linked
with achievement, effort, work habits, and good behaviour; traditional letter-grade
system is unable to assess all these domains of a student. Third, the proportion of
students assigned each letter grade generally varies from teacher to teacher. Fourth, it
does not indicate patterns of strengths and weaknesses in the students (Linn &
Gronlund, 2000). Inspite of these shortcomings, this system is popular in schools,
colleges and universities.

6. Criterion reference test and the system of pass-fail

It is a popular way of reporting students’ progress, particularly at elementary level. In
the context of Pakistan, as majority of the parents are illiterate or hardly literate,
therefore they have concern with ‘pass or fail’ about their children’s performance in
schools. This system is mostly used for courses taught under a pure mastery learning
approach i.e. criterion-referenced testing. This system has also many shortcomings.
First, as students are declared just pass or fail (successful or unsuccessful) so many
students do not work hard and hence their actual learning remains unsatisfactory or
below desired level. Second, this two-category system provides less information to
the teacher, student and parents than the traditional lettergrade (A, B, C, D) system.
Third, it provides no indication of the level of learning.

7. Checklist of Objectives
To provide more informative progress reports, some schools have replaced or
supplemented the traditional grading system with a list of objectives to be checked or
rated. This system is more popular at elementary school level. The major advantage
of this system is that it provides a detailed analysis of the students’ strengths and
weaknesses. For example, the objectives for assessing reading comprehension can
have the following objectives
. • Reads with understanding
• Works out meaning and use of new words

29
 • Reads well to others
• Reads independently for pleasure (Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

8. Rating scales

In many schools students’ progress is prepared on some rating scale, usually 1 to 10, instead
letter grades; 1 indicates the poorest performance while 10 indicates as the excellent or extra-
ordinary performance. But in the true sense, each rating level 214 corresponds to a specific level
of learning achievement. Such rating scales are also used by the evaluation of students for
admissions into different programmes at university level. Some other rating scales can also be
seen across the world. In rating scales, we generally assess students’ abilities in the context of
‘how much’, ‘how often’, ‘how good’ etc. (Anderson, 2003). The continuum may be qualitative
such as ‘how good a student behaves’ or it may quantitative such as ‘how much marks a student
got in a test’. Developing rating scales has become a common practice now-adays, but still many
teachers don’t possess the skill of developing an appropriate rating scale in context to their
particular learning situations.

[Link] to parents/guardians

Some schools keep parents inform about the progress of their children by writing letters. Writing
letters to parents is usually done by a fewer teachers who have more concern with their students
as it is a time consuming activity. But at the same time some good teachers avoid to write formal
letters as they think that many aspects are not clearly interpreted. And some of the parents also
don’t feel comfortable to accept such letters. Linn and Gronlund (2000) state that although letters
to parents might provide a good supplement to other types of reports, their usefulness as the sole
method of reporting progress is limited by several of the following factors. • Comprehensive and
thoughtful written reports require excessive amount of time and energy. • Descriptions of
students learning may be misinterpreted by the parents. • Fail to provide a systematic and
organized information

10. Portfolio

The teachers of some good schools prepare complete portfolio of their students. Portfolio is
actually cumulative record of a student which reflects his/her strengths and weaknesses in
different subjects over the period of the time. It indicates what strategies were used by the
teacher to overcome the learning difficulties of the students. It also shows students’ progress
periodically which indicates his/her trend of improvement. Developing portfolio is really a hard
task for the teacher, as he/she has to keep all record of students such as teacher’s lesson plans,
tests, students’ best pieces of works, and their assessments records in an academic year. An
effective portfolio is more than simply a file into which student work products are placed. It is a
purposefully selected collection of work that often contains commentary on the entries by both
students and teachers. No doubt, portfolio is a good tool for student’s assessment, but it has three
limitations. First, it is a time consuming process. Second, teacher must possess the skill of
developing portfolio which is most of the time lacking. Third, it is ideal for small class size and
in 215 Pakistani context, particularly at elementary level, class size is usually large and hence the
teacher cannot maintain portfolio of a large class.

30
11. Report Cards

There is a practice of report cards in many good educational institutions in many countries
including Pakistan. Many parents desire to see the report cards or progress reports in written
form issued by the schools. Although a good report card explains the achievement of students in
terms of scores or marks, conduct and behaviour, participation in class activities etc. Well
written comments can offer parents and students’ suggestions as to how to make improvements
in specific academic or behavioural areas. These provide teachers opportunities to be reflective
about the academic and behavioural progress of their students. Such reflections may result in
teachers gaining a deeper understanding of each student’s strengths and needs for improvement.
Bruadli (1998) has divided words and phrases into three categories about what to include and
exclude from written comments on report cards.

A. Words and phrases that promote positive view of the student

1. Gets along well with people

2. Has a good grasp of …

3. Has improved tremendously

4. Is a real joy to have in class

5. Is well respected by his classmates

6. Works very hard

B. Words and phrases to convey the students need help

1. Could benefit from …

2. Finds it difficult at time to …

3. Has trouble with …

4. Requires help with …

5. Needs reinforcement in …

C. Words and phrases to avoid or use with extreme caution

1. Always

2. Never

3. Can’t )or unable to)

31
4. Won’t 216 Report card usually carries two shortcomings:

a) regardless of how grades are assigned, students and parents tend to use them normatively; and
b) many students and parents (and some teachers) believe that grades are far more precise than
they are. In most grading schemes, an ‘F’ denotes to fail or unsatisfactory. Hall (1990) and
Wiggins (1994) state that not only grades imprecise, they are vague in their meaning. They do
not provide parents or students with a thorough understanding of what has been learned or
accomplished.

12. Parent-teacher conferences

Parent-teacher conferences are mostly used in elementary schools. In such conferences portfolio
are discussed. This is a two-way flow of information and provides much information to the
parents. But one of the limitations is that many parents don’t come to attend the conferences. It is
also a time consuming activity and also needs sufficient funds to hold conferences. Literature
also highlights ‘parent-student-teacher conference’ instead ‘parent-teacher conference’, as
student is also one of the key components of this process since he/she is directly benefitted. In
many developed countries, it has become the most important way of informing parents about
their children’s work in school. Parent-teacher conferences are productive when these are
carefully planned and the teachers are skilled and committed. The parent-teacher conference is
an extremely useful tool, but it shares three important limitations with informal letter. First, it
requires a substantial amount of time and skills. Second, it does not provide a systematic record
of student’s progress. Third, some parents are unwilling to attend conferences, and they can’t be
enforced. Parent-student-teacher conferences are frequently convened in many states of the USA
and some other advanced countries. In the US, this has become a striking feature of Charter
Schools. Some schools rely more on parent conferences than written reports for conveying the
richness of how students are doing or performing. In such cases, a school sometimes provides a
narrative account of student’s accomplishments and status to augment the parent conferences.

13. Other ways of reporting students results to parents

There are also many other ways to enhance communication between teacher and parent, e.g.
phone calls. The teachers should contact telephonically to the parents of the children to let them

32
inform about child’s curriculum, learning progress, any special achievement, sharing anecdote,
and invite parents in open meetings, conferences, and school functions.

9.3 Calculating CGPA and Assigning Letter Grades

CGPA stands for Cumulative Grade Point Average. It reflects the grade point average of all
subjects/courses regarding a student’s performance in composite way.

To calculate CGPA, we should have following information. 217

• Marks in each subject/course

• Grade point average in each subject/course

• Total credit hours (by adding credit hours of each subject/course)

Most teachers face problems while assigning grades. There are four core problems or issues in
this regard;

1) what should be included in a letter grade,

2) how should achievement data be combined in assigning letter grades?,

3) what frame of reference should be used in grading, and

4) how should the distribution of letter grades be determined?

1. Determining what to include in a grade

Letter grades are likely to be most meaningful and useful when they represent achievement only.
If they are communicated with other factors or aspects such as effort of work completed,
personal conduct, and so on, their interpretation will become hopelessly confused. For example,
a letter grade C may represent average achievement with extraordinary effort and excellent
conduct and behaviour or vice versa. If letter grades are to be valid indicators of achievement,
they must be based on valid measures of achievement. This involves defining objectives as
intended learning outcomes and developing or selecting tests and assessments which can
measure these learning outcomes.

2. Combining data in assigning grades

One of the key concerns while assigning grades is to be clear what aspects of a student are to be
assessed or what will be the tentative weightage to each learning outcome. For example, if we
decide that 35 percent weightage is to be given to mid-term assessment, 40 percent final term test
or assessment, and 25% to assignments, presentations, classroom participation and conduct and
behaviour; we have to combine all elements by assigning appropriate weights to each element,
and then use these composite scores as a basis for grading.

33
3. Selecting the proper frame of reference for grading

Letter grades are typically assigned on the basis of one of the following frames of reference.

a) Performance in relation to other group members (relative grading) 219

b) Performance in relation to specified standards (absolute grading)

c) Performance in relation to learning ability (amount of improvement)

Assigning grades on relative basis involves comparing a student’s performance with that of a
reference group, mostly class fellows. In this system, the grade is determined by the student’s
relative position or ranking in the total group. Although relative grading has a disadvantage of a
shifting frame of reference (i.e. grades depend upon the group’s ability), it is still widely used in
schools, as most of the time our system of testing is ‘norm-referenced’.

Assigning grades on an absolute basis involves comparing a student’s performance to specified

standards set by the teacher. This is what we call as ‘criterion-referenced’ testing. If all students
show a low level of mastery consistent with the established performance standard, all will
receive low grades.

The student performance in relation to the learning ability is inconsistent with a standardbased
system of evaluating and reporting student performance. The improvement over the short time
span is difficult. Thus lack of reliability in judging achievement in relation to ability and in
judging degree of improvement will result in grades of low dependability. Therefore such grades
are used as supplementary to other grading systems.

[Link] the grade distribution

In order to assign relative grades, students are ranked according to their overall
achievement, and letter grades are assigned based on each student's position within the
group. This rating may be based on the distribution of multiple classroom groups taking
the same course together, or it may be restricted to a single classroom group. If grading
on the curve is to be done, the most rational strategy in deciding the distribution of letter
grades in a school is to have the school officials determine basic criteria for introductory
and advanced courses. All employees must be aware of the criteria used to assign grades,
and users of the grades must be informed of this criteria in a clear and concise manner. If
the objectives of a course are clearly mentioned and the standards for mastery
appropriately set, the letter grades in an absolute system may be defined as the degree to
which the objectives have been attained, as followed.
A = Outstanding (90 to 100%)
B = very Good (80-89%)
C = Satisfactory (70-79%)
D = Very Weak (60-69%)
F = Unsatisfactory (Less than 60%)

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