Because learning changes everything.

Chapter 5
Motivation

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 Learning Objectives
• Describe the role that need deficiencies play in motivating
employees.
• Compare the major differences between the four content
approaches of motivation.
• Give examples of how the three process approaches affect
employee motivation.
• Examine how the changing nature of the psychological
contract influences employee motivation.
• Summarize the action steps that managers can take to
motivate employees.

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 Introduction
More than motivation plays a role in performance.
• Ability.
• Instinct.
• Aspiration level.
• Personal factors (age, education, background).

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 EXHIBIT 5.1 Determinants of Job
Performance

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 Determinants of Job Performance
Motivation Components
• Direction.
• Persistence.
• Intensity.

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 Needs Motivate Employees 1

Needs
• Deficiencies an individual experiences at a particular time.
• May be physiological, psychological, or sociological.
• Those with deficiencies are more susceptible motivational
efforts.

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 Needs Motivate Employees 2

Needs trigger tension and a search for ways to reduce

it.
• A course of action is selected.
• Goal-directed behavior occurs.
• The behavior triggers either a reward or punishment.
• The deficiencies are reassessed.

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 EXHIBIT 5.2 The Motivational
Process: A General Model

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 Motivation Theories

Content theories focus on Process theories

... describe, explain, and
• Factors within the person. analyze how behavior is…
• The needs that motivate • Energized.
people. • Directed.
• Sustained.
• Stopped.

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 Managerial Perspective of Content
and Process Theories of Motivation
(Based on Exhibit 5.3)
Theoretical Theoretical Founders of the Theories Managerial
Base Explanation Application
Content Focuses on Maslow—five-level needs hierarchy Managers must be
factors within the Alderfer—three-level hierarchy (ERG) aware of differences in
person that Herzberg—two major factors called needs, desires, and
energize, direct, hygiene factors and motivators goals because each
sustain, and stop McClelland—three learned needs individual is unique in
behavior. These acquired from the culture: achievement, many ways.
factors can only affiliation, and power.
be inferred.

Process Describes, Vroom—an expectancy theory of Managers must

explains, and choices understand the
analyzes how Adams—equity theory based on process of motivation
behavior is comparisons that individuals make and how individuals
energized, Locke—goal-setting theory that make choices based
directed, conscious goals and intentions are on preferences,
sustained, and the determinants of behavior. rewards, and
stopped. accomplishments..

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 Content Motivation Theories
• Maslow’s needs hierarchy.
• Alderfer’s ERG theory.
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
• McClelland’s learned needs theory.

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 EXHIBIT 5.4 Maslow’s Needs
Hierarchy Related to the Job

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 The Need-Hierarchy Approach
• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.
• Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, and
stress.
• People have a need to grow and develop; they strive to
move up the hierarchy.

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 Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
Need-hierarchy issues.
• Little data proves that a needs hierarchy exists.
• Only two needs levels exist: physiological and then all
others.
• Security needs decrease as managers advance.
• With a corresponding increase in need for social
interaction, achievement, and self-actualization.

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 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s
hierarchy.
• Existence = physiological and safety.
• Relatedness = belongingness, social, love.
• Growth = esteem and self-actualization.

A frustration-regression process exists . . .

• If one continually fails to satisfy growth needs, relatedness
needs reemerge.
• Efforts will be redirected toward satisfying a lower-order
need.

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 1

A content theory with two factors.

• Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors).
– Salary, job security, working conditions, status, company
procedures, interpersonal relations.
• Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions).
– The job content, achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement, possibility of growth.

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 EXHIBIT 5.5 Traditional versus
Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction

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 Criticisms of Herzberg’s Theory
• Over-simplifies the nature of job satisfaction.
• Requires people to look at themselves retrospectively.
• Only self-reports of performance over long period of time
were used in original study.
• Little testing of motivational and performance
consequences of the theory.

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 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 2

Job enrichment
• Builds personal achievement, recognition, challenge,
responsibility, and growth opportunities into a job.
• Increases individual motivation by providing more
discretion and accountability.

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 McClelland’s Needs Theory 1

McClelland believes needs are acquired from culture.

• Need for achievement (n Ach).
• Need for affiliation (n Aff).
• Need for power (n Pow).

When a need is strong, there is motivation to use

behavior that leads to its satisfaction.

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 McClelland’s Needs Theory 2

Factors reflecting a high n Ach.

• Likes to take responsibility for solving problems.
• Sets moderate achievement goals and takes calculated
risks.
• Desires feedback on performance.

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 McClelland’s Needs Theory 3

Factors reflecting a high n Pow.

• Concentrates on obtaining and exercising power and
authority.
• Concerned with influencing others and winning arguments.
• Power can be negative or positive.

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 McClelland’s Needs Theory 4

Factors reflecting a high n Aff.

• Desires social interaction.
• Concerned about the quality of personal relationships.
• Social relationships take precedence over task
accomplishment.

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 Criticisms of McClelland’s Needs
Theory
• Supporting evidence supplied by McClelland and his
associates.
• Use of projective psychological personality tests has been
questioned as being unscientific.
• Claim that n Ach can be learned runs counter to a large
body of literature that argues the acquisition of motives
normally occurs in childhood and is very difficult to alter in
adulthood.
• No proof that acquired needs are permanently acquired.

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 EXHIBIT 5.6 A Graphic Comparison of
Four Content Approaches to Motivation

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 Process Theories of Motivation
Content theories focus primarily on the needs and
incentives that cause behavior.
The process theories of motivation are concerned with
answering the questions of how individual behavior is
energized, directed, maintained, and stopped.
• Expectancy theory.
• Equity theory.
• Goal-setting.

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 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory 1

• Employees are more likely to be motivated when they

perceive that effort = successful performance + desired
rewards and outcomes.
• Motivation is a process governing choices among
alternative forms of voluntary activity.
• Most behaviors are under the voluntary control of the
individual and consequently are motivated.

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 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory 2

Instrumentality
• The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are
tied to second-level outcomes (rewards or punishment).

Valence
• An individual’s preferences for outcomes.

Expectancy
• Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a
particular outcome.

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 EXHIBIT 5.7 Expectancy Theory

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 Equity Theory
• One’s perception of being treated fairly in social exchanges
can influence motivation.
• Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio of their
inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) equals the
ratios of other employees.

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 Important Equity Theory Terms
• Person- The individual for whom equity or inequity is
perceived.
• Comparison Other- Any group or persons used as a
referent by Person, regarding the ratio of inputs and
outcomes.
• Inputs- The individual characteristics brought by Person to
the job.
• Outcomes- What Person received from the job.

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 EXHIBIT 5.8 The Equity Theory of
Motivation

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 Change Procedures to Restore
Equity
• Changing inputs.
• Changing outcomes.
• Changing attitudes.
• Changing the reference person.
• Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person.
• Leaving the field.

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 Organizational Justice 1

The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the

workplace.

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 Four Dimensions of Organizational
Justice (Based on Exhibit 5.9)
Dimension of Brief Definition Example of Dimension at Work
Organizational Justice
Distributive Perception of fairness of the I made higher sales than my colleague this
resources and rewards in an year; but my colleague
organization. just received a higher bonus. This isn’t fair!
Procedural Perception of fairness of the The way they make pay raise decisions
process used to distribute around here doesn’t seem
rewards. fair. The manager’s favorites always receive
the largest pay raises.
Interpersonal Perception of fairness of the I was amazed that my boss found each of
treatment received by us enough hours to work
employees from authorities. this past month. Business at the restaurant
has been down and I
didn’t think I was going to make enough in
tips to be able to pay
my rent.
Informational Perception of fairness of the When I asked my boss about why I only
communication provided to received a 3 percent pay raise, she spent
employees from authorities. an hour with me explaining what areas I
need to improve so I can earn a higher raise
next year.

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 Organizational Justice 2

Procedural justice has been shown to have a positive

impact on a number of affective and behavioral
reactions.
• Organizational commitment.
• Intrinsic motivation.
• Intent to stay with organization.
• Organizational citizenship.
• Trust in supervisor.
• Satisfaction with decision outcome.
• Work effort.
• Task performance.

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 Procedural Justice 1

People are more inclined to interpret decisions as fair

when…
• They have a voice in the decision.
• Decision making is consistent.
• The process and procedures conform to ethical and moral
values.

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 Procedural Justice 2

Why does it work?

• Self-interest Theory -People want fair procedures because
it enables them to obtain desired extrinsic outcomes.
• Group Theory- Fair group procedures are a sign of respect
and an indication that group members are valued.

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 Interpersonal Justice
• Judgments made by employees as to whether they feel
they are treated fairly.
• Perceptions of justice are higher when employees are
treated with dignity and respect.
• Employees who experience bullying and
incivility are more likely to quit.

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 Informational Justice
• Perceived fairness of the communication provided to
employees from authorities.
• Keep many channels open and communicate frequently.
• Utilize informal chats.
• Don’t sugarcoat bad news.

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 Goal Setting
A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to
accomplish through behavior and actions.
Locke’s view…
• Conscious goals and intentions are the primary
determinants of behavior.
• Once a person starts something, he/she
pushes on until a goal is achieved.
• Harder goals can result in higher levels of performance.

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 Goal Setting Terms
Goal specificity Goal intensity
• the degree of quantitative • pertains to the process of
precision (clarity) of the setting the goal or of
goal. determining how to reach
it.
Goal difficulty
Goal commitment
• the degree of proficiency
or the level of performance • the amount of effort used
that is sought. to achieve a goal.

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 EXHIBIT 5.10 Goal Setting Applied
to Organizations

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 Motivation and the Psychological
Contract
Exchange theory- Organizational members engage in
predictable give-and-take relationships.
The degree to which employees exert effort, commit to
goals, and derive satisfaction from work depends on . . .
• The extent to which employee expectations match the
organization’s expectations.
• The specific nature of what is exchanged.

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 The Psychological Contract
Mutual expectations constitute part of the psychological
contract.
• An unwritten agreement between the individual and the
organization.
• Specifies what each expects to give and receive from the
other.
• Can change over time.
• These implicit agreements may take precedence over
written agreements.

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 Psychological Contract Breach
• A perception that the organization has failed to fulfill an
unwritten exchange agreement.
• A violation in the psychological contract can lead to
decreased job satisfaction and citizenship behavior.

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 Managers…
• Can influence the • Should continual monitor
motivation state of the needs, abilities, goals,
employees.
and preferences of
• Must intervene and help
create an atmosphere that employees and not just
encourages, supports, depend on HR to do so.
and sustains • Need to provide
improvement.
employees with jobs that
• Should be sensitive to
variations in employees’ offer task challenge,
needs, abilities, and goals. diversity, and a variety of
• Must consider differences opportunities for need
valences for rewards. satisfaction.

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 In Review
• Describe the role that need deficiencies play in motivating
employees.
• Compare the major differences between the four content
approaches of motivation.
• Give examples of how the three process approaches affect
employee motivation.
• Examine how the changing nature of the psychological
contract influences employee motivation.
• Summarize the action steps that managers can take to
motivate employees.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 48

 Because learning changes everything. ®

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© 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC