Engineering Metrology
Read in Text book Chapter: 5
Many of this lecture slides are adopted from
the Text book
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Definition
Metrology: (From greek ‘metron’
(Measure, and –logy) is a science
of measurement
Metrology include all theoretical
and practical aspect of
measurement
Importance of Metrology
What has allowed the
development of modern
manufacturing is the
concept of
interchangeable parts.
For example, Henry Ford
required that all rear axle's
on the Model T were made
to the same dimensions and
tolerances. Therefore, a
rear axle made on Monday
will fit equally well as a rear
axle made on Wednesday.
On cars such as the Royal Royce, each
part is hand fitted. A technician may
spend up to 30 mins. on each part to get it
to fit just right.
Metrology is the science of
measurement.
In modern manufacturing, the design
engineer designs each part to a certain
dimension and tolerance in order that the
parts will function together.
Metrology is used by the manufacturing
engineer to measure that the parts are
within tolerance
Car Manufacturing Example
On a car assembly
line a worker may
only get 15
seconds (cycle
time) at their
station.
If the part doesn't
fit, the worker stops
the line!
Photo from: [Link]
Remember from MEC222
Graphics...
DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES,
AND SURFACES
1. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related
Attributes
2. Surfaces
3. Effect of Manufacturing Processes
Critical Information
If you ask a machinist to make you a widget, they’ll ask:
what is the material?
• impacts ease of machining
what are the dimensions?
what are the tolerances?
• huge impact on time/cost
how many do you want?
when do you need it/them?
what budget does this go on?
• at $50 to $80 an hour, you’d best be prepared to
pay!
We’ll focus on the second and third items first
Dimensions and Tolerances
Factors that determine the performance of
a manufactured product, other than
mechanical and physical properties,
include :
Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part drawing
Tolerances - allowable variations from the
specified part dimensions that are permitted
in manufacturing
Dimensions (ANSI
Y14.5M-1982):
A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in
appropriate units of measure and indicated on a
drawing and in other documents along with lines,
symbols, and notes to define the size or
geometric characteristic, or both, of a part or part
feature"
Dimensions on part drawings represent nominal
or basic sizes of the part and its features
The dimension indicates the part size desired by
the designer, if the part could be made with no
errors or variations in the fabrication process
Tolerances (ANSI
Y14.5M-1982):
A tolerance is "the total amount by which a
specific dimension is permitted to vary.
The tolerance is the difference between
the maximum and minimum limits"
Variations occur in any manufacturing
process, which are manifested as
variations in part size
Tolerances are used to define the limits of
the allowed variation
Tolerance
Tolerare; put up with, endure
Impossible to make perfect parts
Too small tolerance, cost is high
Boeing 747-400 has 6 million parts,
measurement of 28 features, 150 million
measurements
NIST (U.S. National Institute of Standard and
technology); tolerance shrink by a factor of 3
every 10 yearsultraprecision ion-beam
machining 0.001mm
Importance of tolerance
Parts from the same machine can be
different
Speed of operation
Temperature
Lubrication
Variation of incoming material
Other factors
ISO system; definitions
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in
both positive and negative
directions from the
nominal dimension
Possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be
unbalanced; for example,
2.500 +0.010, -0.005
Ways to specify tolerance
limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(a) bilateral
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the
specified
dimension is
permitted in only
one direction
Either positive or
negative, but not Ways to specify tolerance
both limits for a nominal
dimension of 2.500:
(b) unilateral
Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation
in a part feature
size consists of the
maximum and
minimum
dimensions
allowed - Ways to specify
tolerance limits for a
nominal dimension of
2.500:
(c) limit dimensions
Tolerance Control
Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft,
according to the ISO system.
Methods of Assigning
Tolerances
Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft: (a) bilateral
tolerance, (b) unilateral tolerance, and (c) limit dimensions.
Example - which tolerance to
pick?
SHAFT
1.005 HOLE
0.995
Tolerance:
1.000
0.990 0.990
0.980
Tolerance:
1.000
0.990
Tolerance:
Engineering
Drawing
Symbols
Geometric tolerance :
tolerances that involve
shape features of the
part
Geometric characteristic symbols to be
indicated on engineering drawings of parts
to be manufactured. Source: Courtesy of
The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
Geometric Tolerancing
Example
Hole Locations
How Round?
How Straight?
Parallel?
Definitions
Allowance; the specific difference in
dimensions between mating parts
Basic size; dimension from which limits of
size are derived
Bilateral tolerance; deviation from the basic
size (+ or -)
Clearance; the space between mating parts
Clearance fit; fit that allows for rotation or
sliding between mating parts
Datum; theoretically exact axis, point, line or
plane
Definitions
Feature; Physically identifiable portion of a
part, e.g. hole, slot, pin, chamfer
Fit; the range of looseness or tightness
Geometric tolerancing; tolerances that involve
shape features of the part
Interference; negative clearance
Interference fit
Definition
Limit dimension; Maximum and minimum
dimension of a part,
MMC(maximum material condition); condition
where a feature of size contains the maximum
amount of material within the stated limits of size
Positional tolerancing; A system of specifying the
true position, size, and form of the feature of a
part, including allowable variation
Transition fit; Fit with small clearance or
interference that allows for accurate location of
mating parts
Surface Technology
Concerns with
Defining the characteristic of a surface
Surface texture
Surface Integrity
Relationship between manufacturing
processes and characteristics of resulting
surface
Surfaces
Nominal surface – designer’s intended surface
contour of part, defined by lines in the
engineering drawing
The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely
straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and
other edges and surfaces that are
geometrically perfect
Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it
Variety of processes result in wide variations
in surface characteristics
Surfaces
Surface has properties and behavior that is
different from the bulk of the part
Surfaces affect function, appearance and cost
of the manufactured parts.
Appearance:
• How the surfaces feels
• How it looks
• How it behaves for coating or sealing
Function:
• How it behaves in a contact with another surface
• How the surface will wear
• How well it will retain lubricant
• How well it will hold a load •
Why Surfaces are Important
Aesthetic reasons (smooth surface- favorable impression to
customer)
Surfaces affect safety
Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics
Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties
(surface flaws- stress concentration point)
Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces (strength
of adhesively bonded joint-increases when surface is slightly
rough)
Subsequent operation (painting, coating, welding, soldering)
Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts (good
electrical and thermal conductivity)
Metallic Part Surface
A magnified cross-section of a typical metallic
part surface.
Surface Characteristics
Microscopic Scale-reveals irregularities and
imperfection
Substrate-
Bulk of the Part, Under the Surface
Surface texture
Roughness, Waviness, Flaws
Altered Layer
Work hardening (Mechanical energy),Heat
(thermal energy), Chemicals, Electrical energy
Surface Integrity (definition, specification, and
control of surface layer-includes surface
texture and altered layer)
Contamination
Oxide Film
e.g. Rust (Iron), Al2O3(Aluminum)
Other
Dirt, Oil, Cutting Fluids, Lubricants,
Absorbed Gases
Affects Appearance
Inhibits Joining
Soldering, Plating, Adhesives, etc.
Surface Structure of Metals
Schematic illustration of a cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The
thickness of the individual layers depends on both processing conditions and
processing environment. Source: After E. Rabinowicz and B. Bhushan.
Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations
from the nominal surface of an
object
Surface texture features.
Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of
the surface
When highly magnified, the surface is
anything but straight and smooth
It has roughness, waviness, and flaws
Italso possesses a pattern and/or
direction resulting from the mechanical
process that produced it
Four Elements of Surface
Texture
1. Roughness - small, finely-spaced
deviations from nominal surface
Determined by material characteristics and
processes that formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger
spacing
Waviness deviations occur due to work
deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and
similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on waviness
1. Surfaces: Roughness
Roughness refers to the fine (shortest
wavelength) irregularities of a surface. •
2. Waviness
Waviness includes the more widely
spaced (longer wavelength) deviations
of a surface from its nominal shape. •
3. Lay
Lay - predominant
direction or pattern of
the surface texture
[Link]
Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally
on the surface
Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and
similar defects in the surface
Although some flaws relate to surface
texture, they also affect surface integrity
Surface Roughness and
Surface Finish
Surface roughness - a measurable
characteristic based on roughness
deviations
Surface finish - a more subjective term
denoting smoothness and general quality
of a surface
In popular usage, surface finish is often used
as a synonym for surface roughness
Both terms are within the scope of surface
texture
Surface
Roughness
(a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus and guards against
damage. (b) Path of the stylus in surface-roughness measurements (broken line) compared to the
actual roughness profile. Note that the profile of the stylus path is smoother than that of the actual
surface. (c) through (f) Typical surface profiles produced by various machining and surface-finishing
processes. Note the difference between the vertical and horizontal scales.
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from
nominal surface over a specified
surface length
Deviations from nominal surface used in
the two definitions of surface roughness.
Surface Roughness Equation
Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute
values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness
L
y
Ra dx
0
L
where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical
deviation from nominal surface (absolute value);
and L= specified distance over which the surface
deviations are measured
Alternative Surface Roughness
Equation
Approximationof previous equation is
perhaps easier to comprehend
N
yn
Ra
N
1
N
Ra
N
y
n 1
n
n 1
where Ra has the same meaning as
above; yn = vertical deviations (absolute
value) identified by subscript n; and N =
number of deviations included in L
Surface-Roughness
abcd
Ra
n
Coordinates used for
surface-roughness a 2 b2 c2 d 2
Rq
measurement using Eqs. . n
Measures of Roughness
(cont.)
Rq : the root mean square of the
distance of the roughness profile from
the nominal surface. •
Rq (RMS) surface roughness will always be greater than Ra values
because large deviation will figure more predominantly in the calculation
of RMS value
Surface Roughness Specification
Surface texture symbols in engineering
drawings: (a) the symbol, and (b)
symbol with identification labels.
Standard terminology and symbols used to
describe surface finish. The quantities are
given in μin. (b) Common surface lay
symbols.
Cutoff Length
A problem with the Ra computation is that
waviness may get included
To deal with this problem, a parameter
called the cutoff length is used as a filter to
separate waviness from roughness
deviations
Cutoff length is a sampling distance along
the surface
A sampling distance shorter than the
waviness eliminates waviness deviations
and only includes roughness deviations
Surface Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely
describe a surface
There may be metallurgical changes in the
altered layer beneath the surface that can
have a significant effect on a material's
mechanical properties
Surface integrity is the study and control of
this subsurface layer and the changes in it
that occur during processing which may
influence the performance of the finished
part or product
Energy Forms in Surface Integrity
Surface changes are caused by the
application of various forms of energy
during processing
Mechanical energy
Thermal energy
Chemical energy
Electrical energy
Example: Mechanical energy is the most
common form in manufacturing
• Processes include forging, extrusion, and
machining
Surface Changes by
Mechanical Energy
Residual stresses in subsurface layer
Example: bending of sheet metal
Cracks - microscopic and macroscopic
Example: tearing of ductile metals in
machining
Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically
Example: centerbursting in extrusion
Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)
Example: strain hardening of new surface in
machining-plastic deformation
Surface Changes by Thermal
Energy
Metallurgicalchanges (recrystallization,
grain size changes, phase changes at
surface)
Redeposited (Metal is removed from the surface in a
molten state, reattached prior to solidification)
Resolidified material (portion of the metal which
was melted and then solidified without detaching from
the surface)
Heat-affected zone in welding (Region not
melted but heated to undergo metallurgical changes)
Hardness changes
Surface Changes by Chemical
Energy
Intergranularattack (corrosion and oxidation)
Chemical contamination
Absorption of certain elements such as H
and Cl in metal surface – (lead to property
change)
Selective Etch: (Concentrate on certain
components in the base metal)
Alloy
depletion and resulting hardness
changes
Surface Changes by Electrical
Energy
Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism
Craters- rough surface depression left in
the surface, resulting from short circuits
during certain electrical processing
techniques such as arc welding, Electro
Dischange Machining, Electro Chemical
machining.
Sawed Surface
Close Up
Turned Surfaces
Close Up
As Rolled
Dimensional
Tolerances
as a
Function of
Part Size
Dimensional tolerances as
a function of part size for
various manufacturing
processes. Note that
because many factors are
involved, there is a broad
range for tolerances.
Dimensional
Tolerance
Range and
Surface
Roughness
in Various
Processes
Dimensional tolerance range and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing
processes. These tolerance apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimeinsion. Source: After
J. A. Schey.
Tolerances and Manufacturing
Processes
Some manufacturing processes are
inherently more accurate than others
Examples:
Most machining processes are quite
accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm
( 0.002 in.) or better
Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified
Surfaces and Manufacturing
Processes
Some processes are inherently capable of
producing better surfaces than others
In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because
additional operations and more time are
usually required to obtain increasingly better
surfaces
Processes noted for providing superior
finishes include honing, lapping, polishing,
and superfinishing
