ETHICS REVIEWER
METAETHICS
- is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature, foundation, and meaning of ethical concepts and judgments.
- metaethics examines the underlying principles that shape moral discourse.
- serves as the foundational study of ethical philosophy, probing the essence of morality, the meaning of ethical
language, and the nature of moral truth.
Major Theories in Meta-Ethics
1. Cognitivism
- Asserts that moral statements express propositions that can be true or false.
a. Moral Realism
- Claims that moral facts exist independently of human beliefs or attitudes.
Variants:
Naturalism: Moral facts are natural facts, observable and part of the physical world (e.g., reducing suffering is good
because it aligns with natural human flourishing).
Non-Naturalism: Moral facts are not reducible to natural phenomena but exist as non-physical properties (e.g.,
moral truths as universal and abstract).
b. Moral Anti-Realism
- Denies the existence of objective moral facts.
Examples:
Error Theory: Moral statements attempt to express truths, but they are systematically false because there are no
moral facts.
Constructivism: Moral truths are constructed by rational agents through agreement or deliberation.
2. Non-Cognitivism
- Argues that moral statements do not express propositions and cannot be true or false.
Key views include:
Emotivism: Moral statements express emotional attitudes rather than factual claims (e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means
"I disapprove of stealing").
Prescriptivism: Moral language serves to prescribe actions or behaviors (e.g., "Stealing is wrong" means "Don't
steal").
Expressivism: Similar to emotivism, it emphasizes that moral language expresses non-cognitive attitudes.
Core Concepts in Meta-Ethics:
1. Moral Objectivity vs. Subjectivity
Objective morality holds that moral truths are independent of human beliefs or feelings.
Subjective morality claims that moral truths are contingent on individual or cultural perspectives.
2. Moral Relativism vs. Absolutism
Relativism: Morality is culturally or individually relative, with no universal standard.
Absolutism: There are universal moral principles that apply across all contexts.
3. Moral Naturalism vs. Non-Naturalism
Naturalism ties moral truths to empirical or natural facts.
Non-naturalism holds that moral truths are independent of the natural world.
4. Moral Skepticism
Questions whether we can have knowledge of moral truths.
Suggests moral claims might lack justification or evidence
Applied Ethics
- is a branch of ethics that focuses on analyzing and addressing specific, real-world moral issues and dilemmas.
- concerned with the practical application of ethical theories and principles to particular contexts.
Subfields of Applied Ethics
1. Medical Ethics (or Bioethics)
Focus: Ethical issues in healthcare, medicine, and biological sciences.
Examples of Topics:
o End-of-life decisions (e.g., euthanasia, assisted suicide).
o Genetic engineering and cloning.
o Medical resource allocation and healthcare access.
o Informed consent and patient autonomy.
2. Environmental Ethics
• Focus: Moral obligations toward the environment, non-human animals, and ecological systems.
• Examples of Topics:
o Climate change and sustainability.
o Conservation of biodiversity and endangered species.
o Ethical treatment of animals (e.g., factory farming, animal testing).
o Responsibilities to future generations.
3. Business Ethics
• Focus: Ethical practices and decision-making in business and commerce.
• Examples of Topics:
o Corporate social responsibility (CSR).
o Ethical marketing and consumer protection.
o Workplace ethics (e.g., discrimination, harassment, fair wages).
o Ethical implications of artificial intelligence and automation.
4. Legal Ethics
• Focus: Ethical issues faced by legal professionals.
• Examples of Topics:
o Attorney-client privilege and confidentiality.
o Conflicts of interest in legal practice.
o Justice in sentencing and the death penalty.
o Ethical dilemmas in jury selection and evidence presentation.
5. Political Ethics
• Focus: Ethical issues in political systems and public policy.
• Examples of Topics:
o Corruption and accountability in governance.
o Ethical considerations in war and peace (e.g., just war theory).
o Balancing individual rights with collective security. o Immigration, refugees, and border policies.
6. Technology Ethics
• Focus: Moral issues arising from technological advancements.
• Examples of Topics:
o Privacy and surveillance in the digital age.
o Ethical use of artificial intelligence and robotics.
o Implications of biotechnology and genetic modification.
o Cybersecurity and digital rights.
7. Professional Ethics
• Focus: Ethical principles governing specific professions.
• Examples of Topics:
o Journalism ethics (e.g., accuracy, bias, privacy).
o Engineering ethics (e.g., safety, environmental impact).
o Ethical conduct in academic research and publishing.
8. Global Ethics
• Focus: Ethical issues that transcend national borders.
• Examples of Topics:
o Human rights and humanitarian intervention.
o Global poverty and wealth distribution.
o Ethical trade practices and labor exploitation.
o International environmental treaties and climate justice.
