Bachelor of Science Honours

Degree in Development Studies

Perspectives in Development
Studies

Module DS101
Authors: I. Gutsa
MSc Sociology (UZ)
BSc Honours Sociology (UZ)

P. Mutswanga
Master of Education -Educational Psychology (UZ)
Bachelor of Education Special Education (UZ)
Diploma in Special Education (UCE)
Diploma in Further Teachers Education (HEXCO)
Certificate in Education (UCE)
Certificate in HIV and AIDS Support Group (New Life)

B. Shumba
BSc Counselling
Diploma in Community Development

Content Reviewer: A. Chikutsa

Masters of Science Population Studies (UZ)
Bachelor of Science Honours in Psychology (UZ)

Editor: D. Mupunga
Master of Art in Distance Education
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
Post Graduate Diploma in Distance Education (IGNOU)
BA Gen (UZ)
Grad CE (UZ)
Published by: Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: 2010

Reprinted: December 2013/March 2013/May 2013

Cover design: B. Pillay

Layout: C.S. Nhari

Printed by: ZOU Press, Harare

ISBN: 978-1-77938-447-8

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

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 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge academics, technologists and
and the requirement to adjust and administrators of varied backgrounds,
change with changing technology, places training, skills, experiences and personal
on us a need to learn continually interests. The combination of all these
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We consult you and listen to your critical analysis our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
of the concepts and how they are presented. We developments and for the latest information on
also consult other academics from universities what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
the world over and other international bodies website at [Link]
whose reputation in distance education and open
learning is of a very high calibre. We carry out Having worked as best we can to prepare your
pilot studies of the course outlines, the content learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
and the programme component. We are only prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
too glad to subject our learning materials to hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
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Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward
looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents

Overview _____________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

1.0 ________ Introduction ______________________________________________________ 3
1.2 ________ Objectives ________________________________________________________ 4
1.3 ________ What is Development? ______________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.3.1 Development as a product of human efforts _________________________ 4
__________ Activity 1.1 ________________________________________________________ 6
__________ 1.3.2 The principal auditors of development _____________________________ 6
__________ 1.3.3 Architects vs auditors ___________________________________________ 7
1.4. _______ Just Development __________________________________________________ 8
__________ 1.4.1 Development of infrastructure ____________________________________ 9
__________ Activity 1.2 ________________________________________________________ 9
__________ 1.4.2 Economic growth _____________________________________________ 9
__________ 1.4.3 Poverty alleviation _____________________________________________ 9
__________ 1.4.4 Equity _______________________________________________________ 9
__________ 1.4.5 Natural resources base protection ________________________________ 10
__________ 1.4.6 Democracy __________________________________________________ 10
__________ 1.4.7 Social justice _________________________________________________ 10
1.5 ________ The" Depends" Approach __________________________________________ 11
__________ Activity 1.3 _______________________________________________________ 11
1.6 ________ History of Development Approaches _________________________________ 11
__________ Activity 1.4 _______________________________________________________ 13
1.7 ________ Participation in the Process of Development ___________________________ 13
__________ 1.7.2 What is participation in development? _____________________________ 13
1.8 ________ Mass Communication for Development _______________________________ 14
__________ 1.8.1 Perlman's Article _____________________________________________ 15
__________ 1.8.4 Siamwiza's Article ____________________________________________ 15
__________ 1.8.5 Leslie's Article _______________________________________________ 15
1.9 ________ Participation: Typology ____________________________________________ 16
__________ 1.9.1 Participation in development: new avenues _________________________ 16
1.10 _______ Summary ________________________________________________________ 16
1.11 _______ References _______________________________________________________ 17

Unit Two: Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Devel-

opment
2.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 19
2.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 20
2.2 ________ Changing Perspectives on Development Ideology _______________________ 20
__________ 2.2.1 "Trickle down" phase __________________________________________ 21
__________ Activity 2.1 _______________________________________________________ 23
 __________ 2.2.2 Basic needs __________________________________________________ 23
__________ 2.2.3 Small is beautiful phase ________________________________________ 24
__________ 2.2.4 Enabling environment phase ____________________________________ 25
__________ Activity 2.2 ______________________________________________________ 26
2.3 ________ Shifts in Development Theory _______________________________________ 26
__________ 2.3.1 Structural functionalism ________________________________________ 27
__________ 2.3.2 Neo-Marxist political economy __________________________________ 28
__________ 2.3.3 Neo -liberal political economy __________________________________ 28
__________ 2.3.4 The new institutionalism _______________________________________ 29
__________ Activity 2.3 ______________________________________________________ 29
2.4 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 29
2.5 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 30

Unit Three: Development Theories _______________________________31

3.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 31
3.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 32
3.2 ________ What is a Theory? _________________________________________________ 32
3.3 ________ Why Do We Study Theories in Development Studies? ____________________ 33
3.4 ________ Modernization Theory _____________________________________________ 33
__________ 3.4.1 Features of the Modernization Theory ____________________________ 34
__________ 3.4.2 Stages Of Modernization Theory ________________________________ 34
__________ 3.4.3 The traditional conservative society ______________________________ 35
__________ 3.4.4 The Pre-take off ______________________________________________ 35
__________ 3.4.5 Take-off stage ________________________________________________ 35
__________ 3.4.6 Drive to maturity _____________________________________________ 35
__________ 3.4.7 Society of high mass consumption _______________________________ 36
__________ Activity 3.1 _______________________________________________________ 36
__________ 3.4.8 Goals and application __________________________________________ 36
__________ 3.4.9 Criticism of the Modernisation Theory (MT) ______________________ 37
3.5 ________ Dependence Theory _______________________________________________ 37
__________ 3.5.1 Implications of the Dependency Theory ___________________________ 39
__________ 3.5.2 Criticism of the Dependency Theory _____________________________ 39
3.6 ________ Basic Needs Theory _______________________________________________ 40
__________ Activity 3.2 ______________________________________________________ 41
3.7 ________ The State Theory _________________________________________________ 41
3.8 ________ Sustainable Development ___________________________________________ 43
3.9 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 44
3.10 _______ References _______________________________________________________ 45

Unit Four: Economic Development

4.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 47
4.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 48
4.2 ________ Economic Development ____________________________________________ 48
4.3 ________ Rostow's Ideas on Economic Development ____________________________ 48
__________ Activity 4.1 _______________________________________________________ 49
4.4 ________ Modernisation Theory _____________________________________________ 49
4.5 ________ Economic Measures of Growth (Gross Domestic Product and
__________ Gross National Product) ___________________________________________ 50
__________ Activity 4.2 ______________________________________________________ 50
4.6 ________ Transnational Corporations, Economic Structural Adjustment
__________ Programmes and Economic Development _____________________________ 51
4.7 ________ Social Change and Development in Global Perspective ___________________ 52
__________ Activity 4.3 ______________________________________________________ 53
4.8 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 54
4.9 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 54
Unit Five: Education and Social Change
5.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 55
5.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 56
5.2 ________ Modernisation and Social Change ____________________________________ 56
__________ 5.2.1 Theories of development and social change ________________________ 56
__________ 5.2.2 Criticisms to modernization theory ______________________________ 57
__________ Activity 5.1 _______________________________________________________ 58
__________ 5.2.3 Education ___________________________________________________ 58
__________ 5.2.4 Education in a changing context _________________________________ 58
__________ Activity 5.2 ______________________________________________________ 59
__________ 5.2.5 Social change ________________________________________________ 59
__________ 5.2.6 Education and social change ____________________________________ 59
5.3 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 60
5.4 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 60

Unit Six: Health and Population

6.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 63
6.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 64
6.2 ________ Population Growth ________________________________________________ 64
6.3 ________ Infant Mortality Rate ______________________________________________ 64
6.4 ________ Under Population and Over Population _______________________________ 65
__________ Activity 6.1 _______________________________________________________ 66
6.5 ________ Female Education and Population Growth _____________________________ 66
__________ Activity 6.2 ______________________________________________________ 66
6.6 ________ Variations in Life Expectancy _______________________________________ 67
6.7 ________ Population Growth and Economic Development ________________________ 67
__________ Activity 6.3 ______________________________________________________ 69
6.8 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 69
6.9 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 69

Unit Seven: Politics of Development

7.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 71
7.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 72
7.2 ________ History of Aid, Politics and Development _____________________________ 72
7.3 ________ Development and Transnational Corporations __________________________ 73
7.4 ________ Development and Aid ______________________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 7.1 _______________________________________________________ 75
7.5 ________ The State and Multinational Capital __________________________________ 75
__________ Activity 7.2 ______________________________________________________ 78
7.6 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 78
7.7 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 78

Unit Eight: Sustainable Community Development

8.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 79
8.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 80
8.2 ________ Sustainable Development ___________________________________________ 80
8.3 ________ NGOs and Sustainable Development _________________________________ 80
8.4 ________ NGOs and Community Participation _________________________________ 81
__________ The Case of Mali _________________________________________________ 82
__________ Activity 7.1 _______________________________________________________ 83
__________ 8.5 Participatory Development ______________________________________ 83
__________ Activity 7.2 ______________________________________________________ 84
8.6 ________ NGOs and Participatory Development ________________________________ 84
8.7 ________ Summary ________________________________________________________ 85
8.8 ________ References _______________________________________________________ 85
Unit Nine: Women, Gender and Empowerment
9.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 87
9.2 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 88
9.2 ________ Development and the Position of Women ______________________________ 88
9.3 ________ What is Sex and Gender? ___________________________________________ 88
9.4 ________ Roots of Gender Inequality _________________________________________ 88
__________ Activity 9.1 _______________________________________________________ 89
9.1 ________ Case Study _______________________________________________________ 89
9.5 ________ Perspectives on Gender Inequality ____________________________________ 90
9.6 ________ Women in Development (WID) ______________________________________ 90
__________ Activity 9.2 ______________________________________________________ 91
9.7 ________ Criticisms of Women in Development Approach ________________________ 91
9.8 ________ Gender and Development (GAD) ____________________________________ 91
__________ Activity 9.3 ______________________________________________________ 93
9.9 ________ Mainstreaming Gender into Planning and Policy Development ____________ 93
9.10 _______ Gender Mainstreaming _____________________________________________ 94
9.11 _______ Summary ________________________________________________________ 95
9.12 _______ References _______________________________________________________ 95

Unit 10: Ethics in Development

10.0 _______ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 97
10.1 _______ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 98
10.2 _______ Understanding Ethics ______________________________________________ 98
10.3 _______ Fundamental Principles of Ethics ____________________________________ 99
__________ 10.3.2 Human dignity ______________________________________________ 99
__________ 10.3.2 Human rights and justice _____________________________________ 100
__________ 10.3.3 Beneficence ________________________________________________ 100
__________ 10.3.4 Responsibility of biosphere ___________________________________ 100
__________ 10.3.5 Cultural pluralism and diversity ________________________________ 100
__________ 10.3.6 Participation and equity ______________________________________ 101
__________ 10.3.7 Solidarity and cooperation ____________________________________ 101
__________ 10.3.8 Professionalism ____________________________________________ 101
10.4 _______ The Role of Ethics in Development _________________________________ 102
__________ Activity 10.1 _____________________________________________________ 103
10.5 _______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 103
10.6 _______ References ______________________________________________________ 103
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Overview

T
he purpose of this Module is to introduce the concept of development.
In Units 1 and 2 we trace the evolution of development thinking and
practice over the last decades with particular reference to post World
War II period. In order to have a clear appreciation of the evolution of
development thinking as it is today, we have used as the point of departure
both pre-Marxist and Marxist thought on development.

In Unit 3, we discuss various theoretical approaches to development. In

particular, we have discussed at great length the Modernisation Theory, its
proposed stages of development and the limitations of the theory. We have
also discussed the Dependency Theory, its implications on development and
the major criticisms that have been cited against the theory.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

While development has many facets, economic development has taken cen-
tre stage in the discourse of development. In Unit 4, the issues in economic
development are discussed in detail, particularly the role of multi-national
corporations in the development of African countries. In Unit 5, we focus on
the role of education in social change and development.

Since the publication of \\\Mathias Theory on population, a lot of debate has

centred on the link between population growth and economic development.
In this Module, we have introduced the basic concepts on population and
their relationship to economic development. A detailed analysis of this sub-
ject is done in a separate module on Population and \Development.

In Unit 8 and 9 we discuss the role of non-governmental organisations in

development and that of women respectively. We conclude the Module by
discussing ethical considerations in development. We hope you are doing to
enjoy reading this Module. We would also like to encourage you to read
widely.

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2 Zimbabwe Open University
 1Unit One

Concepts and Issues in

Development Studies

1.0 Introduction

S
ince the service study of development began, many models, definitions
and strategies of development have been used. Most common indica
tors of development may be determined by economic growth hence
we have the developed countries, third world countries, industrialized coun-
tries and so on. However, generally, literature suggests that, there is more to
development than the state of growth of the economy. It is important to be
aware that one may go through varied studies of development but fail to put
them into practice. Why? Because it is not a one man band: the knowledge
of development does not imply implementation. Development calls for stra-
tegic planning and implementation of viable plans that are of benefit to the
country and its people.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

It is therefore essential to understand the many models, definitions and strat-

egies of development as we discuss in this Unit.

1.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ define development
„ identify types of development
„ describe the approaches to development

1.3 What is Development?

Development is both a process and a state to achieve. It may be taken as an
ongoing process where a nation can be termed "developed" relative to other
nations. In a particular historical context for example, a "developed" country
may fail to maintain this status in one era relative to other countries and may
become a developing country in the following era. When a county is highly
developed, is it necessary for it to value development as a state to achieve?
Or should it be kept on going?

However, since the late 1940s development as a process has undergone many
changes. Different disciplines perceive the development process differently,
just as sociologists and anthropologies hold varied perspectives from devel-
opment economists, geographers, historians, political scientists, planners and
so on. According to (Clerk, 1995), the orthodox economist might define de-
velopment as the achievement of economic growth and hence improved living
standards. It can be observed in literature that in 1974, shaken by the starva-
tion that had plagued Ethiopia and some African countries, political leaders
attended the first ever World Food Conference to analyse the causes of hun-
ger and what could be done to prevent future suffering. However, the situa-
tion worsened. Thus development failed to alleviate this problem of food
shortage. Specifically, we define development using the Depends Approach.
We trace the historical development of the concept of development.

1.3.1 Development as a product of human efforts

Development is a product of human effort with both architects and auditors.
Architects are persons with a vision, wedded more or explicitly to a given
ideology. Most of them occupy positions of power, which is a prerequisite for
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4 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

successful dissemination of their ideas. Depending on the context and timing,

some of these ideas may or may not go far in shaping the development of a
society. Some political architects are capable of making quite a mark on their
society while others, however hard they try, find themselves forgotten by peo-
ple. Improving the use made of a country's human, natural and institutional
resources is essential to development.

We often take the Gross National Product (GNP) to providing the obvious
measurement of progress to the above definition.

Does this encompass it all? In reality, this definition offers little to the poor.
We may further ask, what experience has taught us on this issue? Clerk (1995)
explains that economic growth does not by itself lead to improved living stand-
ards for the majority. In some instances improving the application of human
resources may be brought through undermining human rights. According to,
Clerk (1995), effectiveness of institutions may be improved through turning
them away from the services that the local populations want of them. As you
can see, this it is subject to debate, but it is very important that we analyse so
that we become conscious developers and employ means that may control
the situation to bring out the expected outcome has significantly failed.

We note that development has significantly failed remedy basic problem, for
example, alleviating food shortages. Broadly, development may be taken to
mean, improving the society. Society comprises of people, so development
means "enabling people to achieve their aspirations". It may sound a tauto-
logical argument but it has three virtues that we may need to consider. Firstly,
it is fundamental to build any development model on a foundation of demo-
cratic processes. Secondly it reveals the need to make political choices. That
it also goes without saying that it is impossible to satisfy all the ambitions of all
people at all times. Those in power have to make choices about which groups'
aspirations are to be prioritized. They must also make wise considerations.
Finally it is an enabling rather than a providing issue. By this we mean that
development is done by people, not to people; although it may be govern-
ment or aid agencies coordinated in provision of infrastructure, services, sup-
port and institutions but still it is achieved by the people themselves.

Development can neither be weighed nor measured but as Clerk (1995) pos-
its, it is a process of change that enables people to take charge of their own
destinies and realize their full potential. It requires building up in the people
the confidence, skills, assets and freedoms necessary to achieve this goal.

Food insecurity as estimated by World Bank makes worse promises in influ-

encing development. For the 1980's threats of recession and, attempts to
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Zimbabwe Open University 5
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

avoid it were made. In some instances, this was achieved through policies
that created a more hostile economic environment for the third world. It was
worsened by policies that the governments of developing countries were pur-
suing. Such policies protected the elite from the ravages of recession but
loaded the burden of austerity on the poor groups. This evoked a lot of blame
shift amongst people. Some blame was apportioned to the officials and agen-
cies as portrayed by most historical literature. It is suggested that billions of
dollars were poured into development assistance much of which was in form
of loans rather than grants. This left the countries in debt. This failed as
problems of poverty still mounted. Clerk (1995) reports that, aid often helped
the elite increase their personnel fortunes or power basis. For example, white
elephant projects which have done little for economic growth.

However, rich governments were able to push the burden of recession on to

poor countries; the elite in poor countries were able to pass on the burden to
the poor and the voiceless. Generally, development is in crisis and the cla-
mour for a new approach is growing.

Activity 1.1
? 1. Define development.
2. Why do people hold different definitions for the word de-
velopment?
3. Suggest a definition that suits your own country and discuss
how it can be fine tuned for better development.

1.3.2 The principal auditors of development

The principal auditors of development are academics. According to (Currey,
1994) their task is to assess the process of social change according to their
own models (Currey, 1994).

The author further notes that, academics as auditors, typically take a back
seat when a process is being implemented, but when the occasion demands,
many rush to the front expressing their concerns over what is happening.
They tend to become activists especially when unanticipated consequences
of architectural ambitions become imminent; that is, when the ideal and prac-
tice of development grow increasingly apart.

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6 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

1.3.3 Architects vs auditors

The auditors' work is influenced by the perspectives provided by the political
architects. However, most academics ignore the basic premise and instead,
direct their critique of the architects from a lofty position who they often ap-
pear "holier than thou" (Currey, 1994 and Clerk, 1995). This shows that the
architectural perspectives on development may appear persuasive but they
are always partial. They may conceal or overlook vital elements that may
need to be considered for development to take place. Thus, both have a
responsibility to highlight elements that the other obliterate or leave out. Here,
academics have a challenge to strike the necessary balance that may help
them get deeper understanding of a given social phenomenon or societal ex-
pectations from where conclusions may be drawn.

Such a balance has been difficult to find particularly in the African context. As
searches for new perspectives or paradigms in the study of Development in
Africa continue, two issues are essential to note.
„ The first is the nature of the tools that the academics use asauditors,
their theories
„ The other factor is the inevitable ambition of Africa's post-independ-
ence political architects to localize the perspective on development and
to build a society that takes its inspiration from African as opposed to
global cues
In the past three decades, Africa's political architects have either consciously
ignored or considered irrelevant the universal ideas that have guided devel-
opment elsewhere in earlier periods. This has made the architects feel un-
comfortable with the universalist academic auditors who are accused of adopt-
ing "foreign ideologies".

The confrontational approach has, on the other hand, been exacerbated by

the shortage of good private and public entrepreneurs and managers to put
the architectural dreams into reality have worsened the situation. It is partly a
result of colonization and the tendency of political architects to insist too much
on the execution of their own blue prints without modification. Adherence to
personal glory or dogmatism and the political leadership may leave the sys-
tem exposed to accusations of incompetence. According to Currey (1994)
the international agencies complicate the issue further by filling in the gap left
on the African continent, by using their own perspectives to shape the con-
struction of development. For example, some NGOs seek to assist with dual
motives, but interests of the foreign country of origin.

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Zimbabwe Open University 7
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Heroic effort at populist development by Julius Nyerere the late president of

Tanzania has made history although little has proved feasible or sustainable.
As developmentalists what can

we learn from Julius Nyerere's work? Such people and international agencies
are usually caught between a cadre of political architects with little under-
standing of their universalist ideas and little inspiration or commitment to the
objectives of agencies.

African academics as auditors of the development processes have been very

difficult because in some instances they find themselves ignored or despised
by the local political architects. They also find themselves peripheralized too
amongst global academic community. In Africa both architects and auditors
lack the empirical base on which reasonable arguments can be built and sus-
tained. Lack of such a base has not only allowed the international agencies as
well as non-African academics to have an unproportionately strong influence
on the thinking about development in Africa. Currey (1994) suggests, "It has
also encouraged a rapid shift in perspectives both in ideology and theory".
The same author further notes that, shortage of empirical data and absence of
public discourse among Africans about what is viable or sustainable has al-
lowed the development debate to "slide" from one position to another without
much consideration of what does work or does not work.

1.4. Just Development

Just development is a force which attacks causes of poverty. It pinpoints
equity, democracy and social justice as paramount objectives that can aid
economic growth. It believes that such an approach enables weaker mem-
bers of society to acquire assets and provide the means to achieving produc-
tivity of these assets. Additionally it also provides social services to help such
members improve their situation. Such move is likely to combat vulnerability
and isolation. However, we note that needs to combat exploitation, espe-
cially the oppression of women and also ensure that sustainable use of natural
resources is maintained.

A developing country has three principal assets, namely, its economic re-
sources-(such as its investments, infrastructure and foreign exchange reserves),
its natural resources and its human resources. If a country fails to nurture all
these and use each to its full potential, then it will fall behind or apart for
example, a country that drains its economic resources to service its debts is
likely to plunder its natural resources and human resources.
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8 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

Just Development, therefore, comprises of development of infrastructure,

economic growth, poverty alleviation, equity, natural resource base protec-
tion, democracy and social justice, some of which shall be described below.
We discuss these concepts below:

1.4.1 Development of infrastructure

Early developmentalists concentrated on infrastructure in the belief that roads,
railways, posts, telecommunications and power stations would open up to
future trade and prosperity. However, this has rarely born positive develop-
ment. However, infrastructure may make development. You need to be aware
that, where infrastructure is weak or unreliable, development, poverty alle-
viation and famine relief are usually severely hampered. There is also a marked
correlation between rural areas vulnerable to hunger and proximity to roads
or other communications channels. Just development, therefore, should con-
centrate infrastructural development on the needs of the most vulnerable ar-
eas.

Activity 1.2
? 1. Based on an area that is remote, outline how the people in
that area were affected in a particular drought period.

1.4.2 Economic growth

Economic growth is essential for finance is desired improvements by the peo-
ple but some agencies sometimes overlook it. It means a society based solely
on growth becomes an economic machine.

1.4.3 Poverty alleviation

People are the key to a country's development, so they are the most precious
resource. Provision of health care, schooling, good nutrition and state water
and sound expensive welfare measures, are the starting point to positive de-
velopment and investment. In support Winston Churchill once said, "there is
no finer investment for any community than putting milk into babies."

1.4.4 Equity
Equity is not charity but should be pursued because a country is better off
when its productive assets are broadly distributed. Let us take the example of
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Zimbabwe Open University 9
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

importance of poverty alleviation, some pay lip service to the concept of

equity. It calls for a shift in the development model to one that invests in the
poorer members of society through redistribution of wealth and incomes.
Human capital is considered the most essential asset.

Gender equity is also of critical importance and any development that does
not recognize this may be considered guilty of denying this sector the chance
to achieve its full potential. Similarly, there is also need for equity between
nations if an economically healthy and a politically stable world is to be achieved.

1.4.5 Natural resources base protection

The emphasis is that, just development must consider future generations and
the health of the planet, and not just to immediate needs. The natural-re-
source base should be used wisely and sustainably. Means that may lead to
economic inflation and environmental inflation should be avoided.

1.4.6 Democracy
A country with democracy is one where people are free to speak out, asso-
ciate in political parties or trade union; have a free press, where governments
are open and freely elected. Where state institutions are publicly accountable,
they may fare well and are likely to have more contented populations. Re-
member both political democracy and economic democracy are essential to
positive development. Some countries through, International Monetary Fund
(IMF)/World Bank have been urged to implement structural adjustment pro-
grammes but without political liberalization. Just development therefore calls
for an effective partnership of the government and the people and this can
only be achieved through implementation of democracy in its broadest sense
(Clerk, 1995).

1.4.7 Social justice

To enable sustainable and trusting partnership between governments and the
people, full human rights must be guaranteed. Social justice calls for eradica-
tion of all forms of discrimination; be they on grounds of race, creed, tribe or
sex. Impaired social justice is likely to divide apart a country and it may fail to
use its human assets to their full potential. Offended parties may resent and
seek to undermine the state.

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Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

1.5 The" Depends" Approach

Ingredients of just development combine to make the acronym DEPENDS
as follows:
„ Development of infrastructure
„ Economic growth
„ Poverty alleviation
„ Equity
„ Natural resource base protection
„ Democracy
„ Social justice
The "DEPENDS" approach is appropriate for governments, World Bank,
and agencies and for NGOs too and it is important that it is adhered to and
not only subscribed to as a formula of words. It encourages all development
agencies to objectively assess and make sure that their actions match up to
the acronym above, that is, "DEPENDS".

Activity 1.3
? 1. As developmentalists what do you learn from Julius Nyerere's
contribution to development? Justify your answer.
2. Identify development approaches that played a great role in
national development.
3. Describe the history of development approaches and state
their influence to national development issues.

1.6 History of Development Approaches

Economic thought in Western Europe and North America was focused on
Neoclassical Economic Theory prior to the Second World War. Here, the
primary concerns were the behaviour of individual producers and consumers
in perfect and imperfect markets. It was noted that, in most Third World
countries, economic growth was considered synonymous with development
and was based on the export of primary commodities like agricultural prod-
ucts and minerals, reflecting their comparative advantages in these products.
It was only after the war that the development of non-industrialized countries
began to be seriously considered not only by economists but sociologists and
political scientists as well. Development theory in a formal sense is largely a
product of the post World War II period.
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Zimbabwe Open University 11
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Acknowledgement of the important development theories is valuable to un-

derstand the reasoning and logic behind the development programmes, poli-
cies and plans of national governments and influential multilateral agencies
such as the World Bank and the International Monetary fund (IMF). The
theories are likely to help us interpret the context within which social change
and state actions take place and even help explain the failures and shortcom-
ings of past and present development practices.

Basically there are three theories namely:

o Radical Development Theory demands a major reordering of owner-
ship, production and exchange.
o Liberal Development Theory felt short of radical change concerned
and encouraged equity to help alleviate poverty and to ensure a mini-
mum level of social services and support.
o Neoclassical Economic Development Theory concerned freeing the
economy form market distortions, reducing the level of government
interventions and encouraging private (often foreign) investment.
Historical issues on development involved the following four events in world
politics and economics:
„ The 1930s Great Depression
„ The Second World War
„ Decolonisation and struggles for independence
„ The Cold War
A combination of these four events altered the nature of international rela-
tions/economies and societies of the Third World countries. Global depres-
sion and war diminished the demand and disrupted the supply of primary
export commodities.

Struggles for independence and the cold war introduced the need to either
support threatened regimes or to destabilize regimes which were aligned to
the opposite side.

Events of the 1950s namely the Cuban revolution and the fall of dictatorships
in Venezuela, Peru and Colombia lent urgency to the development process.
These events also sparked nationalistic and revolutionary movements through-
out the world. However, development approaches that were promoted dur-
ing the 1950s and 60s in response to changing world circumstances fall within
the Modernisation Approach which we discuss in Unit 3.

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Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

Activity 1.4
? 1. Define development according to obtained knowledge and
understanding.
2. Discuss the effects of different perspective to development.
3. Suggest how gained information shall help you plan and or-
ganize development issues in your country or area.

1.7 Participation in the Process of Development

It has been recently recognized that western models of development have
been presented to developing areas rather than a mixture of western and
indigenous approaches. The countries of Asia and Latin America radically
challenged the development strategies pursued during periods of dictatorial
rule. It was followed by a cry for greater political freedom which was paral-
leled by demands for more equitable development policies. Here, the prob-
lem of ethnocentrism is blamed in relation to the politics of agrarian reform,
community development, law and development and family planning.

The participatory theory assumes that the goal of development is to meet the
needs and aspiration of people. It further stresses that development should
start from where people are in terms of desires and beliefs. It involves indi-
viduals, administrators, external agencies and national government in a dia-
logue. However, this interaction between people and external agencies can
only be productive if people's goals and desires are placed above the objec-
tives of the external agencies participating in plans of development. Although
it is a very difficult process, involvement of people in development planning
adds to the community's process of development.

1.7.2 What is participation in development?

Vijayan (1995) defines participation in development as an organized effort to
empower groups that have previously been excluded from controlling re-
sources vital to their welfare. General images related to participation are
clear but it is very difficult to give this term a precise operational definition
because most definitions are too narrow or too broad, too strict or too loose.
However, development theorists and practitioners associate participation with
writings of Ivan Illich (1983, 1976, 1978).

Illich urged deprofessionalisation in all domains of life - schooling, health care,

transportation, planning - in order to make ordinary people responsible for
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

their own well-being. The late Indian educator Naik (1975, 1977) preached
a similar message (Goulet, 1986). According to Freire (1970, 1973), the
key to development is whether people who were previously treated as mere
objects, known and acted upon can now actively know and act upon by
becoming subjects of their own social destiny. In support, Vijayan (1995)
and Goulet (1986) point out that, when people are oppressed or reduced to
the culture of silence they do not participate in their own humanization. When
they participate, they become active subjects of knowledge and action and
begin to construct an appropriate human history and engage in process of
authentic development.

Nevertheless, the working definition adopted by Marshall Wolfe and the United
Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) is very useful
in development circles. According to Wolfe (1983), participation designates,
the organized efforts to increase control over resources and regulative institu-
tions in given social situations on the part of groups and movements further
excluded from such practical control." Such a definition is simple and practi-
cal, it can serve as a springboard from which merits and limits of participation
in development can be assessed. These can best be analysed by classifying
the diverse forms of participation along several axes.

1.8 Mass Communication for Development

Mass Communication for development may be used to improve productivity,
equality and the standard of living in developing countries like Zimbabwe,
Zambia and many other developing countries. To achieve development, there
is need to improve access to information and to effectively structure the nec-
essary changes. The availability of a political infrastructure is necessary to
effect communication for development and development communication.
Boafo (1985) in Vijayan (1995) defines development communication as, "the
planned, conscious and systematized use of communication strategies and
processes to bridge informational and attitudinal gaps and to establish or sus-
tain a climate that favours the process of change and development."

Bringing world development to rural areas by radio and television is likely to

be challenged by equipment problems which are likely to reduce programme
effectiveness. It is a topic of international controversy and challenges organi-
zations like Pan African News Agency (PANA) who can only achieve their
objectives to the complex problems of social and economic development
through effective mass communication.
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14 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

1.8.1 Perlman's Article

The article describes differences in perception between public officials who
try to control development activities at the top and the urban poor at the
bottom. Such differences are likely to give rise to misconceptions about the
nature of people who reside in urban areas and development activities they
are engaged in. But the myth about these African urban dwellers was that
they were believed to be morally inferior and socially disorganized yet it was
the opposite. Housing for the poor takes a variety of forms and this is impor-
tant information for authorities' planning programmes for development. As a
development studies student, should this apply to urban and rural authorities
only or both urban and rural authorities? Is development then complete where
the rural housing development is neglected? This is food for thought. How
applicable would be this article be to your situation?

1.8.4 Siamwiza's Article

The Siamwiza Article examined the effectiveness of implementing the partici-
patory model (self-help) of development in Zambia. Implementation was
enhanced by government units and NGOs but still shortage of materials has
affected successful implementation in both rural and urban Zambia. To gen-
erate community participation, local needs and desire based projects and
democratic ways of participation are essential but usually lacking in most de-
velopment programmes as discovered by this article.

1.8.5 Leslie's Article

The Leslie Article provides critical evaluation of the positive and negative
effects of mass communication in developing societies. The article argues
that the mass media in developing countries are oriented toward promoting
consumption of goods and services. It further suggests that the mass media
disseminates western values, ideals and stereotypes and is often too expen-
sive. As a result, many developing countries have acquired expensive mass
communication technologies at the cost of deteriorating health and educa-
tional services. However, some have suggested that journalists should pro-
vide the lead in directing mass media towards development by redefining and
re-examining the link between underdevelopment and the foreign and devel-
opment community.

We all need at this moment, to look back at our mass media and analyse its
contributions to development. Are we satisfied by this development? If not,
so what? It is another food for thought. You shall encounter media studies in
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Zimbabwe Open University 15
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

one of the modules, please remember to revisit this sub-unit despite men-
tioned challenges. In Zambia the justification for shifting responsibility back
to people is termed Humanism. The term Communocracy explains it all that
is the stress on community responsibility. However, while some welcomed it
others questioned it as an imposition rather than an acceptable policy strategy
because governments were failing to meet their obligation.

1.9 Participation: Typology

As already alluded forms of participation are varied and we expect you to
make notes and discover these varied forms of participation

1.9.1 Participation in development: new avenues

The concept of community participation was embarked on and it took differ-
ent forms. Self- help became synonymous with rural community develop-
ment. Practical skills were stressed to promote individual self improvements
and uplift general living conditions. In support, Vijayan (1995) claims em-
phasis was placed on community participation as a method for forgoing a
mutually helping relationship with government providing most of the resources
while communities were expected to make token contributions to symbolize
involvement, but resource providers encountered challenges, thus could not
adequately provide the resources. However, the motivation of communities
to action would have been realized.

1.10 Summary
In this Unit we highlighted key aspects to development. We emphasized that
developmentalists should learn from other countries' mistakes, ideologies and
approaches. We encouraged the involvement of the concerned manpower.
Each country should be aware of all its resources in all its forms. Historical
aspects and events should be studied to understand encountered challenges
and achievement. This is likely to help you develop risk managed plans. It is
our wish that you shall do the same as our developmentalists.

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16 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Concepts and Issues in Development Studies

1.11 References
Clerk, J. (1995) Democratising Development: The Role of Voluntary Organi-
sation, London, Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Hyden G. (1983) No shortcuts to Progress: African Development Manage-
ment in Perspectives. London, Heinemann
Smith, A.D. (1971) Theories of Nationalism. London, Duck Worth
Vijayan, K. (Ed) (1995) Developing Areas - A Book of Reading and Re-
search. Oxford, Berg Publications Ltd.
World Bank (1980) World Development Report Washington, D.C: The World
Bank.

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18 Zimbabwe Open University
 2Unit Two

Changing Ideological and

Theoretical Perspectives on
Development

2.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we illustrate the phenomena behind the shift in both develop
ment ideology and development theory. Further, we discuss the implica
tion for development discourse of the recent tendency in Africa, as else
where in the world to consider the possibility of greater political openness.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ describe the major shifts in development ideology and theo-
retical perspectives
„ distinguish each approach from the other

2.2 Changing Perspectives on Development

Ideology
One of the striking things about the development debate in Africa is that of
architects. To a large extend, this reflects the relations of power in the world
and also the way the African political leaders have exacerbated their leader-
ship. Hyden, in Currey (1994:309), concludes that, as a result it is the inter-
national community that has helped set the African development agenda through
the ideological perspective of the donor community that Africa has had to
respond to. This international development debate over the last three or so
decades may be viewed as a spiral journey around two axes as follows:
„ Growth-equity, referring to the objectives of development
„ And management -participation, the means or methods of develop-
ment
Figure 2.1 below sketches the development ideology shift journey.

1955-1965 Growth

Central Government Trickle Down Enabling

Intermediary
Environment Organizations

Management

Basic Needs Small is Grassroots

Beautiful

Decentralized Organizations
Administration

1965-1975 Equity 1975-1985

Figure 2.1 shifts ideological perspectives on development 1975 - 1985 from

(Currey 1994).
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20 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Development

Figure 2.1 explains the four distinct phases through which the development
debate has passed. Inside the spiral, each phase is distinguished by a lead
concept that captured the ideological essence of each phase. Outside the
spiral is a key institutional actor indicating the predominant management mode.

However, by suggesting a linear progression the map disregards the com-

plexities of reality. The shift neither acknowledge the multiple zig-zag move-
ments in and out of blind alleys that have also characterized the debate in each
phase nor does it take into consideration the conflicts associated with the
shifts from one phase to another. It recognizes that learning takes place through
the circular move on Figure 2.1 which could have been more explained by a
spiral notion. Lessons learnt in one phase are carried over into the next phase
but there is no return to the sport as before although it may be revisited. We
discuss the basic features of each phase below.

2.2.1 "Trickle down" phase

Political architects influenced the "trickle down" phase as they drew together
post World War Two experiences to reconstruct Europe. Policy makers
were preoccupied with what could be done to emerge out of poverty. Meier
and Seers (1984) identify John Maynard Keynes as one of the key policy
makers of the time who made contributions toward poverty alleviation. Keynes
contradicted orthodox classical economics in support of an alternative ap-
proach to economic problems where governments played an important role
in the development process. The approach assigned a key role to the public
sector as generator of consumer demands. In this perspective, public policy
and public management were to be much more active forces in national eco-
nomics (Currey, 1994). All attributes of the welfare state like social security,
full employment, the political and social responsibility of government were
carried out into the perspectives on how to design development in the future.
By then Europe had experienced post war reconstruction using the Marshall
Plan (Keynesian tool) where they had convinced both conservative and lib-
eral politicians about the potential benefits of discretionary national economic
management. It resulted in lowering ideological guard of capitalism leading to
growing acceptance of such instruments of macroeconomic planning in 1950s
and early 1960s. It was a period when the West aggressively set against
anything that smacked of communism.

However, this ideological orientation fitted the political condition in Africa as

it began to liberate itself from the colonial yoke. The ideology shared the
optimism of the emerging generation of African political leaders. Their hope
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Zimbabwe Open University 21
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

was to have the state as a means to eradicate poverty and redress imbalances
caused by the colonial policy.

The idea that the state ought to serve as the engine of growth was still imma-
ture in Africa where the indigenous private sector was weak and under devel-
oped too.

Development in the ideological perspective of this first phase was tantamount

to modernization. However, the ambitions of Africa's political leaders were
to:
„ industrialise their countries
„ educate their populations
„ and provide social amenities associated with modern life
In order to promote development the state had to:
„ manufacture by engaging public capital and administering complex and
expensive-import-substituting policies
„ make large investments were necessary to upgrade medical and other
health facilities for the local population
Such a 'demand driven' strategy of development was to be financed through
foreign and the convergence of ideas and priorities between donors and re-
cipients; this gave the former legitimacy in designing the necessary strategies.
All those were cast in the language of growth and not equity. This was tar-
geted on special categories of people like the well-endowed and entrepre-
neurial types with the capacity to make a difference. For example in agricul-
ture, these were defined as 'progressive farmers' and these were expected to
take the lead in modernizing agriculture and encourage others to follow suit.

To ensure the trickle down effect took place, rural cooperatives were viewed
as key instruments. These were to provide credit and other inputs to inter-
ested and willing members under government supervision. Government ex-
tension staff provided back up services and specialists were to provide sup-
port for this agricultural modernization drive through research findings from
the agriculture research centre. However, Executive capabilities were gener-
ally low in African countries so, the role was a great challenge. There was no
other way but to opt for decentralization because of the limited trained man-
power. A new style of administration that met developments needs of the
new nations was advocated for rather than the conventional public adminis-
tration. One may say, this administration development programme refer to
the methods used by government to implement development programmes
(Riggs, 1970:6-7), Development administration according Schaffer (1969)
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22 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 2 Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Development

and Grant (1979) demands both flexibility and innovativeness unlike bureau-
cratic administration which was only control-oriented.

Activity 2.1
? 1. Describe the trickle down phase of development.
2. Suggest how this phase can be improved to enhance the
Zimbabwean development.
3. Discuss the importance of the shifts in the development to
different countries including Zimbabwe.

2.2.2 Basic needs

The basic phase began with the radicalization of the development debate that
took place in the second part of the 1960s. Political independence proved to
be much less than everybody had expected. Thus, state administered growth
was not enough to guarantee progress. Development was no longer
coterminous with growth. Political architects began to argue that growth with-
out equity was growth with development (Vijayan, 1995). Here, develop-
ment was redefined with this redefinition of the concept the progressive farmer
was abandoned in favours of the poor peasant. The Trickle down approach
was considered no longer adequate. The development debate now stresses
the importance of a determined political will and a strong benevolent govern-
ment to carry out re-distributive policies. Governments willing to give priority
redistribution in favour of the poorer population received special attention by
international community.

There was growth on equity which meant greater support of social develop-
ment. As a result, governments and donors then shifted their investment to
education and health on a massive scale. Thus, the phase saw the introduc-
tion to universal primary education in many African countries and the rapid
expansion of primary health care facilities. This was an attempt to fulfil the
assumption that without satisfaction of basic needs, the poor people cannot
participate in development. This was in turn, hoped to entice people to
participate more fully in the national development process.

The redefinition of development had important repercussions for its manage-

ment like the mobility to perform the expected role of innovator. On the other
hand the presumed and prescribed behaviour of a new public servant had
never materialized. It was difficult to put in place the development adminis-
tration than expected. The second phase therefore, opened the door to ad-
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

ministrative reform. Efforts were made to decentralize authority and to inte-

grate management structures for development. Shortages of manpower to
such efforts were no longer viewed as a constraint, as sufficient numbers of
trained African civil servants were now available.

Participation featured in the political rhetoric to justify the reforms was largely
administrative. Also, political authority was not delegated to autonomous lo-
cal authorities. In countries like Tanzania, such authorities were abolished.
Thus authority came to rest in the hands of government- appointed - officials
in regions, provinces and districts. According to this form of decentralisationn
- deconcentration gave more clout to field administrative but left government
spread thin over the widening range of development matters.

Another type of administrative innovation in this phase was integrated devel-

opment programmes. These helped bolster the executive capacity in the field,
increased the management load and also reinforced the need for develop-
ment planning.

2.2.3 Small is beautiful phase

Both first and second phases had a strong belief in government as the key
institutional actor, responsible for growth and even broader ranges of devel-
opment activities. Both were marked by government control over the provi-
sion of inputs for development to reinforce the notion that it was to come from
above and to be centrally directed.

The gap between the second and third phases is more pronounced. It marks
conditions brought by the first oil crisis in 1973 and the reliance on govern-
ment to modernize Africa and to reduce poverty on the continent. Criticism
was then directed against the original modernization ideology and its socialist
successor of the second phase. The positivist spirit was put under question.
However, neither political mobilization nor public management was seen as
the answer to Africa's development challenges. Although producers were
heavily taxed that did not enhance the ability to implement development pro-
grammes. Instead most governments in Africa alienated their people.

The publication of the World Bank's report (1981) on Accelerated Develop-

ment in Sub Saharan Africa exposed the above discussed evidence. This
report made a strong case for 'rolling back' the state in the interest of private
and voluntary initiatives. Poor quality public services were observed that led
people to disengage from the state. People began to recognize the signifi-
cance of their own contribution and challenge the legacy that development
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Unit 2 Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Development

comes about through central initiatives that Keynesian perspective supported

too. Even political architects turned to Fritz Schumacher's views that small is
beautiful, that is, small scale and private efforts can achieve what large scale
government bureaucracies had failed to do (Currey, 1994).

As a result, one could no longer view development management exclusively

as a government domain but to acknowledge that it also involved other insti-
tutions/people in society who either participated freely or voluntarily or in
form of self help, private or cooperatives. The 1980s saw a reallocation of
responsibilities to grassroots organizations. For example, water supply previ-
ously the onus to community based associations. Similarly so to soil conser-
vation and tree planting but ordinary people like women spearhead this grain
movement as observed by Harrison (1986). Alternatives to primary health
care included the encouragement of traditional healing and care and use of
trained traditional birth attendants.

In the economic sector, structural adjustments in greater market orientation

took place with World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF).

2.2.4 Enabling environment phase

The phase acknowledged that "small is beautiful" but suggested that better
achievement could only be obtained and make a difference to development if
incorporated into broader institutional networks. Controversies prevail on
the issue as some suggest local efforts cannot necessarily expect much sup-
port and encouragement. Thus, the international community stresses the need
for new support structure outside government. On the other hand there is
growing recognition that local seeds, that is local initiatives can flourish and
become viable alternatives to the many hybrid solutions that have been im-
planted with foreign assistance in the earlier phases (Currey, 1994). This
would be on condition that the government would be ready to create an envi-
ronment in which the alternatives are allowed to grow.

An enabling environment is an open pluralist environment which provides

conditions in which economic and political restructuring can take place in a
constructive fashion. However, in spite of all the post-independence rhetoric
in support of self-reliance, Africa still lags behind Asia and Latin America in
promoting greater self reliance on domestic resources at different levels of
society. Key actors in this effort are intermediary like non-government or-
ganizations, with the ambition to assist groups of people who fail to obtain
support. Usually, the intermediaries provide incentives for local initiatives
through the provision of credits, technical or managerial/advice. Unlike gov-
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Zimbabwe Open University 25
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

ernment, the NGOs tend to have a deliberate strategy where some benefici-
aries end up developing a dependency syndrome where they would do any-
thing the donor asks without future considerations.

Another challenge in Africa stems from the relative weakness in both political
and managerial terms of Africa NGOs. International NGOs still dominate in
the African scene. Churches with international connections like Catholics,
Anglican and Lutheran have become active in the development field. These
churches have also included monitoring of human rights violation as part of
their mandate. This is on the assumption that an enabling environment is
impossible without respect by their government for the rights of citizens. In
some areas, the era saw privatization of some of the social services. Today in
Africa, development management is increasingly being shared by a broaden-
ing range of public, private and voluntary organisations. This growing institu-
tional pluralism according to Currey (1994) poses a special challenge to Af-
rican governments which have grown used to a monopoly of power. The
reluctance was met with challenges from the organizations. It is observed that
the promise of majority rule in South Africa has boosted the advocates of
greater democracy in the rest of Africa. As a result the notion of an enabling
environment is likely .to remain an ideological guide-line for the next few years.

Activity 2.2
? 1. Explain of the phase "small is beautiful" in relation to devel-
opment.
2. What is an enabling environment?
3. Identify factors you can borrow from the enabling environ-
ment ideology to develop Zimbabwe.

2.3 Shifts in Development Theory

Vijayan (1995) proposes that in the same way as development ideology is
determined by different ends-means combinations, development theory evolves
within a demarcated conceptual territory. Such questions may be asked, 'is it
essentially characterized by integration or conflict theories have come to dif-
fer to answer this question. The second concern is the perceived native of
social action'. Is it voluntaristic the result of independent social actors or is it
determined by structures within which individuals are effectively confined?
Social Science theories have reacted differently too to these questions. De-
velopment theory, has borrowed a lot from the conceptual map to which
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Unit 2 Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Development

attempts to answer the above two questions give rise. The figure indicates a
shift in development ideology which confirms that auditors take from archi-
tects due to the shift from one perspective to another.

Structural Functionalism Integration New Institutionalism

Structural Voluntaristic

Neo-Marxist Political Neo-liberal Political

Economy Economy

1965-1975 Conflict 1975-1985

Figure 2.2Shift in Development Theory 1955-90

2.3.1 Structural functionalism

Here the economists who came to serve as principal advisors to the political
architects of the first phase gave birth to development economics. It was the
sociologist and political scientists who were involved in constructing the first
generation of development theory. Non-Marxist social science, Talcott Par-
sons in Sociology and Gabriel Almond in Political Science became founders
structural functionalism. It was meant to be a counter point to the universalist
ambitions of Marxist theory. Structural functionalism was built on the as-
sumption that development is a linear evolution involving structural differen-
tiation and cultural secularization using Western democracy as the ultimate
stage. From prevailing development ideology it borrowed that development
was equivalent to modernization, that is anything traditional was backward
and had to be abandoned. This positivist assumption permeated the 1950s
and early 1960s when countries in Africa and Asia became politically inde-
pendent.

By the mid 1960s it was realized that development would not come easily as
proposed by the structural functionalism. The system was found promoting
frustration rather than development, a lot of unfulfilled public expectations.
The political regime then found itself more engaged in containing and control-
ling these frustrations rather than promoting development structured function-
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

alism was highly criticize leading to question its role, thus future development
theory had to seek its inspiration from other sources and that gave birth to
New-Marxist political economy.

2.3.2 Neo-Marxist political economy

Neo-Marxist thinking argued that structural functionalism was naïve in as-
suming that development is best pursued in conditions of social harmony or
equilibrium. It advocated for a revolution to take place that would aim at
overturning structural constraints.

Neo-Marxists stressed the need for the poorer countries of the world to
emancipate themselves from their dependence on the richest nations. It fur-
ther suggested that countries in the periphery of such a system are bound to
remain underdeveloped because of the economy strength of the countries
controlling the core of that same system. Influential advocators were Andre
Gunder Frank (1969) and Walter Rodney (1972). The dependency per-
spective remained strong until mid 1970s. Class analysis followed scrutiny of
the role of the state in development which they saw as a tool of oppression
and exploitation.

2.3.3 Neo -liberal political economy

In the later part of the 1970s, the neo-liberal rational choice theory impacted
on social science thinking about development. It was contrary to both struc-
tural functionalism and Neo-Marxist political economy. This new theory
stressed the importance of individual actors but did not hold on to a structural
macro perspective. It stressed the scope of action that exists in the micro
context and considered development as an aggregate outcome of multitude
of individuals' decisions. It emerged in the light of the frustrations experi-
enced with Marxists as intellectual auditors (Meier and Dudley, 1984 and
Currey, 1984).

Marxists answers to the hard development questions proved less helpful es-
pecially after the revolutionary fervour began to die down. People wanted
answers which showed that it was possible to achieve it without having to
wait for such rare events as genuine social upheavals. It attempted to incor-
porate an institutional perspective into the analysis of decisions but was criti-
cized because it was done without questioning the basic premise of utilitarian
rationality. As a result people began to move away from the new liberal field.

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Unit 2 Changing Ideological and Theoretical Perspectives on Development

2.3.4 The new institutionalism

Etzioni (1988) called for a re-examination of the concept of rationality diving
the years of new-liberal hegemony. The period emphasized the new devel-
opment theory which retained a voluntarist perspective and argued that social
action was integrative and aimed at going beyond self interest.

However, it is not yet clear where this new theoretical perspective on devel-
opment will end up though it focuses on an enabling environment. It provides
an opportunity for moving beyond the Neo-Marxist perspective without hav-
ing to adopt the methodological assumptions of either functionalism or utili-
tarianism. The new institutionalist perspective with its emphasis on social and
cultural variable offers the foundation on which a genuine African perspective
may develop. Such a perspective would include what is peculiar to the Afri-
can condition, yet relate to broader theory in such a way as to allow meaning-
ful comparisons.

Activity 2.3
? 1. Justify the shifts in development theories.
2. Critically analyse each shift with reference to Zimbabwean
development.
3. What aspect of development would you put in your devel-
opment plan as a developmentalist? Why?

2.4 Summary
In this Unit, we identified the dynamics of the development debate by distin-
guishing between development architects and auditors. Shifts have taken
place in both theory and ideology side by side and there is much spill over
form one to the other. Perspectives on development theory change because
of an internal dynamic. The debate and the source of change is critical in
perspective particularly of Africa. We noted that one of the problems with
African academics is the lack of appreciation, denial of the opportunity to
make a genuine contribution to either their country's, development or that of
the international community. Today, there is an opportunity to change the
state of affairs because there is a growing need for an enabling environment
and pressures too. As Currey (1994) observes this is the challenge for all
who study the African continent. However, it is particularly relevant to Afri-
can scholars with ambition to make a contribution to both the continent's
development and to the progress of the social sciences.
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2.5 References
Currey, J. (1994) African Perspective on Development London (Eds)
Himmelslvand, Kinyanjui K and Mbuvingn E.
Meier, G.M. and Dudley H.S (1984) Pioneer in Development. (Eds)New
York Oxford University Press
Riggs, F. (1970) Frontiers of Development Administrator. Durham, NC.
Duke University Press.
Etzioni, A (1988). The Moral Dimension: Toward a New Economics. New
York, The Free Press.

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30 Zimbabwe Open University
 3Unit Three

Development Theories

3.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we introduce you to development theories with their relevance
to development studies. We view development as fairly an old but highly
dynamic concept which you need to understand from a theoretical per-
spective as well as practical stand point and in its various contexts. Develop-
ment like any other social sciences subject has such a rich historical legacy in
the theoretical work that we discuss in this Unit.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Development as a phenomenon is as old as human existence and extends to

as far back as early traceable human society. The theories we focus on help
us understand and explain some of its thematic processes. However, despite
the vast knowledge and contribution from the theory proponents, this Unit
only outline four theories out of the many. You are therefore encouraged to
read widely so as to get a deep understanding and theory appreciation for
progressive thematic processes comprehension in development studies. Be-
fore we proceed to the discussion of the theories involved, we explain how
theories can help us understand certain issues.

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this Unit you should be able to:
„ explain what a theory is
? „ outline the importance of theory in Developmental Studies
„ describe development theories and relate them to Develop-
mental Studies
„ discuss the criticisms levelled against each theory

3.2 What is a Theory?

There is no universally accepted definition of theory but literature indicates
that there is a common ground on recurring elements of the definitions. Corrider
(1985) defines theory as a coherent group of assumptions and propositions
that can explain data. Nelson Jones in Rukuni and Maunganidze (2000:6),
maintain that theory is a formulation of the underlying principles of certain
observations made on particular practical occurrences in a natural way and
information about the observed occurrences is systematically organized and
analyzed over a reasonable period. Todaro (1997) defines theory in eco-
nomic terms as a generally accepted body of concepts and principles about
economic behaviour which, if properly formulated and correctly arranged
can help us to understand and explain the workings of an economic system. It
can be understood as simplification of reality where the verification is made to
establish or whether or not there are general rules that govern the occur-
rences.

Precisely, a theory is an organisation of generally accepted interdependent

facts, concepts and principles of a phenomenon concerned with explaining

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32 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Development Theories

what happens and the way it happens and what influence underlies the whole
phenomenon.

There can be variations in the terms used in the definitions given but a close
analysis of definitions will reveal that there are common positions in the agree-
ment that theory involves assumptions, propositions, formulations, organized
facts which should be verified and accepted. There are several definitions of
theories but for the purpose of this discussion, we believe these definitions
give enough few definitions. However, you are at liberty and are encouraged
to read wide so that they will be fully equipped with the relevant knowledge
about theories.

3.3 Why Do We Study Theories in Development

Studies?
In Development Studies certain occurrences have been and are still noted
where in some worries and desires to understand what could be causing such
occurrences people, gather and verify certain information about such events
and make inferences and conclusions about the underlying influences. The
basis of such inquiries is the employment of theories. Once the verifications
establish any facts, these can be generalized over an array of similar occur-
rences to explain how and why they occur.

These theories guide us in a number of ways to think systematically on trying

to understand certain issues in development. The richness in the researches
made to come up with such theories helps us understand issues as widely as
they apply through out the length and breadth of the global society and proc-
esses. A wide knowledge and variation of the theories benefits us as we un-
derstand issues from different stand points since we do not limit ourselves to
one theory understanding. Many theories are formulated from different con-
texts and set-ups such that critics arise on the background and applicability of
each theory across the board. However, the general explanation and under-
standing of the phenomenon can be understood from such work.

3.4 Modernization Theory

The Modernization Theory in Development Studies is historically the work of
several proponents. Among the early scholars of this school of thought, Rostow
and Organski contributed much to the development of the theory between
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

1950 and 1960. The theory is relevantly used in many context of develop-
ment like agriculture, politics, religion, economics, environment and many other
fields. Its general focus is on transformation, making it relevant in explaining
some of the progressive issues in development. According to Leeroy and
Tatenhove (1993) Modernization Theory is used as an analytical tool or theory
of social change and political progressiveness. Tipps (1973) suggests that the
theory is useful in the comparative study of societies where in underdevel-
oped countries had to aspire to be like developed countries.

3.4.1 Features of the Modernization Theory

In this subsection, we outline the features of the Modernization Theory.
„ The theory suggests that development is a defined linear evolutionary
process that should follow the stages and the way developed countries
developed. The assumption of the theory is centred on the fact that
development is a series of successive stages through which all coun-
tries must pass through happening through a process of diffusion and
trickle down effect. Explaining underdevelopment, this approach at-
tributes it to the international and domestic power relationships, institu-
tional and structural economic rigidities (Todaro 1977).
„ The theory focuses on growth in gross national production through capital
accumulation, national resources, technical and population growth as-
suming that development means a high national income and measured
in terms of national economies. Hence it is in other quarters viewed as
an economic theory.
„ Development involves transformation of individual or societies through
assimilation of modern values wherein developed countries should aid
developing countries to learn from their own progress.

3.4.2 Stages Of Modernization Theory

We now focus on the stages of the Modernization Theory.

According to Rowstow and Organski (1968) people pass through develop-

ment, stages as shown below:

Traditional Take-off Drive Society of

Conservative Stage to High Mass
Society Maturity Consumption
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34 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Development Theories

3.4.3 The traditional conservative society

In development, the traditional conservative society stage is a state of society
that is basically subsistence in production characterised largely by peasant
agrarian societies dominated by absence of modern economic and techno-
logical structures. The society resists change and characterized by kinship
structures. It has a closed system and fails to appreciate external and new
methods of production. It is a society that uses primitive technology for pro-
duction and of little or no social spatial mobility. Production is far from consti-
tuting surplus for recapitalization.

3.4.4 The Pre-take off

This is a stage of development where a society appreciates and develops new
mentality on development. The subsistence approach to production is shad-
ing and there is intention or attempt to move onwards. Such a society is char-
acterized by permissive policies and acceptance of external ideas on eco-
nomic and social planning although nothing much is evident on the ground.
What mainly differentiate the stage from traditional society stage are the atti-
tudes towards development

3.4.5 Take-off stage

The take-off stage explains a society that is geared and that makes effort to
change its economic and social policies as well as methods by removing de-
velopment obstacles. There is improved saving and surplus production for
recapitalization. There are autonomous development policies that are charac-
terized by foreign consultation to improve the society subjects' livelihoods
and the state of the economy. Clubs are formed and people co-operate in
many ways to improve the state of economy as well as articulating relevant
social changes.

3.4.6 Drive to maturity

In the drive to maturity stage the society has a secondary economy with high
spatial and economic mobility. It is a state of society where an economy is
supported by skilled and progressive production. Industrialization and ur-
banization unfold promoting high surplus production. Sound economic and
social policies based on regional or international co-operation and standards
are implemented. Investments and savings take the centre stage.

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3.4.7 Society of high mass consumption

The society of high mass consumption stage of development is characterized
by massive capital accumulation and sound economic and social polices. This
is a rich and self-reliant society where there is very high spatial, economic and
social mobility as well as secondary economic activities.

Activity 3.1
? 1. Outline the modernization theory and discuss its relevance
to development studies.
2. With reference to development studies explain the impor-
tance of theory.

3.4.8 Goals and application

Bernstein (2003) analyzed the theory and made some conclusions. The mod-
ernization theory emphasizes transformation trajectories for economic, social
forms and political interventions. In development every person is regarded as
an important stake holder who participates in one way or another in develop-
mental and social issues. A transformed social picture must be uplifted for
progressive growth of attitudes towards change. Although one of the criti-
cisms of the modernization theory includes its accusation for making artificial
distinctions between traditional and modern societies, it relevantly differenti-
ates the positions and statuses of societies in development. It educates that
development is a game of all people in a society who should think and partici-
pate in the economy and development of the state. The theory upholds that
societies vary from context to context and take note of internal and external
prohibitive structural and institutional rigidities as some of the causes of under
development. In development studies certain cultural and institutional rigidities
should be broken if meaningful development is to be achieved. Some places
have failed to develop because cultural beliefs central in those places prohib-
ited development initiatives. Above all, certain cultural and institutional laws
are prohibitive for communities to participate in social and economic devel-
opment.

The modernization theory explains a society of envy, an affluent and self-

reliant society. It directs development to be focused and target to achieve
such development levels and transformation of some cultural rigidity. It at-
tributes that lack of development is a result of cultural traits and lack of ap-
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36 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Development Theories

preciation of Eurocentric approaches to development. The African traditional

societies are characterized by prohibitive cultural policies and are accused of
barring the progress, growth and integration in the larger economy. The theory
also advocates that societies must have bias on comparative advantages where
they should concentrate on resources they have in abundance including hu-
man resources both men and women. The theory also dwells on the centrality
of the state in the development process which should create a conducive
investment climate than participating in investment itself. When an open in-
vestment climate has been created with equal opportunities to all participants
without discriminating between men and women, the drama of development
would be considered rolling from scene to scene.

3.4.9 Criticism of the Modernisation Theory (MT)

The theory has been heavily criticized for its bias towards European way of
doing things. It is Eurocentric and hence not fully applicable to countries in
Africa. Tipps (1973) looked at the Modernization Theory as a strong frame-
work for development but criticized that it does not appreciate that situation
differ. According to Kiro (1985), the stages of the Modernization theory are
unique and not clear. The starting points and ending points are not particularly
distinguished. Dube (1988) in his analysis of the Modernization Theory ar-
gues that countries cannot follow a similar way of development considering
that they have different population sizes, territorial grounds, material and hu-
man resources and hence cannot start from the same point. The theory is also
criticized for its lack of empirical evidence since there is no sufficient historical
evidence that all countries started from the traditional stage as it is defined in
the theory and moved in the linear stages. This leaves the developing coun-
tries with little or nothing to learn from the developed countries.

3.5 Dependence Theory

The dependence theory is yet another important development theory which is
considered to be a reaction to earlier developed theories in development.
Among the proponents of this theory, Hensinger (1949) worked much in its
development. Prebisch worked with Baran in (1957) to further develop it.

Before we look at the details of the theory, let us first understand the concept
of dependency as defined by dependency theorists. Dependency is defined
by Dosantos (1971) as an historical condition which shapes a certain struc-
ture of the world economy such that it favours some countries to the detri-
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

ment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate econo-
mies a situation in which the economy of certain group of countries is condi-
tioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which their
own is subjected. Sunkel (1969) looks at dependency as an explanation of
the economic development of a state in terms of the external influences politi-
cal, economic and cultural on national development policies.

Several assumptions are made

The premises of the dependency theory are its argument on the already pre-
sented facts by the modernization theory. It assumes that development de-
pends on the relationship between the centre and the periphery, where the
centre or the core are the first world and developed nations while the periph-
ery refers to the third world and developing states. Dosantos (1969) defined
the dependency theory as a situation in which the economies of certain coun-
tries are conditioned by the department and expansion of another economy
to which the former is the subject. The theory is focused on the notion that
third world countries should be financially dependent on first world countries
to develop. It predicts that resources flow from a periphery of poor and
under developed states to a 'core' of wealthy states enriching the later at the
expense of the former. The theory's central contention is that poor countries
are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor countries are inte-
grated in to the 'world system'.

The Dependence Theory rejects the notion that underdeveloped countries

are not merely primitive versions of developed countries but have unique fea-
tures and structures of their own and importantly are in the same situation of
being the weaker members in the world market economy where as the de-
veloped countries were never in an analogous position.

The dependency theory suggests that this has created an exploitative relation-
ship between economies where the dominant ones expand themselves in a
way which make the underdeveloped economies constitutes a system that
generates wealthy for few and poverty for many.

The metropolitan relationship between the developing and developed coun-

tries focus more on class analysis, sharing of resources equally and movement
of trade from developing to developed countries. This does not only affect
international economies but also penetrates every state of economy, politics,
religion and all forms of social structure and order. Life of the general people
is not spared by such a manipulative relationship. Leys (1999) explains that in
dependency theory, the wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of de-
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Unit 3 Development Theories

pendence by various and multifaceted means involving economies, media

control, politics, banking and finance, education, culture, sports and all as-
pects of human resources development including recruiting and training of
workers. The dominant nations counter attempts by dependent nations to
resist their influence by economic sanctions and or use of military force.

Presbich (1957) urges that the relationship between the centre and the pe-
riphery lays the inability of the periphery to develop an autonomous and dy-
namic process of technological innovations and thus introducing an interna-
tional division of labour where skilled manpower is concentrated at the core
while unskilled workers are more at the periphery. It is further argued that
poverty of countries in the periphery is not because they are not integrated as
is often argued by free market economists but because of how they are inte-
grated into the system. Todaro (1977) views the dependency theory as a new
Marxist and neo colonial approach to economic development.

3.5.1 Implications of the Dependency Theory

The theory promotes the issue of domestic industries and manufactured goods
by imposing subsidies to protect domestic industries. Thus poor countries
can be enabled to sell their own products rather than simply exporting raw
materials.

According to Perroux et al (2003), some governments, basing on the de-

pendency theory have forbidden foreign companies and individuals from owning
or operating properties that draw on resources of the country.

The dependency theory has promoted nationalism where some governments

have forcibly taken over foreign owned companies on behalf of the state in
order to keep profits within the country.

3.5.2 Criticism of the Dependency Theory

The theory's promotion of nationalisation of companies has resulted in high
rate of corruption because of lack of transparency in the public sector.

The centre and periphery concept create an environment where there is lack
of competition since every competitive section of the economy fall under one
control.

The theory has failed to provide a framework of ideas and to address the
welfare of developing countries.
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

It is suspiciously linked with the Modernization Theory in that it focuses on

development in economic terms and not the welfare of the majority of devel-
opment.

Dube (1988) accuses the dependency theory for promoting brain drain due
to irrelevant educational systems and through attractive functional rewards at
the centre as well as capital flight where there is no development undertaken
at the periphery which is the source of capital resource but at the core.

3.6 Basic Needs Theory

The failure of Modernization and Dependency Theories to focus on people
and their emphasis on property has been viewed as one of the reasons for the
rise of Basic Needs Approach to development. This is a theory that empha-
sises mainly on men centred than property centred. The theory according to
Conyers (1984), discusses development as improving the state of national
economy to meet the basic needs of its people. The basic needs approach is
based on the assumption that development was not meant to develop things
but men. It can be understood as a paradigm shift from property centred to
men centred approaches. Development according to this theory is conceived
as a state of human well being rather than the state of the national economy.
Its main primary concern was outlined at the Concohoc Declaration in 1974
human basic needs were such as food, shelter, accommodation and many
others as well as the quality of human life were made the centre of develop-
ment. These ideas can only be achieved through attending to the social well
being of people, redistribution of wealth, quality of political structures and the
state of the physical environment. Kaunda (1972) preferred to call it the hu-
manism approach, looking at some of its premises like removing exploitation
and the extent to which it advocated for the basic needs to be met. Develop-
ment is for man and starts with man and men's needs are paramount.

The approach calls for three main considerations. Firstly, it is concerned with
the satisfaction of minimum family requirements food, shelter, clothing and
basic household goods. Secondly it focuses on the establishment of the basic
social services (public transport, health, education and safe water) mass par-
ticipation in making decisions that affect them.

Criticism of the Basic Needs Theory

The assumption of this theory is only applicable where there are adequate
financial resources. The approach suggests the creation of employment so
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40 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 3 Development Theories

that people would provide basic needs for themselves. Therefore it is relevant
to industrialized countries. Dube (1988) acknowledged that this theory is not
sustainable in the long run due to lack of resources. It is also accused of failing
to promote industrialization and economic growth.

Activity 3.2
? 1. Compare and contrast the modernization and dependency
theory in development.
2. Discuss the relevance of either the Modernization or De-
pendency theories to development process.

3.7 The State Theory

It sounds very irrelevant to include the state theory in development theory and
in some disciplines this has created serious debate. After this justification we
hope you will appreciate its inclusion. All the theories discussed above are
based on state control, economy and many more aspects of national interest
and its subjects. You must appreciate that the State is yet another complex
system which has responsibility and authority to accept or deny any develop-
ment initiatives and policies which does not serve the interests of its people.
On the other hand, the State has a mandate to provide relevant environments
and opportunities, policies security and all basic services in the best interest of
its subjects. Inter-state relationships should be propagated not for the elite
administrators of the State whether political or economic leaders but the gen-
eral populace. Precisely, the mandate of the State briefly explained is the
grand summary of development. Knowing the process of the state allows us
to factor in the State Theory Development Theory without any slightest doubt.
This knowledge about the vast processes of the State are summed up in the
state theory. Summarily, this is why the state theory finds position in the devel-
opment theories.

The state and its functions are spelt out in the political theory which defined it
in terms of territoriality, sovereignty, institution of rule, nationality and law.
This theory is more common in the Political Science and Sociology. The theory
proponents defined the state as the set of organisation invested with authority
to make binding decisions for people and organisation jurisdicially located in
a particular territory and to implement these decisions using if necessary force,
According to Theda etal (1992). It is simply a bureaucracy and an instrument
of domination and a co-operate actor as well. The state exists in its own right
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

and processes interests of its social network of people. The contemporary

schools of thought view the state in terms of the forces and interest it is pre-
sumed to serve as an autonomous actor in the political and economic realms.
According to Berg and Whitaker (1986), what primarily determines the state
behaviour include hegemony, security, autonomy, legitimating and revenue.
Let us explain these determinants of the state.

Hegemony is the establishment of a supreme government law and authority

over its territory. According to Berg and Whitaker (1986), the State, after
establishing its supreme law and authority, its force and power will descend
heavily on those individuals or groups who openly flout its authority.

Security
The state takes priority in its revenue and resource allocation with the agen-
cies that enforce internal security and external defence at its core all in favour
of the national security and the people's welfare.

Autonomy
Autonomy as a determinant of the state represents independence as the fun-
damental norm of true statehood as the doctrine of sovereignty asserts. The
internal assertion of autonomy by the state is exhibited by serving national or
public interest where the subjects of a state enjoy a freedom of association,
expression and participatory involvement in state and public activities

Legitimation
Berg and Whitaker (1986) explained legitimation as a determinant of the state.
It refers to the establishment and accumulation of power and authority both of
which are legitimate. Compliance to the perceived legitimate originations of
the state is expected to be voluntary. Where there is deliberate resistance, the
state may sometimes use force and fear to achieve this fundamental aspect of
the state for order and harmony in the state processes but however, in the
interest of the public.

Revenue is also one very important imperative of the state craft. McGreevy
(1980) maintains that the state organizes its sources and resources for rev-
enue accumulation, starting with internal initiatives. It can choicely, affiliate to
regional and international monetary and financial bodies and volunteer com-
panies. This is then the only possible sponsorship of the state activities and
development programmes.
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Unit 3 Development Theories

Relevance to development
The State theory explicitly explains the State and its functions in brief but what
remains outstanding is its relevance to development. The State is the only
major facilitative component of activities in development processes. The state
whose political, economic and international policy networks are sound cou-
pled with public co-operate autonomy accommodates with easy develop-
ment initiatives. The independence of a state usually is the major land mark of
development especially when focusing on the colonial history of third world
states where discrimination, deprivation of access to means of production
and disregard of human rights characterised the state of affairs. The state's
autonomous political culture and economic policies are the basis of develop-
ment. Where these are permissive, citizens have affordable access to educa-
tion, health, shelter, food, security, justice and communicative representation
which are the cornerstones of the development dialogue. Todaro (1977)
maintains that the government support is the sine quo non-for development
plans where the country's political leadership development a central concern.
The permissive role of the State outlines its unparalleled relevance to devel-
opment.

3.8 Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development is yet another important idea in development stud-
ies that just grown very popular in a few decades ago. Sustainable develop-
ment cannot be understood as an established theory but a development ap-
proach that has its positions in development process. Understand that
sustainability is a concept that has its distinct meaning even out of develop-
ment process but let us understand this concept in development.

According to United Nations (2005) sustainable development is a concept

that postulates that the usage of resources should meet the demands of peo-
ple while preserving the environment so that the needs can be met not only in
present but also in future generations. Precisely, it is defined as the manner of
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The propositions of sustainable development

Basically, this approach emphasises the sustainability of the environment,
economy and social aspects of a society. This approach to development can
be understood in three parts where it proposes that:
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Let us look at each of these closely. The interference with environment through
development programmes should consider that the same environment is for
the present generation as well as future generation. It must be developed in
such a manner that will keep it capable to sustain the future generation's needs.
In the environmental aspect such issues like the global warming are topical.
The development in agricultural context, industrial context and any other con-
text should not increase global warming, fuel environmental degradation since
the environment will not be able to sustain life in future. In the same vain, the
carrying capacity of the natural system should be conservative. The green
development is part of the environmental sustainability.

Second premise is that in development, this is concerned with the economic

polices and business practices as implemented by sates and their govern-
ments that they should be participatory and able to sustain life today and
remain sound enough to cater for the future generations. Economic activities
in agriculture, mining and several other contexts should be cross sectoral and
integrate the environment and society into development processes regulated
in a conservative manner.

Finally is the socio-political sustainability. Here it is viewed as part of the triple

bottom line development of all aspects of human life which must be sustained
by resolving all the conflicts between the various competing goals and in-
volves the pursuit of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social
equity. The social and political planning of nations and communities should be
participatory and satisfactorily meet the needs of people today while con-
servative enough to sustain future generations. In sight of political activities the
present generation should find accommodation and the same political struc-
ture should consider the needs of the future generations. The cultural and
social structure today must also reciprocate all other conservative approaches
to accommodate the present and the future generations.

3.9 Summary
In this Unit we discussed a number of development theories. There are sev-
eral development theories which are in use today and are not discussed here.
You need to take a kin interest in them for a wider theory appreciation.

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Unit 3 Development Theories

3.10 References
Amartya S. (2000) East and West: The research of reason. New York Re-
view Books, New York
Cowen R.M. and Shenton R.W. (1996) Doctrine of Development. Routledge
Dos Santos T. (1977) The structure of dependency. Porter Sargeant. Bos-
ton.
Ferraro V. (1996) Dependency: An introduction, Mount Holyoke College.
South Hadley.
Frank A.G. (1972) The Development Theory: An introduction to the analysis
f complex change. Wiley. Black well.
Sunkel O. (1969) National Development Policy and External Dependency in
Latin America, Vol. 6
Todaro M.P. (1977) Economies for Developing Countries New York Longman

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46 Zimbabwe Open University
 4Unit Four

Economic Development

4.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we examine the causes of economic growth and how these
manifest themselves in various dimensions at a country level. We focus on
paying attention and understanding economic measures of growth like
Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product and how these have
an overall impact on the process of Development. We examine Rostow's
ideas on the stages of economic growth as well as their applicability in the
developing country contexts.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

4.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ discuss the causes of economic growth
„ examine Rostow's stages of economic growth and their ap-
plicability to developing countries
„ discuss the usefulness of modernisation theory to develop-
ing country contexts
„ explain the impact of Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
on developing country's economic development

4.2 Economic Development

According to Weeks (1986, 353), "economic development in its broadest
sense means a sustained increase in the socio-economic welfare of a popula-
tion". In short, the result is that economic development should be seen as
generally referring to the rising standards of living of a population. Human
beings are a vital resource for economic development. Writers like Hoogvelt
(1967, 5) have argued that development can be seen as a process of induced
economic growth and change in an internationally stratified world. Looking at
development in the context of economic development therefore means view-
ing a country as intentionally moving from a state of being a low income
economy to a high income economy.

4.3 Rostow's Ideas on Economic Development

Many theories of development have tended to equate development with eco-
nomic growth. Rostow (1960) suggests that countries with traditional socie-
ties could evolve by starting in a stage from the undeveloped and traditional
stage and through one path /linear process to change their societies to a stage
of modern, rational and economically developed society. As a result Rostow
identified different stages, variables and processes through which a society
develops from traditional to modern: These stage are namely: traditional soci-
ety, precondition for take off, take off, the drive to maturity and the stage of
high mass consumption.

The economic development of Western Europe was not strictly an internal

affair. They benefited from their economic exploitation of the resources of the
South they had colonised thus economic development of industrialised Eu-
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48 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Economic Development

rope in the process distorted and destroyed the economic, technical devel-
opment and cultural coherence of countries they ruled.

External forces continued to be a hindrance to the development of the South.

In the 1980s, growth stopped/reversed in most of Africa and Latin America
due to the oil shocks of the 1970s (Webster, 1990). The oil price related
recession in the North led to increased interest rates on the loans they had
advanced to the South and reductions in orders for commodities that the
South exported. As a result, the South could not service its debts and had no
choice but to turn to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In return, for
negotiating their outstanding debts the IMF required "restructuring" of the
debtor countries' economies by increasing exports, letting market forces pre-
vail, cutting back on government spending on health, education and subsidies.
By the mid 1980s, instead of technologically advanced countries transferring
resources to facilitate the economic development of technologically less ad-
vanced countries, there was a negative flow of resources from the South to
the North. The living standards of the poor declined sharply in all countries
with debt problems. Export earnings fell as interest rates increased. The ef-
fects of the 1991 Gulf War worsened an already bad situation for the South
through increased oil prices and reduced employment possibilities for their
labour (Mody, 1991, 17).

Activity 4.1
?
1. How applicable is Rostow's ideas on economic develop-
ment to the process of development in Zimbabwe? Give
reasons for your answer.

4.4 Modernisation Theory

According to Hoogvelt (1997), modernisation theories were problem- solv-
ing and action oriented theories of social change and economic development.
President Truman, in his inaugural address of 1949 announced the Point Four
Programme of Development Aid. It then became the policy of the United
States of America to aid the efforts of the people's of economically underde-
veloped areas to develop their resources and improve their living conditions.
According to Hoogvelt, this policy was not put forward as altruism by the
United States of America as the policy took place against the backdrop of the
Cold War and the political independence and liberation of less developed
countries from colonialism. There was therefore an understanding on the part
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

of policy makers in the USA of the need to keep the Third World countries
out of communist hands hence economic and technological aid was at first a
means of doing this. But it was soon realised that the transplantation of capital
and technology to the Third World would not bear fruit unless it was accom-
panied by wider and consistent social, cultural and political changes.

4.5 Economic Measures of Growth (Gross

Domestic Product and Gross National Product)
Development has qualitative and quantitative connotations. Looking at devel-
opment in quantitative change, the focus is on improvements and growth that
can be quantitatively measured, for example Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and Gross National Product (GNP). These measures of economic growth
are mainly used by economists.
1. Development as a process entails looking at development as an evolu-
tionary process of growth and change of the social and cultural organi-
sation of society.
2. Development as interaction is a view of development as a process of
growth and change of societies under conditions of interaction with
other societies.
3. Development as Action examines development as a consciously planned
and monitored process of growth and change.
According to Mody (1991, 19), "the already powerful and privileged tend to
benefit from new opportunities created by economic development while the
position of the less poor majority remain the same or below or become worse.
For example, in India, local castes with some economic power and mobility
made use of improvements in printing, the postal system and roads to strengthen
and expand their organisation on a regional basis. Low castes with no power
to make use of new technologies could not organise to expand in similar
fashion." Thus to those that have more was given.

Activity 4.2
? 1. List the key ideas of modernisation theory.

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50 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Economic Development

4.6 Transnational Corporations, Economic

Structural Adjustment Programmes and Economic
Development
According to Sachs and Warner (1995), between the end of World War II
and the mid-eighties, development strategy in a number of developing coun-
tries was based on the protectionist "Import substitution" (IS) concept. Many
of the governments in the developing countries were of the opinion that main-
taining free trade would prevent their economies from industrializing and would
therefore render them vulnerable to long-term adverse movements in terms of
trade, and therefore impact their growth and welfare. However during the
1980s, both economists and policy-makers became sceptical about the ben-
eficial impact of the IS strategy. The difference in performance between the
outward-oriented Asian and the inward-oriented Latin American economies
clearly called for a reconsideration of the strategy.

According to Sachs and Warner (1995), empirical evidence suggests that

since the mid-eighties, many Least Developed Countries have engaged in a
process of economic reform, involving a more outward orientation of their
economies, the lowering of trade barriers, privatization of many industries
and reform of the foreign-exchange market. These reforms were mainly in the
form of Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes (ESAP) which was
prescribed by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The rationale behind these economic reforms was that increased competition
is an important driver of economic performance. Economists agree, in gen-
eral, that fair competition is beneficial to growth because it induces efficiency
gains. Among the latter, productive efficiency is of particular importance. This
is achieved by fighting overstaffing, sluggish response to new opportunities
and poor management. It forces inefficient firms either to exit the market or to
take necessary actions to reduce costs and rationalize production and man-
agement processes. The outcome is an increase in productivity, both at micro
and macro levels.

Landes (1969) argues that any developing country, if it is serious about rais-
ing its standard of living, must open its economy so as to avail itself of the
opportunities to trade, interact with and learn from the already advanced coun-
tries. In fact, ever since the industrial revolution in England, industrialization in
the rest of the world, wherever successful, has been a "derived" phenom-
enon. For example, Continental Europe succeeded by following the United
Kingdom's footsteps through commercial contracts and conscious efforts for
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

learning and copying. Learning from the experiences of others creates oppor-
tunities for the less developed to emulate the advanced and for the advanced
to transfer their knowledge and skills down the hierarchy. The advanced coun-
tries are viewed as the rich reservoirs of industrial technology, information
and experiences which the followers can tap. They also provide the promis-
ing export markets from which the less developed can earn precious hard
currencies.

According to Ozawa (1992) Transnational Corporations (TNCs) play a cru-

cial role as transplanters of technology, skills and access to the world market.
The phenomena of trade augmentation through foreign direct investment and
localized, (but increasingly transnationalized learning and technological accu-
mulation) are crucial in the process of rapid growth in economic development
in the Third World. Many developing countries, especially emerging newly
industrializing countries (NICs) like the Asian countries of Indonesia, Malay-
sia and Thailand, and more recently some Latin American countries (espe-
cially Brazil, Chile and Mexico), are successfully developing by opening up
their economies under outward oriented policies in varying degrees. Although
outward orientation alone is not a sufficient condition for rapid economic
growth, it does create a climate favourable for the transfer by TNCs and the
absorption by local enterprises of modern managerial, production and mar-
keting technologies which are the bedrock of industrialization and moderniza-
tion. Undoubtedly, TNCs are the prime mover behind the industrial dyna-
mism of those rapidly developing countries. Ozawa (1992) further points out
that TNCs are now increasingly counted upon to duplicate their role as de-
velopment agents elsewhere in the world, especially in Eastern Europe, which
is turning outward by adopting pro-market policies. Moreover, TNCs now
originate not only from the advanced countries but also more and more from
rapidly growing newly industrializing countries (NICs), and those TNCs, es-
pecially in manufacturing, are more active in other developing countries in
Africa than in the advanced countries (Ozawa, 1992, 2).

4.7 Social Change and Development in Global

Perspective
Societal change most often requires structural change. While this may be true
in any country, it is probably more often true in the developing world. Yet,
most development intervention is locally targeted and short-term. It does not
try to implement structural change across the entire society. The concept of
"development" cuts across many levels. It refers to macro issues (such as
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52 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 4 Economic Development

patterns of a nation's growth), as much as it refers to micro problems (such as

local community development). All these are interwoven. And at all levels,
many different dimensions - economic, cultural, religious and gender - affect
and are affected by development. We must view development as a process,
not a product. Societies are always changing. Some improve, while others
fail. Development theory aims at explaining both processes. Development
practice intends to provide tools that can be applied to entire societies or
specific communities. Such interventions are intended to move communities
or societies from a situation in which they are believed to be worse off to a
situation in which they are assumed to be better off.

The Millennium Development Goals illustrate how development is an inter-

disciplinary field, which implements programs in various areas and deals with
innumerable variables - such as economic, social, political, gender, cultural,
religious and environmental issues. The field is further complicated because
these variables are highly intertwined.

For most of the world's developing countries, the 1990s were a decade of
frustration and disappointment. The economies of sub-Saharan Africa, with
few exceptions, failed to respond to the prescriptions meted out by the World
Bank and the IMF. Latin American countries were buffeted by a never-end-
ing series of boom-and-bust cycles in capital markets and experienced growth
rates significantly below their historical averages. Most of the former socialist
economies ended the decade at lower levels of per-capita income than they
started it-and even in the rare successes, such as Poland, poverty rates re-
mained higher than under communism. East Asian economies such as South
Korea, Thailand, and Malaysia, which had been hailed previously as "mira-
cles," were dealt a humiliating blow in the financial crisis of 1997. The global
economy is now characterised by massive transnational flows of capital and
labour and dominated by Multinational Corporations (MNCs).

Activity 4.3
?
1. In your opinion, why do Multi National Corporations fail to
bring real positive economic growth in developing countries?
Justify your answer.

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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

4.8 Summary
In this Unit, we focused on the key ideas that have been used to explain
economic development. Specifically, we discussed the central ideas that have
been Rostow's stages of economic development as well as the modernisation
theory. We examined Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes prescribed
by the World Bank and the IMF and assessed their impact on economies of
the developing countries. Focus has also been on Transnational Corporations
and their impact on economic development in the developing countries of the
South.

4.9 References
Hoogvelt, A. M, (1976), The Sociology of Developing Societies, London,
MacMillan
Hoogvelt, A, (1997), Globalization and the Postcolonial World: The New
Political Economy of Development, London, Palgrave,
Landes, D. S, (1969), The Unbound Prometheus, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press
Mody, B, (1991), Designing Messages for Development Communication: An
Audience Participation Based Approach, New Dehli, Sage Publica-
tions
Ozawa, T, (1992), Transnational Corporations, Vol, I, no. 1, February 1992,
pp 27-54.
Rostow, W, (1960), The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist
Manifesto, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Sachs J and Warner, A, (1995), 'Economic Reform and the Process of Glo-
bal Integration', Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1:1-117
Webster, A, (1990), Introduction to the Sociology of Development, New
Jersey, Humanities Press International
Weeks, J. R, (1986), Population- An Introduction to Concepts and Issues,
California, Wadsworth Inc

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54 Zimbabwe Open University
 5Unit Five

Education and Social Change

5.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we examine the role of education and its relationship with
social change processes. We relate theories of modernization and their
impact on educational process in developing countries in the South. We
also discuss the role of education as a determinant of social change.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

5.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ discuss the relationship between modernization and social
change
„ examine the criticisms advanced against modernization in
relation to social change
„ evaluate the role of education in social change

5.2 Modernisation and Social Change

Development is assumed to be desirable. According to Larrain (1994, 11)
theories of modernization seek to identify those areas and social variables
which should experience some specific changes in order to facilitate the tran-
sition process into development. The result is that modernization theories start
with an explicit reference to a dichotomy between two ideal types that is, the
traditional society which can also be called rural, backward or underdevel-
oped and the more modern society which is urban or developed and indus-
trial. Under Modernization Theory, the idea is that all societies follow a similar
historical social change course which gains in differentiation and complexity
as a society departs from one polar type and moves towards another. Since
other societies have developed, they have become the ideal types on which
the typical process of modernization and social change can be constructed
(Larrain (1994, 11).

5.2.1 Theories of development and social change

In the 1960s, with the outbreak of the Vietnam War and of many mass move-
ments, social theorists turned towards Marxian analysis and historical, com-
parative sociology in order to decipher the changing world as then perceived.
In this period, development theorists began to passionately argue for critical,
trans-societal views of global change. This line of theorizing encompassed
both world systems theory and theories of dependent development. Mod-
ernization is considered by Mekonnen (2006) as the major development theory
which evolved from two ideas about social change that developed in the 19th
century are namely:

The conception of traditional versus modern societies and positivism that was
viewed development as societal evolution in progressive stages of growth.

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Unit 5 Education and Social Change

According to Modernization Theory, problems that held back the industriali-

zation of poor countries were related to irrational ways in which resources
are allocated in such societies. Tradition had no function to perform in devel-
opment; it is in fact an obstacle to modernization. Even though its major pro-
ponent W.W. Rostow recognized the importance of ideas and values besides
appropriate economic, technological, and demographic conditions to devel-
opment, practitioners and academics of modernization did not pay much at-
tention to that aspect. That may be one of the reasons why culture and tradi-
tion were given little attention in approaches to development for so long.

The policy implications of such an approach are self evident. Traditional soci-
eties can become modern only through rationalizing resources allocation and
the elimination of cultural, institutional and organizational roadblocks that did
not allow countries to develop. According to Rostow and other proponents
of modernization, modern societies are those that resemble western capitalist
societies and traditional societies are a residual category comprising the rest
of the world including peoples of Africa, Asia and Latin America. This line of
thinking has led to modernization theory being viewed as ethnocentric and
self serving as it characterized non-western cultures and traditions as unim-
portant and or obstacles to development. It was only in the 1980s that this
western biased approach had been questioned on the observation that some
features of pre-industrial societies are inconsistent with the societal models of
industrial countries and these features should be taken into account (Larrain,
1994).

5.2.2 Criticisms to modernization theory

These include:
1. The reification of the nation-state as the sole unit of analysis.
2. The assumption that all countries can follow only a single path of evo-
lutionary development.
3. Disregard of the world-historical development of transnational struc-
tures that constrain local and national development
These criticisms of modernization have mainly been necessitated by the that
new economic and political processes face an unchanging and uniform body
of institutional procedures and cultural values this linear theory of change greatly
distorts the history and variety of civilizations (Gusfield, 1967, 3).

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Activity 5.1
? 1. Examine the applicability of Modernization Theory to social
change.

5.2.3 Education
Education in the widest sense of the term is a fundamental facet of all human
societies and, thus, should not be narrowly conceived or defined. It occurs
under numerous conditions in a multitude of places assuming a variety of forms.
Kamat (1982, 1237) observed that "formal education which is deliberate,
organized instruction - is a part and only a part but an important part of the
process of socialization which is the process by which a human being learns
to live in social groups, to participate in their productive activities and cultural
life. Through this process of socialization culture is transmitted from one gen-
eration to another. More than a century ago, Emile Durkheim rejected the
idea that education could be the force to transform society and resolve social
ills. Instead, Durkheim (1897) concluded that education "can be reformed
only if society itself is reformed." He argued that education "is only the image
and reflection of society. It imitates and reproduces the latter…it does not
create it."

5.2.4 Education in a changing context

According to Bond (1992), education can be a force for social continuity. It
serves to reproduce the basic arrangements of a society. In small-scale
preliterate societies, indigenous education was informal and highly diffuse; it
was intimately related to the social institutions and production mode of the
society. There was education but no formal institutions of learning, since edu-
cation was embedded in the very fabric of social relationships. For example
in Northern Zambia, Western-style formal education was both the cause and
catalyst of social change. It was a markedly intrusive force, a vital element in
the processes of socio-cultural transformation involving the subsequent im-
position of colonial rule and the penetration of capitalism into Central Africa
(Bond, 1992). The result was that earlier educational institutions and teachers
used to show a specific way of life to the students and education was more a
means of social control than an instrument of social change. Modern educa-
tional institutions appear not to place much emphasis upon transmitting a way
of life to the students. The traditional education was meant for an unchanging
static society not marked by radical change. But today education aims at
imparting knowledge.

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Unit 5 Education and Social Change

Traditionally, education was closely linked to religion. Nowadays, education

has become secular. It is now an independent institution. Education has been
chiefly instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and
technology. Education has brought about phenomenal changes in every as-
pect of men's life. Francis J. Brown remarks that education is a process which
brings about changes in the behaviour of society. It is a process which enables
every individual to effectively participate in the activities of society and to
make positive contributions to the progress of society.

Activity 5.2
? 1. How can socialization be related to education and social
change? Explain.

5.2.5 Social change

Social change takes place as a response to many types of changes that take
place in the social and non-social environment. Social change can be positive
or negative. It may take place when humans need change, when the existing
social system or network of social institutions fails to meet the existing human
needs and when new materials suggest better ways of meeting human needs.
Social change is equated to social transformation as development often brings
up visions of "positive change" and improvement. According to Gusfield (1967,
1) "tradition" and "modernity" are usually contrasted as polar opposites in a
linear theory of social change. Furthermore, the idea of tradition and moder-
nity accentuates the idea of change in contemporary new nations and eco-
nomically growing societies which entails a linear movement from a traditional
past towards a modernized future. To Gusfield (1967), the assumption in this
model of change is that existing institutions and values which are the content
of tradition are impediments to changes and are therefore obstacles to mod-
ernization.

5.2.6 Education and social change

Kamat (1982, 1) noted that the relationship of education to social change is a
question that social scientists have been grappling with for a long time now
ever since education assumed the form and proportion of a large organized
sector in society. The result is that social scientists have held widely differing
views on the relationship between education and society. However, the role
of education as an agent or instrument of social change and social develop-
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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

ment is widely recognized today. Education can initiate social changes by

bringing about a change in outlook and attitude of human beings. It can bring
about a change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause
social changes.

Webster (1990, 119) further points out that education has been viewed in
development literature as a crucial factor (or even precondition) for develop-
ment since it promotes economic growth and enables socialization of new
members of society into dominant political and cultural value system. Kamat
(1982) observed that education no doubt can help the process of social change.
This is so because education can help to stimulate, accelerate and work out
social change and development processes by disseminating, cultivating knowl-
edge, information, skills and values appropriate to the changing socio-eco-
nomic and political structure.

5.3 Summary
In this Unit we examined the role of modernization, education impact on so-
cial change and development processes. We emphasised on understanding
the relationship between education and social change processes and the broad
development processes.

5.4 References
Bond, G. C, (1982), "Education and Social Stratification in Northern Zambia:
The Case of the Uyombe in Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol.
13, No. 3, pp. 251-267
Durkheim, É, (1897/1951), Theory of Social Organization, University of
California, Free Press
Gusfiled, J.R, (1967), "Tradition and Modernity in the Study of Social Change"
in The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 72, No 4 (Jan 1967), pp.
351-362
Kamat, A. R, (1982), "Education and Social Change: A Conceptual Frame-
work" in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 17, No. 31, pp. 1237-
1244
Larrain, J, (1994), Theories of Development: Capitalism, Colonialism and
Dependency, Cambridge, Polity Press

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Unit 5 Education and Social Change

Mekonnen, S, (2006), The Place of Culture and Tradition in Theories of

Development, Department of Sociology, Delhi School of Economics,
University of Delhi
Webster, A, (1990), Introduction to the Sociology of Development, New
Jersey, Humanities Press International

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62 Zimbabwe Open University
 6 Unit Six

Health and Population

6.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we examine the issues of health and population in so far as they
are linked to development at a country level. We emphasise the under
standing of the relationship between female education and population
growth.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ describe the relationship between population growth and
economic development
„ state the specific measures of population levels at a given
place
„ explain the link between female education and population
growth

6.2 Population Growth

According to Webster (1990), population growth is a matter of great con-
cern, more so in the Third World. Population growth is the increase in the
number of people inhabiting a given space. Growth of a population results
from the excess of births over deaths and the movement of people between
regions or countries. Thus at country level, population growth is normally and
primarily a result of either a surplus of births over deaths (termed natural
increase) or it can be as a result of net gains by migration (Findlay et al, 1987,
2). In this case reductions in deaths rates can thus augment a population's
numbers leading to population growth if it is accompanied by high births rates.

According to Todaro (1977, 184) high births rates are generally said to be
associated with poverty. This seems to be the case where the likelihood of
children dying is very high or where old age security funds are not readily
available. In these instances, parents tend to want to have more children in the
hope that they might survive. If these children survive, the hope is that the
parents are assured of being looked after in their old age. The resultant high
birth rates which are accompanied by low death rates automatically mean an
increase in population.

6.3 Infant Mortality Rate

Subbarao and Raney (1995, 108-109) define the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
as the number of infants who die before reaching 1 year of age per 1000 live
births. Infant mortality is influenced by a number of factors including female
education, male education, and access to services that affect mortality such
as immunization, safe drinking water, trained birth attendants, nurses or phy-
sicians, and easily accessible family planning services. Economic develop-
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Unit 6 Health and Population

ment and cultural change mean better spacing of births. As in the case of
Infant Mortality Rates, female education influences infant mortality through
better use of available facilities and the parents', especially the mother's knowl-
edge of hygiene, sanitation, and health care. According to Frenzen and Hogan
(1982), the infant mortality rate has long been regarded as a sensitive indica-
tor of socio-economic differentials at the national and family level. It has been
demonstrated over the years that the proportion of children dying during the
first year of life is closely associated with national levels of socio-economic
development as well as social class of parents.

6.4 Under Population and Over Population

Under-population is defined as when a country's population has declined too
much to support its current economic system. Overpopulation refers to a
situation, where human population has increased beyond the means of sub-
sistence. Overpopulation becomes a state where communities cannot sustain
at an adequate level, all those living in them. According to Webster, (1990), it
has always been claimed that the Third World countries have become the
victim of overpopulation. The fear of over-population is not new, Economist
Thomas Malthus as early as 1798 expressed fear of population growth over-
taking the output growth of the land. He thought that nature would reduce the
excess number by causing calamities and diseases. However, technological
inventions subsequently helped increase production and the seriousness of
the overpopulation problem was over-looked. The implications of population
growth resurfaced in recent years with the persistence of poverty and hunger
in many parts of the world. The over-population perception has given rise to
a number of prescriptions that aim at bringing down the growth rate of popu-
lation in the third world countries. It is asserted that such a move would allow
the benefits of economic development to reach the poor masses.

Webster (1990) observed that until socio-economic conditions change for

the better, children will typically be seen as a valuable asset by poor parents in
the Third World. This is the case as children are usually viewed as an extra
pair of hands at work on the farm or if the parents are landless, an extra
source of earned income in urban centres. Furthermore, according to Lappe
and Collins (1977, 64) in old age, children provide the only security that exist
in countries with no state pension or social security benefits. Furthermore, the
high number of births in a family is offset by the high incidence of infant mor-
tality.

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Activity 6.1
?
1. How reliable are the ideas on underpopulation and
overpopulationin explaining population growth in develop-
ing countries? Give reasons for your answer.

6.5 Female Education and Population Growth

Webster (1990) observed that the principal thesis that has dominated the
literature on education and social change is the observation that education is a
crucial factor if not a precondition for development as it somehow promotes
economic growth and enables socialisation of new members of society into
the dominant political and cultural value system. Subbarao and Raney (1995)
observed that female education increases the value of women's time in eco-
nomic activities by raising labour productivity and wages, with a consequen-
tial rise in household incomes and a reduction in poverty. Female education
also produces social gains by improving health (the woman's own health and
the health of her children), increasing child schooling, and reducing fertility.
Generally, it has been shown that female secondary education, family plan-
ning, and health programmes affect fertility and mortality, and that the effect of
female secondary education appears to be very strong. Moreover numerous
studies have demonstrated that family planning tends to reduce fertility more
when combined with female education, especially in countries that now have
low female secondary school enrolment levels. According to Dreze and Murthi
(2001, 35), female education in addition to reducing desired family size is
likely to affect the relationship between desired family size and planned number
of births. One major reason for this is that female education reduces infant
and child mortality. For example educated mothers need to plan fewer births
in order to achieve a desired family size. Furthermore, female education may
assist in achieving the planned number of births, especially by facilitating knowl-
edge of and access to contraception and by enhancing women's bargaining
power within the family.

Activity 6.2
?
1. Looking at Zimbabwe as a case study can it be argued that
there is a relationship between female education and popu-
lation growth? Justify your answer.

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66 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 6 Health and Population

6.6 Variations in Life Expectancy

According to Marmont (2005), there are gross inequalities in health between
countries. Life expectancy at birth, to take one measure, ranges from 34
years in Sierra Leone to 81, 9 years in Japan. Within countries too, there are
large inequalities. Marmont further argues that one welcome response to these
wide health inequalities has been the need to put more effort into the control
of major diseases that kill and to improve health systems. This has been the
thrust of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These MDG goals
challenge the world community to tackle poverty in the world's poorest coun-
tries. Included in these goals is reduction of child mortality, the health out-
come most sensitive to the effects of absolute material deprivation.

To reduce inequalities in health across the world, there is need for a major
thrust that is complementary to development of health systems and relief of
poverty to take action on the social determinants of health. Such action in-
cludes relief of poverty with broader aim of improving the circumstances in
which people live and work. It therefore, addresses not only the major infec-
tious diseases linked with poverty of material conditions but also non-com-
municable diseases - both physical and mental - and violent deaths that form
the major burden of disease and death in every region of the world outside
Africa and add substantially to the burden of communicable disease in sub-
Saharan Africa. For example, Under-5 mortality varies from 316 per 1000
live births in Sierra Leone to 3 per 1000 live births in Iceland; 4 per 1000 live
births in Finland; and 5 per 1000 live births in Japan. In 16 countries (12 in
Africa), child mortality rose in the 1990s by 43% in Zimbabwe, 52% in Bot-
swana, and 75% in Iraq.

6.7 Population Growth and Economic

Development
The relationship between population growth and economic development has
been difficult to draw a dividing line between the two. The result is that this
has led to the emergence of different schools of thought in this population
growth in relation to economic growth debate. According to Weeks (1986,
354), these are namely the Marxists, the Nationalists and the Malthusians.
The Marxists argue that social and economic injustice result from lack of
economic development and that economic development is not influenced by
population growth. The Nationalists argue that more people will bring more

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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

wealth. The Malthusians argue that population growth, if not restrained will
wipe away all the economic gains.

Webster (1990) observed that the majority of models of development regard

population growth, urbanisation and educational expansion as crucial factors
of industrial modernisation. These are seen as preconditions for industrialisa-
tion as well as a country developing more fully as a consequence of it. Todaro
(1977, 191) uses what he calls a conventional economic argument in which
population growth in many Third World countries is viewed as desirable to
stimulate economic growth. This argument is based on the belief that large
populations provide the needed economic demand to generate favourable
economies of scale in production; that is, lowering production costs and pro-
viding a sufficient low cost labour supply to achieve higher output levels.
According to Szreter (1997), over the longer term, the process of rapid eco-
nomic growth seems to be strongly correlated with improvements in the pros-
perity and health of a society hence derives the notion that economic growth
results in development. Szreter (1997, 693) further argues that since the 1940s,
economic and demographic historians, social scientists and policymakers have
broadly accepted that each national trajectory of sustained economic growth
has always been attended by a "demographic transition", a process in which a
pronounced fall in national mortality levels and fertility occurs as a result of the
gains to national wealth.

The argument that comes out of the population and economic growth debate
is that these are place and time specific. For example, population growth is
supposed to be found in the second stage of the Demographic Transition
Model. This observation then makes the universal applicability of population
growth as neutral to economic growth becoming relative to societies in space
and time. According to Findlay et al, (1987, 52), historically that was the case
in Europe and North America as their population growth was associated with
economic growth as they were industrialising. In the case of the developing
countries entering stages of population growth, it has not been associated
with economic growth. Their population growth is as a result of reduced death
rates that are still accompanied by relatively high birth rates. This has mainly
been a result of the importation of Western medical knowledge in curing dis-
eases without importation of ideas on birth control. However, this population
growth is not accompanied by economic growth as most developing coun-
tries are industrialising at a slow pace. In this case, population growth can be
said to be a neutral phenomenon in relation to economic growth as there is
still not much noticeable economic growth in most of these Third World coun-
tries that are experiencing population growth. It is only a result of transfer of
medical knowledge from the West. Population growth is a matter of great
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68 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 6 Health and Population

concern today especially in the Third World. Yet according to Webster (1990,
98), a growing population is also considered to be an important factor en-
couraging economic growth. Clearly, this implies that there is an optimum set
of conditions which must balance population growth with sustained economic
development.

Activity 6.3
? 1. How applicable is the Demographic Transition Model to the
prevailing economic population growth to Zimbabwe or any
other 3rd world country you have studied. Give reasons for
your answer

6.8 Summary
In this Unit we examined the relationship between health and population. We
noted that under-population and overpopulation are key challenges in the
debate on population and development. We also focused on the relationship
between female education and population growth as female education is seen
as a key issue in determining fertility and mortality levels both at a household
and national level.

6.9 References
Dreze, J and Murthi, M, "Fertility, Education, and Development: Evidence
from India" in Population and Development Review, Vol. 27, No. 1,
pp. 33-63
Findlay, A and Anne, L, (1987), Population and Development in the Third
World, London, Methuen and Co
Frenzen, P. D and Hogan, D, (1982,) "The Impact of Class, Education, and
Health Care on Infant Mortality in a Developing Society: The Case of
Rural Thailand" in Demography, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 391-408
Marmont, M, (2005), "Social Determinants of Health Inequalities", Lancet,
Vol. 265, March 19, 2005, pp 1099-10104
Subbarao, K and Raney, L, (1995), "Social Gains from Female Education: A
Cross-National Study" in Economic Development and Cultural Change,
Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 105-128

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Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Szreter, S, (1997), "Economic Growth, Disruption, Deprivation, Disease, and

Death: On the Importance of the Politics of Public Health for Develop-
ment" in Population and Development Review, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp.
693-728
Todaro, M. P, (1977), Economics for a Developing World, New York,
Longman
Webster, A, (1990), Introduction to the Sociology of Development New Jer-
sey, Humanities Press International
Weeks, J. R, (1986), Population- An Introduction to Concepts and Issues,
California, Wadsworth Inc

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70 Zimbabwe Open University
 7Unit Seven

Politics of Development

7.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we examine the role of politics in development at a country
level. In order to understand the role of politics in development, focus is
on understanding the role of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in de-
velopment in the South. We also explain the role and ideology behind aid
giving in attempts to explain the broad dimensions of politics in development.
MNCs and aid have been seen as crucial in the development of countries of
the South.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

7.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ explain the politics of development by looking at the histori-
cal background of aid and politics in development
„ discuss understand the role of Multinational Corporations in
development of the South
„ evaluate the role of aid in development

7.2 History of Aid, Politics and Development

The implementation of development plans is no simple matter but involves
political decisions. These decisions are about access to material resources
and people who become beneficiaries of policies and so on. Most countries
of the South which won independence after the Second World War wanted
to become "modern" like Western Europe and North America. Both the United
States of America (USA) and the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) power blocks (given the Cold War rivalry) recommended economic
planning as a means to this end and offered technical assistance to build the
former colonies of Asia, the Caribbean and Africa. This technical assistance
was given in keeping with these countries' market needs and foreign policy
objectives. The North and the South assumed that planning for technologi-
cally based growth would make it possible for the South to have an industrial
revolution of magnitude without repeating European history, that is, without
suffering their own equivalents of mercantile explorations, colonial plunders,
political revolutions, economic exploitation and cultural degradation that the
North went through.

According to (Mody, 1991, 16) economic growth and modernisation plan-

ners in the North did not see the enormous complexities of events that were
going to bedevil the South and their inability to control them. Factors that
were neglected in the planning process were; the impact of external forces
(dominant nations, banks, corporations) and the obstacles that domestic eco-
nomic, political and cultural structures present.

According to Mahmoud (1994, 141), the most important prerequisite for

development is to take social and political transformations into account. Growth

by itself is not enough. Distribution between classes as well as between men
and women is crucially important. The result is that development should not
be defined outside the orbit of politics hence there cannot be development for
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72 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 7 Politics of Development

the vulnerable, marginalised and poor in Africa without democratic institu-

tions.

7.3 Development and Transnational Corporations

During the last decades of the 20th century and going into the 21st century,
the world has experienced an impressive increase in the amount and relative
importance of border crossing economic linkages. Playing a leading role in
this process has been Transnational Corporations (TNCs) whose organiza-
tional structures transcend polities and connect various national societies.
According to UNCTAD (2000), the TNC system has grown substantially
big and gained historically unprecedented power in the political world economy.
The old question of how transnational corporations affect economic and so-
cial development in their host countries thus arises with renewed relevance.
Overall, the operations of MNCs are closely linked with Foreign Direct In-
vestment (FDI).

Historically, the MNC has been squarely criticized particularly in the Third
World and the ex-Communist world as an instrument of "neo-colonialism/
imperialism". According to Mody (1996), although standard economic theory
argues that transnational firms are important catalysts of development and
worldwide convergence, numerous cross-national studies support the oppo-
site view of dependencia and world-system theorists. They all show that TNCs
and their affiliates rather add to inequality and underdevelopment than to socio-
economic progress in their host countries. While some scholars claim that
corporate globalization will eventually close the worldwide development gap,
many others contend that TNC activities lead to insufficient exploitation of
growth potentials within the host country, thereby hindering convergence of
national income levels.

Contrary to traditional assumptions of the classical theory of trade developed

by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, the MNC is based on the international
mobility of certain factors of production. Natural resources have lost much of
their previous role in national specialization as advanced, knowledge-inten-
sive societies move rapidly into the age of artificial materials and genetic engi-
neering. Capital moves around the world in massive amounts at the speed of
light; increasingly corporations raise capital simultaneously in several major
markets. For example, to finance the acquisition of German equipment by a
subsidiary in Bangladesh, a Swiss-based pharmaceutical firm may use capital
raised in London on the Euro-dollar market (Bhardwaj and Hossai, 2001).
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7.4 Development and Aid

For more than fifty years, proponents of aid have argued that poor countries
are poor because they lack the funds to invest in the infrastructure that would
enable economic activity to take place, which in turn means that they are
unable to attract investment. Originally used to justify mega-projects such as
roads and dams, these arguments continue today in a modified form, mainly
justifying investments in schools and hospitals. Donors have justified aid with
various theories and political motivations, but its core justification, the 'gap
theory', is fundamentally flawed. This theory assumes that poor countries are
trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty because they are unable to save and
hence have insufficient capital to invest in growth-promoting, productivity-
enhancing activities. But there simply is no evidence that this savings/invest-
ment 'gap' exists in practice. As a result, aid has failed to 'fill the gap'. Instead,
it has, over the past years largely been seen as counterproductive as it has
been seen as crowding out private sector investments, undermining democ-
racy, and enabled despots to continue with oppressive policies, perpetuating
poverty.

However, some have argued that the reason countries are poor is not that
they lack infrastructure, be it roads, railways, dams, pylons, schools or health
clinics. Rather, it is because they lack the institutions of the free society, which
is property rights, the rule of law, free markets, and limited government. In a
majority of poor countries, courts of law which are usually viewed as meas-
ures of good governance are slow, expensive and corrupt.

As government plays a large role in the economy, government policies have

the potential to undermine incentives to engage in mutually beneficent eco-
nomic activities. A review of evidence suggests that when money is given to
the governments of countries that do not have institutions of "good govern-
ance", it is not spent wisely. Very often, aid is spent on projects that benefit
the political leaders at the expense of the citizens. Almost always, the money
crowds out investment by the private sector and in the process, the aid un-
dermines economic development. Often aid has bolstered corrupt regimes
that would otherwise have been thrown out.

7.4.1 Tied aid is government-to-government concessional financing of public

sector capital projects in developing countries that requires the recipient gov-
ernment to purchase goods and services from the donor government. A de-
veloped country will provide a bilateral loan or grant to a developing country
but mandate that the money be spent on goods or services produced in the
selected country.
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Unit 7 Politics of Development

Activity 7.1
? 1. How useful is aid giving as a development strategy for Third
World countries' development?
2. How valid is the view that the main objective of foreign aid
is to promote economic growth in poor countries and
thereby lift people out of poverty?

7.5 The State and Multinational Capital

The late twentieth century has seen the rapid growth of international trade and
cooperation. This phenomenon referred to as "globalization," has resulted in
the rise of large multinational corporations whose power and influence ex-
tends beyond one nation or one trading bloc. Today, names like Coca-Cola,
Exxon, and IBM are recognized in the most distant, least industrialized cor-
ners of the world. With corporations holding such influence, many have won-
dered what role the state will play in this new economic system. There are
some who claim that the state will maintain its leadership role in shaping de-
velopment policy. Nevertheless, the high popularity and high growth of multi-
national corporations in the world economy is a testament to the fact that the
corporation is becoming the dominant political power in conducting and shaping
development policy. This phenomenon is most evident in developing nations,
where multinational corporations appear to be surpassing the state in influ-
ence and power.

Those who assert that states are still dominant in the shaping of economic
policy often refer to measures through which states can attempt to regulate
large, multinational corporations. This view is based on the argument that
states should control their own economies. Through regulations, it is argued,
states are able to retain their influential position in the international system.
For instance, there appears to be a trend toward tougher laws in some host
nations to improve the tax system so that states can profit from the activities
of the MNCs. International competition and the desire for economic growth
also serve as incentives to host nations to improve their administrative proce-
dures and methods of negotiating with the MNCs themselves. Likewise, the
competition among MNCs for foreign markets potentially affects the bar-
gaining power of host countries in their favour. For example, Saudi Arabia
benefited when the Pacific Western Oil Company agreed to pay larger tax
payments in order to gain access to Saudi oil fields that were desired by a
number of corporations.

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Another method, in which states maintain control over MNCs, and thus, their
own economic policy, is by the implementation of protectionist strategies.
States can levy taxes on goods leaving the host country that are produced by
corporations not domestically controlled. Similarly the state can control pro-
duction by supporting the growth of the domestic company and hindering the
influence of the multinational. This can be done by offering subsidies to do-
mestic companies that can be potential competitors of MNCs. In this manner,
a domestic corporation in its early growth stage can be placed on a near-
equal playing field with a large multinational.

States can use self-sufficiency as ways to diffuse the influence of MNCs.

Policies such as Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) have been attempted
in many Third World countries to replace MNCs with state subsidized indus-
tries. Additionally, states retain a level of control over MNCs as they have
jurisdiction over the land and labour that corporations need for survival and
growth. At an extreme level, such jurisdiction can allow states to nationalize
MNCs that might be gaining too powerful a grip on state policies. For exam-
ple, the assets of MNCs were seized by states when Iran took control over
the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and when the Congo seized the Katanga
Copper Mines.

Such are the arguments that many use to show that, despite the rapid growth
of MNCs, states still have the leading role in the international system and can
still lay down regulations to shape their economic policies and political proc-
esses. However, many of these arguments have flaws as recent developments
in the international system show that MNCs are at least gaining the upper
hand, if they have not already achieved it. For example, even if states wish to
pass laws and revamp their administrative systems to regulate multinationals,
states will continue to find it difficult to enforce such new regulations. Many
nations, especially those of the Third World are still operating under inefficient
governmental or administrative systems that do not have enough resources to
manage multinationals. Also, the likelihood of such laws being passed is slim
because of the "ideological predisposition" of politicians that MNCs are of
major benefit to the state economy. Second, even though competition has
allowed states to gain more control over MNCs, it is still limited when projects
are capital intensive. Additionally, though many states have used nationaliza-
tion to reduce the influence of MNCs, this strategy has numerous conse-
quences. Often, states do not have the same access to resources as the MNCs.
Therefore, newly nationalized industries suffer from problems of inefficiency
or inoperability. Likewise, many states need access to the global market,
access that usually only comes with the presence of a multinational. Without
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Unit 7 Politics of Development

MNCs, many of the world's poorest nations would be cut off from the global
supply of materials, technology, capital and information.

Moreover, a state that adopts a nationalization strategy will most definitely

ruin its reputation in the international arena. Few corporations would be will-
ing to make an investment due to the high risk of losing their assets. Such an
increase in risk decreases a state's bargaining power in future negotiations.
According to Herkenrath and Bornschier, (2003), states also face domestic
constraints on their potential power over MNCs. It is also possible for MNCs
to practice political intervention to achieve their goals. For example, the United
Fruit Company organized a coup in Guatemala when the government there
was showing signs of gaining power. In similar fashion, ITT helped overthrow
the elected government of President Allende in Chile (Moran and Theodore,
1974). These instances are clear demonstrations of how MNCs can over-
power states.

Corporations also utilize "political risk management strategies" when con-

ducting their business abroad. This strategy involves the establishment of cir-
cumstances to ensure that the cost to the host staff for altering the status quo
is far too great. In this manner, MNCs are able to impair government power.

Even though states have control over the territory occupied by MNCs, they
are not always in a position to use this advantage as a method of control.
Usually, states need the benefits that MNCs provide (technology, employ-
ment and access to global resources and major markets) more than they need
regulatory power. This scenario is especially true in Third World nations needing
economic assistance and capital inflows to compete and even survive in the
international system.

In all, though states have potential methods of controlling MNCs and thereby
retaining their dominant role in the international economic system, there are
still restrictions on the exercise of that power. Not only do MNCs have power
in shaping the economic policy of sovereign nations, their power has grown
so great in the international system that MNCs are the force most able to both
prevent or exact social and political change in developing nations. For in-
stance, many nations are forced to retain poor labour conditions and to ad-
here to low minimum-wage policies so as to attract MNCs to their territories.
These states are in such need of economic assistance that they are forced to
compromise basic labour rights in the process (Bhardwaj and Hossain, 2001).

According to Bhardwaj and Hossain, (2001) on the other hand, argue that
the presence of multinationals often leads to the advancement of human rights.
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In all, the fact that MNCs have the power to influence social policies such as
child labour and minimum wage laws is an example of the increased power
they have over states. States are nearly powerless to make such political
changes. This demonstrates that there are instances when only MNCs have
the power to alter social policy in host countries surpassing the state in politi-
cal leadership.

Activity 7.2
?
1. How can Multinational Corporations' role in development
be altered to suit the development needs of countries in the
South?

7.6 Summary
In this unit we focused on the relationship between aid, politics and develop-
ment. We explored the role of Multinational Corporations as major players in
development and their role in development and politics of countries of the
South. We observed that MNCs are growing in power and influence to the
extent of shaping the politics of their developing country hosts. We concluded
that this has mainly been caused by their enhanced bargaining power in the
internal political system.

7.7 References
Bhardwaj, D and Hossain, J, (2001), Globalization and Multinational Cor-
porations in South Asia: Towards Building a Partnership for Sustain-
able Development, RCSS, Colombo
Herkenrath, M and Bornschier, V, (2003), "Transnational Corporations in
World Development-Still the Same Harmful Effects in an Increasingly
Globalised World Economy?' in Journal of World Systems Research
IX, Winter 2003, pp 105-139
Mody, B, (1991), Designing Messages for Development Communication: An
Audience Participation Based Approach, New Dehli, Sage Publica-
tions
Moran, T. H, (1974), Multinational Corporations and the Politics of De-
pendence: Copper in Chile, New Jersey, Princeton University Press
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (several
issues): World Investment Report, New York/Geneva: United Nations
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 8Unit Eight

Sustainable Community
Development

8.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we look at the sustainable development. We examine the emer
gence of Sustainable Development in development discourse since the
Brundtland Commission and the Rio Earth Summit held in Rio-De Ja-
neiro Brazil in 1992. Emphasis here is on understanding how societies can
achieve the goals of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to also meet their needs. We also focus on the role of Non Gov-
ernmental Organisations in sustainable development as well as how sustain-
able community development can be achieved will also be examined.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

8.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ examine the notion of sustainable development and its ap-
plicability in development processes
„ describe the role played by Non Governmental Organisa-
tions in sustainable development initiatives
„ examine how effective community development can be
achieved in the context of sustainable development

8.2 Sustainable Development

The notion to direct development towards sustainable development came in
1992 during a United Nations conference on environment and development
(UNCED), popularly known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. The summit culminated in the adoption of Agenda 21. Out of its five
significant conclusions, Agenda 21 proposes global initiatives and policies on
sustainable development in social, economic and practical context for the
21st century. Sustainable development is viewed as a pattern of resource use
that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these
needs can be met not only in the present, but also by future generations. The
term was first used by the Brundtland Commission. The Commission coined
what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable develop-
ment as development that "meets the needs of the present without compro-
mising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

One thing which is certain is that society can not afford to neglect environ-
mental issues in the face of economic development or poverty alleviation.
Rather, environmental pressures are themselves related to socio-economic
issues like population, literacy and awareness. This relation needs to be ex-
ploited to achieve sustainability in its truest sense. Development initiatives/
activities must therefore be conducted using environment conserving and re-
source saving technologies.

8.3 NGOs and Sustainable Development

Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) as non state actors are proving
crucial in structuring global politics and development in the age of globaliza-
tion. NGOs are extremely important actors in the fight for ensuring human
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Unit 8 Sustainable Community Development

rights as their sole purpose is often dedicated to this specific cause. Further-
more, their employees or volunteers are usually seen as highly committed and
having a genuine interest in bringing about change as their primary goal. De-
spite the good intentions and well- aligned motives, NGOs face major im-
pediments in their quest. Whether healthcare rights, stopping genocide, or
ensuring food and drinking water, NGOs constantly struggle to acquire more
funding from private donors, grants, gifts, governmental assistance, and the
like.

8.4 NGOs and Community Participation

Community participation is defined as an active process by which benefici-
ary/client groups influence the direction and execution of a development project
with a view to enhancing their well being in terms of income, personal growth,
self reliance or other values they cherish. The definition of "participation" is a
matter on which there is considerable disagreement among development schol-
ars and practitioners. Some use the term to mean active participation in politi-
cal decision making. For certain activist groups, participation has no meaning
unless the people involved have significant control over the decisions con-
cerning the organization to which they belong. Development workers tend to
define participation by the poor in terms of the equitable sharing of the ben-
efits of projects. Yet others view participation as an instrument to enhance the
efficiency of projects. Some would regard participation an end in itself, whereas
others see it as a means to achieve other goals. These diverse perspectives
truly reflect the differences in the objectives for which participation might be
advocated by different groups.

Community participation may therefore, be thought of as an instrument of

empowerment. Development should therefore lead to an equitable sharing of
power and to a higher level of people's power, in particular the weaker groups',
political awareness and strengths. Any project or development activity is then
a means of empowering people so that they are able to initiate actions on their
own and thus influence the processes and outcomes of development. Often
people's participation in the developmental schemes can be assured if the
programmes are based on the felt needs of the people.

Mobilization of communities in support of sustainable development should be

the central focus of development initiatives. In many instances government
policies have not been very supportive of community mobilization. Below,
we look at the case study of comprehensive community mobilisation in Mali.
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The Case of Mali

Comprehensive community mobilisation

c In Mali all accessible local resources-land, water, wildlife

and forests-are today in principle recognized as available
for the benefit of local communities, with communities them-
selves determining how to manage the local resources and
how to allocate the benefits from their exploitation. Mali has
concluded that the old command and control approach to
natural resources management has failed and there is an on-
going effort to create a new structure of rural communes by
grouping several villages together, with government within
the villages and communes in the hands of the people through
elected representatives. The task of the government agen-
cies is defined as support for the development decisions of
the local people, plus oversight of the implementation of the
community mandate...Using such a process, the village is
guided towards the adoption of a plan of action and the
drawing up of an agreement that seeks to pin down both the
villagers' own responsibilities and duties and-in concrete
terms - what can be expected as continuing technical and
material support from official agencies (and any help that
may be forthcoming from Non Governmental Organisations.

Adapted from (Kane and Turnham, (2000), Sustainable Development and

Community Mobilisation, pp70-71, in Turnham, D (ed), (2000), African Per-
spectives-Practices and Policies Supporting Sustainable Development, Den-
mark, Scandinavian Seminar College.

From the above it can be argued that community empowerment should be an

important component of any sustainable development strategy. According to
Kane and Turnham (2000, 82), even if the government, NGOs and other
external sources of support are to be available to communities, this support
should be secondary to the communities' own inputs and scaled so as not to
threaten the ability of the community to take ownership and maintain the ini-
tiative. In its current, mainstreamed and 'populist' form, the 'participation in
development' approach asserts the importance of placing local realities at the
heart of development interventions, and of the need to transform agents of
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8.
1
8.
2
Unit 8 Sustainable Community Development

'Third World' should be managed (Townsend et al, 2002). Moreover, the

NGOs that tend to receive support under the 'civil society' agenda tend to
accord with the tenets of the neoliberal development project (Howell and
Pearce, 2001). Third, relationships that are forged within this transnational
community - both between 'northern' and southern' NGOs and between NGOs
and local communities often disempower the 'lower' partner through estab-
lishing patron-client relationships. The fourth and related problem is the ten-
dency amongst NGOs to advocate partnerships with more political elements
within civil society in favour of capacity-building professionalized NGOs in
their image. Fifth, the increasing dependency of NGOs on official sources of
funding raise the dangers that the demands of upwards accountability effec-
tively short-circuit the participatory mechanisms required to secure down-
ward accountability (Edwards and Hulme, 1996).

8.7 Summary
In this Unit we explored the emergence of sustainable development as a con-
cept in development and its applicability. We looked at the role of Non Gov-
ernmental Organisations in community participation, community empower-
ment and sustainable development and decentralization. We also examined
the challenges that NGOs and communities come across in ensuring sustain-
able, participatory development.

8.8 References
Blair, H, (2000), 'Participation and accountability at the periphery: demo-
cratic local governance in six countries' in World Development, 28, 1,
pp 21-39
Chambers, R. (1983) Rural Development: Putting the Last First. London,
Intermediate Technology Publications
Cooke, W. and U. Kothari, (2001), Participation: the New Tyranny? Lon-
don, Zed
Crook, R. C and Sverrisson, A. S, (2000), Decentralisation and Poverty-
Alleviation in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis or, is West
Bengal Unique? International Review of Education, 44(2-3), 177-189
Hickey, S and Mohan, G, (2005), "Relocating participation within a radical
politics of development" in Development and Change, 36(2), pp. 237-
262

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Hickey, S. and G. Mohan (eds) (2004), forthcoming) Participation: From

Tyranny to Transformation? Exploring New Approaches to Participa-
tion, London, Zed Books
Kane and Turnham, (2000), Sustainable Development and Community Mo-
bilisation, pp70-71, in Turnham, D (ed), 2000, African Perspectives-
Practices and Policies Supporting Sustainable Development, Denmark,
Scandinavian Seminar College
Townsend, J. et al, (2002), 'The Role of the Transnational Community of
Nongovernment Organisations: Governance or Poverty Reduction?' in
Journal of International Development, 14(6): 829-839
Uphoff, N, (1996), 'Why NGOs are Not a Third Sector: a Sectoral Analysis
with Some Thoughts on Accountability, Sustainability and Account-
ability', in Edwards 35 and Hulme (eds.), NGOs: Performance and
Accountability, pp.17-30. London

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86 Zimbabwe Open University
 9Unit Nine

Women, Gender and

Empowerment

9.0 Introduction

I
n this Unit we focus on women in development processes. We call upon
the Women in Development and the Gender and Development approaches
to development as leading perspectives on understanding the involve-
ment of women in development. We also discuss how women can be in-
cluded in the main development agenda through gender mainstreaming and
participatory development planning processes.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

9.2 Objectives
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
„ differentiate between sex and gender
„ explain the roots of gender inequality
„ analyse the relevance of the Women in Development and
the Gender and Development approaches to development
„ examine the challenges in participatory gender mainstreaming

9.2 Development and the Position of Women

According to Hoogvelt (1997, 36), the most vocal challenge of emerging
directions in development theory was the opening up by feminist scholarship,
especially after its forward leap from women's studies to gender studies. It
was not till about the 1970s that women figured seriously in mainstream de-
velopment literature. This was a consequence of the fact that it was assumed
that because women had demonstrably not benefited from the development
process, they had been 'excluded' from it and now needed to be brought in.
The result was that the United Nations launched its Decade for Women in
1975 at its first World Conference on Women held in Mexico.

9.3 What is Sex and Gender?

Let us distinguish between sex and gender before we look at how they affect
empowerment. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences be-
tween females and males. Gender refers to the culturally and socially con-
structed differences between females and males found in the meanings, be-
liefs, and practices associated with "femininity" and "masculinity." Gender is
socially significant because it leads to differential treatment of men and women.
Sexism (like racism) is often used to justify discriminatory treatment. Sexism
is linked to patriarchy; a hierarchical system in which cultural, political, and
economic structures are male dominated.

9.4 Roots of Gender Inequality

According to Pearson (1990, 291), some of the inequalities between men
and women had their basis in colonial rule. Even when national governments,
multilateral and bilateral aid agencies have initiated development programmes
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Unit 9 Women, Gender and Empowerment

and projects, these have generally bypassed women or sometimes made them
worse off. Such was the concern of development professionals that 1975
was declared International Women's Year followed by the Decade for the
Advancement of Women 1976-1985 (Pearson, 1992, 291).

According to Chinyowa (1998, 165), the advent of European colonialism in

the late 19th Century created a major disruption to pre-colonial gender rela-
tions in Zimbabwean society. The colonial capitalist society began to drive
able bodied males from their stable rural communal structures into the new
market economy through use of legislation. There are numerous instances in
which colonial personnel excluded women from cash crop cultivation, taught
men modern techniques and gave men access to machinery that could raise
the level of production. According to (Mullings, 1976, 247) as cash cropping
developed and the commodity economy became widespread, women's la-
bour became inferior and private. It did not produce the cash needed to enter
the money economy and its function was now limited to the domestic group
(Mullings, 1976, 247).

Activity 9.1
? 1. Describe the relationship between sex and gender?

9.1 Case Study

Women in Resettlement Schemes
In most Tanzanian societies women were usually allocated
c land to use by their husbands. A woman whose husband
died could take advantage of the levirate (one of the de-
ceased husband's brothers taking her as one of his wives).
Among the Luguru and Kutu women have rights in land un-
affected by marriage. The Ujaama scheme which was pre-
sumably based on the patrilineal notions that women are given
land by their husbands made no provision at all in the event
of a husband's death. In this scheme a man had to nominate
an heir. The heir was presumed to be one of the husbands'
sons. No provision was made for the wife. For example
when women at Kingurungundwa demanded their rights, the
response of the government had hardly been encouraging,
the scheme was thus closed shortly afterwards.
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Source, Brain, J. L, (1985), Less Than Second Class: Women in Rural Set-
tlement Schemes in Tanzania, in Hafkin, N. J and Bay, E. G, 1985, Women in
Africa: Studies in Social and Economic Change

9.5 Perspectives on Gender Inequality

According to functionalists, husbands perform instrumental tasks of economic
support and decision making, and wives assume expressive tasks of provid-
ing affection and emotional support for the family. Conflict analysts suggest
that the gendered division of labour within families and the workplace result
from patriarchal domination (male control and dominance over women and
resources). Although feminist perspectives vary in their analyses of women's
subordination, they all advocate social change to eradicate gender inequality.
Agricultural and rural development programmes are aimed almost entirely at
men often as heads of households. This trend has led to land holdings to be
owned by men which provide the criteria for credit and other assistance through
acting as title deeds.

9.6 Women in Development (WID)

The (Women in Development) WID approach called for greater attention to
women in development policy and practice, and emphasized the need to inte-
grate women into the development process.

The WID perspective evolved in the early 1970s from a 'liberal' feminist frame-
work and was particularly influential in North America. According to (Moser,
1993) it was a reaction to women being seen as passive beneficiaries of de-
velopment (Moser, 1993). The WID perspective marked an important cor-
rective, highlighting the fact that women need to be integrated into develop-
ment processes as active agents if efficient and effective development is to be
achieved. Under WID, women's subordination was seen in terms of their
exclusion from the market sphere, and the consequent limited access to and
control over resources. Programmes informed by Women in Development
Approach addressed women's practical needs by, for example, creating em-
ployment and income-generating opportunities, improving access to credit
and to education. Women's 'problem' was therefore diagnosed as insufficient
participation in a benign development process, through essentially an over-
sight by policy-makers. However, according to Hoogvelt (1997, 55) the prob-
lem with the Women in Development Approach was the view of women as a
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Unit 9 Women, Gender and Empowerment

unitary, analytic category. The debate among feminists began to rage as they
questioned this universal picture of women which assumed that women are
the same the world over. For example, according to Hoogvelt (1997), why
should society assume that women are the same the world over? What do
middle-class White women in New York have in common with rural Black
women growing coffee for exports in Africa, or with the cloth cutters in the
garment sweat shops of Asia? The result was that radical feminists sought an
answer in patriarchy, the notion namely that even if women are not the same,
their subordination by men is universal.

Activity 9.2
? 1. In your opinion, are women the same everywhere? Justify
your answer.

9.7 Criticisms of Women in Development Approach

According to Pearson (1992, 308) a major criticism of the Women in Devel-
opment approach is that its basic assumptions are flawed. It starts from the
premise that women have been excluded from development. But the truth is
that women's time, work, energy and skills are involved in every aspect of the
development process. According to (Pearson, 1992: 308) it is in the inequal-
ity of gender relations and the continuing subordination of women that en-
sures that women's contribution is not matched by recognition and remunera-
tion in social, political and economic terms.

9.8 Gender and Development (GAD)

The Gender and Development (GAD) approach to development policy and
practice focuses on the socially constructed basis of differences between men
and women and emphasises the need to challenge existing gender roles and
relations. GAD emerged from a frustration with the lack of progress of the
Women in Development policy in changing women's lives and in influencing
the broader development agenda.

GAD challenged the WID focus on women in isolation, seeing women's 'real'
problem as the imbalance of power between women and men. The Gender
and Development perspective therefore called for a synthesis of the issues of
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materialist political economy and the radical-feminist issues of patriarchy and

ideology (patriarchal ideology). Drawing on the socialist-feminist perspec-
tive, the GAD approach argues that women's status in society is deeply af-
fected by their material conditions of life and by their position in the national,
regional, and global economies. GAD also recognizes that women are deeply
affected by the nature of patriarchal power in their societies at the national,
community, and household levels. According to (Sen and Grown, 1987),
women's material conditions and patriarchal authority are both defined and
maintained by the accepted norms and values that define women's and men's
roles and duties in a particular society The result is that GAD adopts a two-
pronged approach to the study of women and development, investigating
women's material conditions and class position, as well as the patriarchal
structures and ideas that define and maintain women's subordination. The
focus is on relationships between women and men, not on women alone.
Gender relations are therefore seen as the key determinant of women's posi-
tion in society, not as immutable reflections of the natural order but as socially
constructed patterns of behaviour (the social construction of gender) which
can be changed if this is desired. According to (Moser, 1993) the GAD
approach focuses on the interconnection of gender, class, and race as women
experience oppression differently, according to their race, class, colonial his-
tory, culture, and position in the international economic order. Gender And
Development approach further recognizes the differential impacts of devel-
opment policies and practices on women and men and sees women as active
agents and not simply as recipients, of development. This Gender and Devel-
opment perspective thus calls into question both gender relations and the
broad development process.

By 1970, when the-United Nations General Assembly reviewed the results

of the First Development Decade of the 1960s, three factors that eventually
converge to foster the various approaches to women's development had be-
come evident:
1.) It was found that the industrialization strategies of the 1960s had been
ineffective and had, in fact, worsened the lives of the poor and the
women in Third World countries.
2.) Evidence was brought forward in Ester Boserup's (1970) now classic
book, Women's Role in Economic Development. Boserup, an agricul-
tural economist, used research data from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean,
and Latin America to highlight women's central positions in the eco-
nomic life of these societies, and she described the disruptive effects of
colonialism and modernization on the sexual division of labour through
the introduction of the international market economy. Among other things,
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Unit 9 Women, Gender and Empowerment

the introduction of market economies drew men away from production

based on family labour and gave them near-exclusive access to eco-
nomic and other resources. Boserup concluded that the economic sur-
vival and development of the Third World would depend heavily on
efforts to reverse this trend and to more fully integrate women into the
development process.
3.) The feminist movement re-emerged in Western countries around 1968,
alongside other social movements for civil rights. Although the move-
ment's energies were, for the most part, directed internally, some West-
ern women used their position to pressure their government's foreign-
aid offices to ensure that grants to recipient countries supported women
as well as men.

Activity 9.3
? 1. Differentiate between the Women in Development and the
Gender and Development approaches.

9.9 Mainstreaming Gender into Planning and

Policy Development
Tvedten et al (2008) observed that gender equality and the empowerment of
women has long been on the international development agenda, and more so
since the 1995 Beijing Conference and the tabling of the notion of 'gender
mainstreaming' (UN/DAW 2008). The issue has also entered national devel-
opment policies, becoming an integral part of most development plans and
poverty reduction strategies as a 'crosscutting issue' - ostensibly affecting
policies and interventions in all areas of national development.

Although many participatory approaches have paid attention to gender is-

sues, men's involvement has been partly affected by analysis that sees them as
the problem rather than as part of the solution. According to UNISDR, em-
powerment can be achieved for women if only they are recognized as knowl-
edge managers and in some aspects of agricultural production processes, as
the only bearer of relevant knowledge. The result is that real community change
and effective development must include women as planners, sources of knowl-
edge, decision-makers and implementers UNISDR. Furthermore, women's
empowerment is in line with Millennium Development Goal 3 (MDG 3) which
talks of promoting gender equality and empowering women. The target for
MDG Goal 3 is to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary edu-
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cation and at all levels by 2015. According to UNDP (2005, 18), the MDG
declaration resolves to promote gender equality and empowerment of women
as basic human rights. The Declaration states gender equality is the only way
to effectively combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate develop-
ment that is truly sustainable. Global progress has been assessed by measur-
ing gender equality in three areas: education, employment and political deci-
sion -making. The gender gap in primary school enrolment is closing though in
the developing world. This is seen as a first step towards easing inequalities
between women and men. In almost all developing regions, women receive
lower wages than men and are often relegated to insecure and poor paying
jobs. Though progress is being made, women lack equal representation at the
highest levels of government, holding only 16% of parliamentary seats world-
wide. Women continue to be less likely than men to learn to read and write.

9.10 Gender Mainstreaming

The concept of mainstreaming appeared for the first time during the United
Nations Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi in 1985 in a debate
on the role of women in development. That debate discussed the importance
of integrating the gender issue in development policies, as well as the need to
involve governments in the integration of gender equality through the design
and planning of policies and programmes. At the United Nations IV World
Conference on Women in Peking 1995 the mainstreaming strategy was taken
on by the Action Platform, where it was specified that governments and other
stakeholders should promote an active and visible policy for the cross-cutting
integration of gender in all public policies and programmes. The main concern
driving the promotion of this principle was the failure to consider the social
role of women in developing countries, or the absence of a gender perspec-
tive in the design of development policies. In fact, after the definition of the
mainstreaming strategy in Peking, many countries began to develop and to
promote mainstreaming in their own public institutions. For gender
mainstreaming to work properly, and for a true consolidation thereof to take
place, it is necessary to have clear political commitment and to allocate to it
sufficient resources, both financial and human. It is equally important to create
suitable mechanisms for the monitoring process, and to identify gender issues
and gender indicators for each of the sectors where there are gender differ-
ences and disparities. Therefore, mainstreaming has to be accompanied by
careful gender analyses. Even though mainstreaming may be an efficient in-
strument for 'generalising' gender policies, it may also be necessary to imple-
ment specific policies and programmes for women.
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Unit 9 Women, Gender and Empowerment

9.11 Summary
In this Unit we have examined the roots of gender inequality in society and
their subsequent impacts on development for women. We discussed the ma-
jor debates on women in the context of development that is the Women in
Development and The Gender and Development approaches. We concluded
the Unit by looking at how women are being mainstreamed into the process
of development.

9.12 References
Chinyowa, K. C. (1998)'Gender Development in Shona Literature' in
Chiwome, E. M and Gambahaya, Z (eds), Culture and Development:
Perspectives from the South, Mond Books, Harare, .
Mullings, L, (1976), "Women and Economic Change in Africa" in Harfkin, N.
J and Bay, E. G (eds) 1976, Women in Africa- Studies in Social and
Economic Change, Stanford University Press, Stanford
Pearson, R, (1992), "Gender Matters in Development in Allen", T and Tho-
mas, A (eds), Poverty and Development in the 1990s, Oxford, OUP
Sen, G and Grown, C, Development, Crises and Alternative Visions: Third
World Women's
Tvedten, I et al, (2008), Gender Policies and Feminisation of Poverty in
Mozambique, CMI Reports, 2008, Bergen, Norway
UN/ISDR, Gender Perspectives: Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction into
Climate Change Adaptation
UN-DAW, 2008, [Link]/womenwatch/daw/, Washington: UN Divi-
sion for the Advancement of Women

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 10 Unit Ten

Ethics in Development

10.0 Introduction

D
evelopment is continuous process that takes place in human society
which in its own is a complex adaptive system embedded in the natu
ral environment, yet another complex system. The two systems are
understood by Marshal (1998) as coevolving in a mutual interaction, with
each consisting of a myriad of subsystems that convolve in mutual interaction
as well. Such a relationship of systems and their subjects can only be func-
tional in a health way governed by ethical guidelines for conduct, behaviour
and practice of its practitioners.
Perspectives in Development Studies Module DS101

Ethical abidance in development studies is paramount considering that the

development process deals with such sensitive issues like war, politics, in-
equality, poverty, corruption, HIV and AIDS and many other issues. There is
a plethora of ethical dilemmas that are inherent in the development studies
and in the development process itself and thus a better way of handling them
is just being ethical. Ethical abidance in development studies is paramount
considering that the development process deals with such sensitive issues like
war, politics, inequality, poverty, corruption, HIV and AIDS and many other
issues. There is a plethora of ethical dilemmas that are inherent in the devel-
opment studies and in the development process itself and thus a better way of
handling them is just being ethical.

10.1 Objectives
In this Unit you should be able to:
„ define the term ethics
„ explain the fundamental principle so ethics
„ discuss the role of ethics in development

10.2 Understanding Ethics

Let us look at ethics as an independent concept. According to (FAO 2004),
despite its applicability to a variety of disciplines and institutions, ethics can
generally be understood as systematic and critical moral factor that guide
human conduct in a particular society or practice, FAO (2004). Porkin
(1986) looks at ethics as code of or a set of principles by which man live
while Purtill (1986) views ethics as either institutional or general life codes of
conduct in behaviour or practice. Thus, there is an interesting coherence in
the definitions of ethics given as guidelines of conduct behaviour and practice.
Ethics in their generality when used to analyze morality, rules and duties relate
very well to basic human interest in the breath and length of society with little
or no regard of varied cultural, political or economic structures. Taking into
cognisance the high dynamism of values from time to time and from society to
society, a constant moral inquiry couples any fact, act or law of the society
checking on its legitimacy and conformity to the social order, structure and
philosophy. The mutual interaction between people in their genders and their
environment can only be protected from abusive tendencies by external and
internal policies, technologies and activities by strict ethical abidance to con-
serve both biodiversity and valuable aspects of cultural identity and human
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Unit 10 Ethics in Development

rights without hiding any intention behind value neutrality. This is only a closer
look at ethics in a very wide and general way. Historically, Development Proc-
ess is philosophically guided by the Kantian duty based ethics, the moral
obligation. Amartya (2000) postulates that the development process should
deploy technologies and development policies with complete regard of what
is social, cultural and ethical.

We can, with no doubt now, institutionalize ethics in development without any

problems. The development dialogue and process is such a complex activity,
highly varying from context to context and from innovation to innovation. Every
practice, innovation and initiative in development with moral recognition is
advocated for to further and proceed in the best interest of human and non
human wellbeing. We look at the relevance of ethics in development Issues
later in this Unit. Let us now look at some specific aspects of ethics in Devel-
opment Studies.

10.3 Fundamental Principles of Ethics

The following principles are relevant to development studies and process:
o Human dignity
o Human rights and justice
o Beneficence
o Cultural pluralism and diversity
o Responsibility for biosphere
o Participation and equality
o Solidarity and co-operation
o Professionalism

10.3.2 Human dignity

Sawhnney (2000) argues that ethics in development should not only focus on
the moral obligation of the rich to meet the basic needs of the poor. On the
other hand, ethics as well should not be a propagation of an environment that
furthers the interests of the rich using the poor and at the expense of the poor.
This principle refers to the obligation of development practitioners and stake
holders to undertake all development processes in observance of human dig-
nity. Development should in all respect and advocacy, primarily promote uni-
versal respect for the human person. Any attempt to develop a society or
people is expected to be highly sensitive to the dignity and protection of the
personal domain of each individual regardless of ethnicity, level of education,
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political affiliation, geographical origin, race or colour. Development must be

rational and fully embrace the primary goals of humanity such as plurality of
culture, liberty, equality and remain sensitive to the diversity of social values
as well as social structures. It should not philanthropically create universal
and utopian common technological, social or political solutions to problems
or what seem to be problems from different individuals, groups and societies
whether contemporary or traditional.

10.3.2 Human rights and justice

Development should realize and promote human rights without treating the
development community citizens as subjects or objects but equal participants
whose rights should not be violated in any way. The development process
must promote autonomy, freedom and access to social and legal justice.

10.3.3 Beneficence
Development should consider the protection and avoidance of harm on the
local communities and individuals as well as promoting human welfare and
optimizing benefits of social practices. Analogically, FAO (2004) cited the
interactive relationship between a fisher and the aquatic ecosystem where the
livelihoods and safety of fishing communities need to be evaluated. Develop-
ment practitioners and stakeholders should investigate the development process
and discourse and make sure it is carried out in the best interest of human
relations, safety and quality of services. Precisely, the consequence to general
welfare should be put in focus while the whole process should consider and
address the deep concerns of beneficial relationship and reciprocity.

10.3.4 Responsibility of biosphere

The biodiversity is the major concern of this principle. It advocates that the
ecosystem well-being is a sine qua non of the development process where
current development initiatives care for the needs of future generations and
the natural environment as called for the virtues of sustainable development.
The mutual interaction of the environment and its load should not be over
looked to pave way to those things referred to as development.

10.3.5 Cultural pluralism and diversity

Development Studies as a discipline is cross cultural and cross disciplinary
and the most important question to be answered here is 'whose ethics count?'
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Unit 10 Ethics in Development

This ethical principle refers to the need to take different value system into
account with the limits of other principles. The development process must
appreciate the cultural diversity and involving people to define and explain
how their interest can be addressed in their particularity of their cultural set-
ting. The ethics and the perspectives of the participants and the communities
in which the development is to be conducted should be taken seriously.

10.3.6 Participation and equity

Participation and equity can sometimes be referred to as dialogical ethics,
popular participation or participatory methods to development where those
concerned with the development are not just mere consumers and recipients
of development plan but equal and responsible partners. The development
dialogue should involve at all stages the people concerned to autonomously
participate. Participation according to Mayoux (2005), involves significant
contribution by all stake holders (sponsors, local people and policy making
authorities) in development to define and implement development plans and
eradication of poverty and empowerment. According to Holmes (1973), ethi-
cally, such participation must be guided by virtues of Kant's philosophically
concept of 'autonomous will' where participation must not be coercive on
imposed development processes, The development process must be guided
by the acknowledgement of no higher authority than the demands of reason
which lay the universal demands as well as emphasizing on right motives and
inherent values.

10.3.7 Solidarity and cooperation

Solidarity coop principle emphasizes the importance collaborative action
sharing of scientific and other forms of knowledge and nondiscrimination,
FAO (2004). The need for the primacy of individual and local principles,
transparent policies, professionalism trust and tolerance both at policy mak-
ing and among stake holders should underlay the development process in any
context of development.

10.3.8 Professionalism
Development process involves working with participants at completely dif-
ferent levels of social, economic, political and cultural power. This principle
calls for a professional approach to development process with due respect
the diversities of the stake holders. Researchers in development should pro-
mote voluntary participation in research, report research findings, being fair
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and observance of biodiversity. Protection of the development virtues and the

host of development practitioners is also very important in this principle.

10.4 The Role of Ethics in Development

There is a plethora of ethical considerations in development and students are
encouraged to read wide and have a reliable ethical appreciation and how
they apply in different development contexts. This time we want to explore
the role of ethics in development. Ethics in general is the basis of any practice
and behaviour as we discussed above but their roles are varied as we shall
see in the discussions to follow.

Basically, ethics in their formulation and in general are meant to find and de-
fine the nature of a good, ideal and absolute practice in development and in
various disciplines. Ethics, according to Holmes (1973), define the culture
and identity of a profession by outlining the parameters of the practitioners'
conduct and relationship. In other words ethics shape the way and method of
operation regulating and providing a systematic virtuous behaviour for the
development practitioners and all agents of development. The world wide
development process requires a strong relationship of international initiatives,
policies and practice of development institutes and stake holders. It is yet
another role of ethics to regulate the professional relationships of these im-
portant players in the development drama. The ethical power of reasoning
should bring the stronger relationships among the practitioners both at inter-
national and local levels as well as with other professionals. Boron in Holmes
(1973) likened humanity to a swarm of bees each pursuing its own ends, yet
by nature composing a harmonious and peaceable realm. In the same manner
development is a complex process that is characterised by different players
each pursuing its own end but the development process should ethically pre-
vail in harmony.

On the other hand, ethics provide a moral and legal protection to the devel-
opment target areas for human life, the social system and natural environment
against abusive practices and policies. As a measure of achieving sustainable
development, ethics regulate the process to take care of the future genera-
tions and environment. In general, ethics mainly create and promote a sus-
tainable more egalitarian society that shares wealth or slows down consumer
oriented growth and ensuring development process that is done in the best
interest and benefit of the local development community.

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Unit 10 Ethics in Development

Activity 10.1
?
1. Define ethics.
2. Name four principles relevant to Development Studies.
Explain how each influences the thinking of a developer.

10.5 Summary
In this Unit, we defined ethics. We outlined the fundamental principles of
ethics and how they influence development.

10.6 References
Amaitya S. (2000) East and West. The research of reason. New York Books.
New York
Dower N. (2009) What is Development Ethics [Link]
[Link]/what_is 2/6/10 1013AD
Swahney N (2009) Understanding Ethics in Development. http//:[Link]/
hdr 2000/[Link]
FAO (2004) The role of ethics. Key kjavic Iceland
Porkin 1986
Holmes. A.F. (1973) Ethics Downers Grove, III: InterVasity Press

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