MASTER OF COMPUTER

OMCA002: Fundamentals of Mathematics

APPLICATIONS
SEMESTER 1

OMCA002
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS
Unit: 1 – Set Theory 1
OMCA002: Fundamentals of Mathematics

Unit 1
Set Theory
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Fig No /
SL SAQ /
Topic Table / Page No
No Activity
Graph
1 Introduction - -
3
1.1 Objectives - -
2 Sets and Their Representations - - 4-7
3 The Empty Set - - 8
4 Finite and Infinite Sets - - 9-10
5 Equal and Equivalent Sets - - 11
6 Subsets - - 12
7 Summary - - 13

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1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of set is basic in all branches of mathematics. It has proved to be of particular
importance in the foundations of relations and functions, sequences, geometry, probability theory
etc. The study of sets has many applications in logic philosophy, etc.

The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845 – 1918 A.D.).
He first encountered sets while working on problems on trigonometric series. In this unit, we
discuss some basic definitions and operations involving sets.

1.1. Objectives
At the end of the unit, you would be able to
Explain the concept of sets

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2. SETS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS

In everyday life, we often speak of collection of objects of a particular kind such as pack of cards,
a herd of cattle, a crowd of people, cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come across various
collections, for example, collection of natural numbers, points in plane, prime numbers, etc. More
specially, we examine the collections:
i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
ii) The rivers of India
iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely a, e, i , o, u
iv) Prime factors of 210, namely 2, 3, 5 and 7
v) The solutions of an equation x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 viz, 2 and 3

We note that each of the above collections is a well-defined collection of objects, where in we can
definitely decide whether a given object belongs to a given collection or not. For example, we can
say that the river Nile does not belong to collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the river
Ganga does belong to this collection. However, the following collections are not well defined:
i) The collection of bright students in Class XI of a school
ii) The collection of renowned mathematicians of the world
iii) The collection of beautiful girls of the world
iv) The collection of fat people

For example, in (ii) above, the criterion for determining a mathematician as most renowned may
vary from person to person. Thus, it is not a well defined collection.

We shall say that a set is a well-defined collection of objects. The following points may be noted:

i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.

ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z etc.
iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z etc.

If a is an element of a set A, we say that ‘a belongs to A’. The Greek symbol  is used to denote
the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a  A. If b is not an element of a set A, we write b  A and
read ‘b does not belong to A’. Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a  V but l 
V. In the set P of prime factors of 30, 3  P but 15  P.

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There are two methods of representing a set:

i) Roster or tabular form

ii) Set builder form.

i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements being separated by commas
and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of all even positive integers less
than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more examples of representing a set
in roster form are given below:

a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}. Note that in roster
form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial. Thus, the above set can also
be represented as { 1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.

b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabets is {a, e, i, o, u}.

c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5,. . .}. The three dots tell us that
the list is endless.

It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not generally repeated,
i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set of letters forming the word
“SCHOOL” is
{S, C, H, O, L}.

ii) In set builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is
not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set “{a, e, i, o, u}” all
the elements possess a common property, each of them is a vowel in the English alphabet
and no other letter possesses this property. Denoting this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}.

It may be observed that we describe the set by using a symbol x for elements of the set (any other
symbol like the letters y, z etc. could also be used in place of x). After the sign of ‘colon’ write the
characteristic property possessed by the elements of the set and then enclose the description
within braces. The above description of the set V is read as ‘The set of all
x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet’. In this description the braces stand for ‘the set of
all’, the colon stands for ‘such that’.

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For example, the following description of a set

A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10)

is read as “the set of all x such that x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10”. Hence, the numbers 4,
5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the elements of set A.

If we denote the sets described above in (a), (b) and (c) in roster form by A, B and C, respectively,
then A, B and C can also be represented in set builder form as follows
A = {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B = {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C = {z : z is an odd natural number}.

Example: Write the set of all vowels in the English alphabet which precede q.

Solution: The vowels which precede q are a, e, i, o. Thus A = {a, e, i, o} is the set of all vowels in
the English alphabet which precede q.

Example: Write the set of all positive integers whose cube is odd.

Solution: The cube of an even integer is also an even integer. So, the members of the required
set cannot be even. Also, cube of an odd integer is odd. So, the members of the required set are
all positive odd integers. Hence, in the set builder form we write this set as {x : x is an odd positive
integer} or equivalently as
{2k + 1 : k  0, k is an integer}

Example: Write the set of all real numbers which cannot be written as the quotient of two integers
in the set builder form.

Solution: We observe that the required numbers can not be rational numbers because a rational
p
number is a number in the form , where p, q are integers and q ¹ 0. Thus, these must be real
q

and irrational. Hence, in set builder form we write this set as

{x : x is real and irrational}

1 2 3 4 5 6 
Example: Write the set  , , , , ,  in the set builder form.
2 3 4 5 6 7

Solution: Each member in the given set has the denominator one more than the numerator. Also,
the numerators begin from 1 and do not exceed 6. Hence, in the set builder form the given set is

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 n 
x : x  , n is a natural number and 1  n  6 
 n 1 

Example: Match each of the sets on the left described in the roster form with the same set on the
right described in the set builder form:

i) { L, I, T, E) a) {x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}

ii) {0) b) {x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1 = 1}
iv) {3, – 3} d) {x : x is a letter of the word LITTLE}

Solution: Since in (d), there are six letters in the word LITTLE and two letters T and L are repeated,
so (i) matches (d). Similarly (ii) matches (c) as x + 1 = 1 implies x = 0. Also, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 are all
divisors of 18. So, (iii) matches (a). Finally, x2 – 9 = 0 implies. x = 3, –3. So, (iv) matches (b).

Example: Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.

Solution: The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form is {1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6}.

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3. THE EMPTY SET

We will understand this concept with the help of example

Consider the set {x : x is an integer, x2 + 1 = 0}. We know that there is no integer whose square is
–1. So, the above set has no elements.

We now define set B as follows:

B = {x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI}.

We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X and XI. Hence, the set
B contains no element at all.

Consider the set

A = {x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school}

We can go to the school and count the number of students presently studying in Class XI in the
school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.

Definition: A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or null set or the void
set.

According to this definition B is an empty set while A is not. The empty set is denoted by the
symbol ‘’. We give below a few examples of empty sets.
i) Let P = {x: 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number }.
Then P is an empty set, because there is no natural number between
1 and 2.

ii) Let Q = {x : x2 - 2 = 0 and x is rational}.

Then, Q is the empty set, because the equation x2 - 2 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational number
x.

iii) Let R = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}

Then R is the empty set, because 2 is the only even prime number.

iv) Let S = {x : x2 = 4, and x is an odd integer}. Then, S is the empty set, because equation x2
= 4 is not satisfied by any value of x which is an odd integer.

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4. FINITE AND INFINITE SETS

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5), B = {a, b, c, d, e, f} and C = {men in the world}.
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements does C
contain ? As it is, we do not know the exact number of elements in C, but it is some natural number
which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set A, we mean the number of
distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n(A). If n(A) is some finite number, then A is a
finite set, otherwise the set A is said to be an infinite set. For example, consider the set, N, of
natural numbers. We see that n(N), i.e., the number of elements of N is not finite since there is no
natural number which equals n(N). We, thus, say that the set of natural number is an infinite set.

Definition: A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is called finite.
Otherwise, the set is called infinite.

We shall denote several set of numbers by the following symbols:

N : the set of natural numbers
Z : the set of integers
Q : the set of rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z+ : the set of positive Integers
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers
R+ : the set of positive real numbers

We consider some examples:

i) Let M be the set of days of the week. Then M is finite.

ii) Q, the set of all rational numbers is infinite.

iii) Let S be the set of solution (s) of the equation x2 - 16 = 0. Then S is finite.

iv) Let G be the set of all points on a line. Then G is infinite.

When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set within braces { }.
It is not always possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within braces { } because the
number of elements of such a set is not finite. However, we represent some of the infinite sets in

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the roster form by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the structure of the set followed
(or preceded) by three dots.

For instance, {1, 2, 3, 4, ... } is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, .. . } is the set of odd
natural numbers and {..., – 3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } is the set of integers. But the set of real numbers
cannot be described in this form, because the elements of this set do not follow any particular
pattern.

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5. EQUAL AND EQUIVALENT SETS

Given two sets A and B. If every element of A is also an element of B and if every element of B is
also an element of A, the sets A and B are said to be equal. Clearly, the two sets have exactly the
same elements.

Definition: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements and we
write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A ¹ B

We consider the following examples:

i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, } and B = {3, 1, 4, 2).

Then A = B.

ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors of 30. Obviously,
the set A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of 30 and are less than
6.

Let us consider two sets L = {1, 2, 3, 4} and M = {1, 2, 3, 8}. Each of them has four elements but
they are not equal.

Definition: Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they have the same number of
elements. We write A » B.

For example, let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Then A and B are equivalent sets.

Obviously, all equal sets are equivalent, but all equivalent sets are not equal.

Example: Find the pair of equal sets, if any, giving reasons:

A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5}, C = {x : x - 5 = 0}, D = {x:x2 = 25}

E = {x : x is a positive integral root of the equation x2 – 2x – 15 = 0}

Solution: Since 0 A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E. Therefore, A  B,
A  C, A  D, A  E. B = but none of the other sets are empty. Hence B  C, B  D and B  E.
C = {5}, since {5, –5}  D, hence C ¹ D. Since E = {5}, C = E. D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}. Therefore
D  E. Thus, the only pair of equal sets are C and E.

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6. SUBSETS
Consider the sets S and T, where S denotes the set of all students in your school and T denotes
the set of all students in your class. We note that every element of T is also an element of S. We
say that T is a subset of S.

Definition: If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of
B or A is contained in B. We write it as A  B.

If at least one element of A does not belong to B, then A is not a subset of B. We write it as A 
B.

We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every element of A is in B. It
is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If it so happens that every element of
B is also in A, then we shall also have B  A. In this case, A and B are the same sets so that we
have A  B and B A which implies A = B.

It follows from the definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A A. Since the empty set f
has no elements, we agree to say that f is a subset of every set. We now consider some examples

i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbers and we write Q  R.

ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of 56, then B is a subset
of A, and we write B  A.

iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6}, then A  B and B  A
and hence A = B.

iv) Let A = {a, e, i, o, u}, B = {a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B. Also B is not a subset of
A. We write A  B and B  A.

v) Let us write down all the subsets of the set {1, 2}. We know f is a subset of every set. So f
is a subset of {1, 2}. We see that {1}, {2} and {l, 2} are also subsets of {1,2}. Thus the set
{1,2} has, in all, four subsets, viz. ,, {1}, {2} and {1,2}.

Definition: Let A and B be two sets. If A  B and A ¹ B, then A is called a proper subset of B and
B is called a superset of A. For example, A= {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Definition: If a set A has only one element, then we call it a singleton set. Thus {a } is a singleton.

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7. SUMMARY
This unit tells us about sets and their representations. We study the concepts of Empty sets, Finite
and Infinite sets, Equal sets. All the concepts discussed are well illustrated by standard examples.

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