SWK GEOGRAPHY NOTES CLASS11

Chapter-1
Geography as a
Discipline
Geography: The word ‘geography ‘ is derived from two
Greek words geo= earth, graphos=description. Some
scholars defined geography as the description of the earth
as the abode of human beings.

Geo-morphology: It is concerned with the study of

landforms, their evolution and related processes.

Climatology: It is concerned with the study of structure of

atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and
climatic types and regions.

Hydrology: It studies the realm of water over the surface

of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers and other water
bodies and its effect on different life forms including
human life and their activities.

Soil Geography: It is concerned with the study the

processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility
status, distribution and use.

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Social/Cultural Geography: It is concerned with the study

of society and its spatial dynamics as well as the
cultural elements contributed by the society.

Bio-geography: It has emerged as a result of the interface

between physical geography and human geography. It has
three branches:
 Plant Geography,
 Zoo Geography and
 Ecology.

Plant Geography: It studies the spatial pattern of natural

vegetation in their habitats.

Zoo Geography: It studies the spatial patterns and

geographic characteristics of animals and their habitats.

Ecology: It is concerned with the scientific study of the

habitats characteristic of species.

Environmental Geography: It is concerned with

environmental problems such as land gradation, pollution and
environmentconservation.

Who was the first to coin the term

‘Geography’?
ERATOSTHENES, A GREEK SCHOLAR
(276-194 BC)in the third century.
His famous book was called ‘Geographia.’

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What is the origin of the

word ‘Geography’?

The word ‘geography ‘ is

derived from two Greek words
geo= earth,
graphos=description.
Some scholars defined
geography as the description
of the earth as the abode of
human beings.

How can we say that the earth is ‘multidimensional’?

Many Sciences developed to describe the physical features

of the earth such as Geology, Pedology, Oceanography
Botany Zoology and
Meteorology & Cultural features of the earth such as
Economics, History, Sociology Political Science,
Anthropology.

How does Geography differ from other subjects?

Geography differs from other subjects in terms of matter

and methodology.
Geography derives its data from Social Sciences and
Natural Sciences.

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What do you mean by ‘areal differentiation’?

 Areal differentiation represents one of the classic

philosophical approaches to geographic inquiry.

 A central concept of areal differentiation is that the

surface of the earth may be divided into regions, which
may be distinguished and categorised using various
spatial criteria.

 Thus, areal differentiation provides the theoretical

foundation for regional geography, by conceptualising
space as consisting of identifiable units that may be
distinguished from one another on the basis of a set of
phenomena or criteria.

 When there is similarity and dissimilarity among the

physical and cultural features on the earth surface, it
is called aerial differentiation.

What do Geographers study?

 A geographer is a scholar whose area of study is
geography, the study of Earth’s natural environment and
human society.
 They study the variations and association of the features
on the earth surface e.g. Cropping pattern differs from
place to place and it is due to difference in the climate,
soil, demand, transport facility, capacity of the farmer.
 A geographer also studies the cause and effect
relationships.

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 The interaction between man and nature is highly dynamic

and not static; so it is also called as the study of the
relation between unstable earth and untrusting man.

What is the relation between man and nature?

 Humans are sophisticated and evolved animals who have

modified the natural environment to make it suitable
for living.
 While human dependency on nature has been decreased
over the process of evolution, people still demonstrate
many forms of nature contentedness.
 This includes emotional attachment to nature,
perception of themselves as a part of nature, and
activities aimed at nature protection.
 Human is an integral part of nature and nature has
imprints of man.

What is the effect of nature on man?

 Being in nature, or even viewing scenes of nature,

reduces anger, fear, and stress and increases pleasant
feelings.
 Exposure to nature not only makes you feel better
emotionally, it contributes to your physical well being,
reducing blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension,
and the production of stress hormones.
 It may even reduce mortality. Food clothing, shelter
and occupation of man are decided by the nature.

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How does technology help man?

–to loosen the shackles of the physical conditions.
–to develop resources and utilise them.
–to reach the higher needs of the life. It increased the
production of the crops& mobility of labor.

How can we say that Geography is an integrated

discipline?

 It is a discipline of synthesis; it includes spatial and

temporal synthesis.
 Its approach is holistic in nature.
 It recognizes the fact that the world is a system of
interdependence.
 The present world is a global village.
 The efficient transport and communication helped the
world to become unified village.
 The audiovisual media helped the data to be enriched.
Technology provided better chances of monitoring
natural phenomena as well as the economic and social
parameters.
 Geography as an integrating discipline has interface with
numerous natural and social sciences.

What is the basic objective of Sciences & Social

Sciences?
 The basic aim of Science and Social Science is to
understandthe reality of the nature.

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How do other subjects help Geography as an integrated

subject?

 History helps in knowing the man-made activities;

 Physics helps to calculate the effect of climate on man.
 Economics helps to understand the effect of human
activities on the development of the country.
 The geographical factors modified the course of history.
 The change in the climate has influence on the
occupation.

What is the importance of PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY?

 Physical geography
includes study of
Lithosphere,
Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere &
Biosphere- each
element is very
important for human
beings.
 Landforms provide
base for agriculture, industries, transport and
communication, and settlements. Mountains provide water
to rivers,
 forests-center for tourist spots.

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 –Climate influences on the cropping pattern, livestock,

food and clothes of the people.
 Climate and precipitation influence the type of forests.
Oceans provide food,water transport, and influence the
climate; they are the source of hydrological cycle.

(i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study of land forms,

their evolution and related processes.
(ii) Climatology encompasses the study of structure of
atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and
climatic types and regions.
(iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water over the
surface of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers and
other water bodies and its effect on different life forms
including human life and their activities.
(iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the processes of
soil formation, soil types, their fertility status,
distribution and use.

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Chapter 3
Interior of the Earth
Only Indirect Evidences

• Exogenic +Endogenic forces =

Shaping of landform

• Earth radius = 6730 km (centre

can‟t be reached

• Knowledge of interior based on

estimate and inference (direct
observation & analysis)

• Matter from mining (temp.,

pressure & density )

• Meteors reaching earth

• Gravitation (more near poles), magnetic field (magnetic material in

crust), and seismic activity

Direct Sources

• Deep mines (gold mines – 3 to 4 km)

• “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”

• Deepest drill – Kola, Arctic Ocean 12 km deep

• Volcanic eruptions – magma

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Sources of Information about the Interior

• The earth‟s radius is 6,370 km.

• As no one can reach the centre of

the earth, most of our knowledge
about the interior of the earth is
largely based on estimates and
inferences.

• There are two types of source of

information available:

→ Direct Sources

→ Indirect Sources (Analysis of

materials)

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Direct Sources
• Surface rock or the rocks we get from mining areas.

→ Example: Gold mines in South Africa which are as deep as 3-4 km.

• Scientists have taken up a number of projects to penetrate deeper

depths to explore the conditions in the crustal portions.

→ Example: “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and “Integrated Ocean

Drilling Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far
reached a depth of 12 km.

• Volcanic eruption.

→ As and when the molten material (magma) is thrown onto the surface
of the earth, during volcanic eruption it becomes available for
laboratory analysis.

Indirect Sources

• We know through the mining activity that temperature and pressure

increase with the increasing distance from the surface towards the
interior in deeper depths.

→ Moreover, it is also known that the density of the material also

increases with depth.

→ Knowing the total thickness of the earth, scientists have estimated

the values of temperature, pressure and the density of materials at
different depths.

• Another source of information are the meteors that at times reach

the earth.

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→ However, it may be noted that the material that becomes available

for analysis from meteors, is not from the interior of the earth but
the material and the structure observed in the meteors are similar too
that of the earth.

→ They are solid bodies developed out of materials same as, or similar
to, our planet.

• The other indirect sources include gravitation, magnetic field, and

seismic activity.

→ The gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on

the surface. It is greater near the poles and less at the equator.

→ Magnetic surveys also provide information about the distribution of

magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and thus, provide information
about the distribution of materials in this part.

→ Seismic activity is one of the most important sources of information

about the interior of the earth.

Earthquake
• An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth.

• It is caused due to release of energy, which generates waves that

travel in all directions.

Why does the earth shake?

• Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions.

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• As the overlying rock strata press them, the friction locks them
together. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time
overcomes the friction.

→ As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past
one another abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and the energy
waves travel in all directions.

• The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an

earthquake, alternatively, it is called the hypocentre.

• The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It

is the first one to experience the waves.

Earthquake Waves

• All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere (depth up to 200

km from the surface of the earth.)

• An instrument called „seismograph‟ records the waves reaching the

surface.

• Earthquake waves are basically of two types

→ Body waves

→ Surface waves.

• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus
and move in all directions travelling through the body of the earth.

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new
set of waves called surface waves.

→ These waves move along the surface.

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• Body Waves are of two types - P-Waves and S-Waves

P-Waves

• These waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface
and are also called „primary waves‟.

• These are similar to sound waves and travel through gaseous, liquid
and solid materials as sound.

• P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.

S-Waves

• These waves arrive at the surface with some time lag and are called
secondary waves.

• These waves can travel only through solid materials which has helped
scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

• Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves

move in different directions.

• These waves are more destructive as they cause displacement of

rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.

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• The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave

direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests
in the material through which they pass.

Shadow Zone

• Earthquake waves get recorded in seismo-graphs located at far off

locations. However, there exist some specific areas where the waves
are not reported. Such a zone is called the „shadow zone‟.

• A zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was identified as the
shadow zone for both the types of waves.

• The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow
zone of S-wave is much larger than that of the P-waves.

• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth

between 105° and 145° away from the epicentre.

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Types of Earthquakes
• Tectonic Earthquakes: generated due to
sliding of rocks along a fault plane.

• Volcanic Earthquakes: A special class of

tectonic earthquake. These are confined
to areas of active volcanoes.

• Collapse earthquakes: In the areas of

intense mining activity, sometimes the
roofs of underground mines collapse
causing minor tremors.

• Explosion earthquakes: Ground shaking may also occur due to the

explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.

• Reservoir induced earthquakes: The earthquakes that occur in the

areas of large reservoirs.

Measuring Earthquakes
• The earthquake events are scaled either
according to the magnitude or intensity of
the shock. Richter Scale

• The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude is

expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10. Mercalli Scale

• The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist.

The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

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Effects of Earthquakes
(i) Ground Shaking

(ii) Differential ground

settlement

(iii) Land and mud slides

(iv) Soil liquefaction

(v) Ground lurching

(vi) Avalanches

(vii) Ground displacement

(viii) Floods from dam and

levee failures

(ix) Fires

(x) Structural collapse

(xi) Falling objects

(xii) Tsunami

• The first six listed above have some bearings upon landforms, while
others may be considered the effects causing immediate concern to
the life and properties of people in the region.

• The effect of tsunami would occur only if the epicentre of the

tremor is below oceanic waters and the magnitude is sufficiently high.

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Structure of the Earth

The Crust

• It is the outermost solid part of the earth.

• It is brittle in nature.

• The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental
areas. Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.

• The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain

systems.

• The type of rock found in the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean
density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3

The Mantle

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.

• It extends from Moho‟s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.

• The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere.

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→It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface
during volcanic eruptions.

• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called
lithosphere.

→ Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km.

• The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in solid

state

The Core

• The core-mantle boundary is located at the depth of 2,900 km.

• The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state.

• The density of material at the mantle core boundary is around 5

g/cm33

• The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by

nickel and iron.

• It is sometimes referred to as the nife layer.

Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

• A volcano is a place where gases, ashes

and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to
the ground.

• A volcano is called an active volcano if the

materials mentioned are being released or
have been released out in the recent past.

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• Volcanoes are classified on the basis of:

→ Nature of eruption

→ Form developed at the surface.

Types of Volcanoes

Shield Volcanoes

• Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all
the volcanoes on the earth.

• The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples.

• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is

very fluid when erupted.

• They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent;

otherwise, they are characterised by lowexplosivity.

Composite Volcanoes

• These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more

viscous lavas than basalt.

• These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions.

• The Deccan Traps from India, presently covering most of the

Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood basalt province.

Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes

• These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.

• There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that

stretches through all the ocean basins.

• The central portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.

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Volcanic Landforms

Intrusive Forms

• The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops

into igneous rocks.

• The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also
while the lava is still in the crustal portion.

• Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are
classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks
(cooling in the crust).

• The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different
forms and these forms are called intrusive forms.

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Caldera

• These are the most explosive of the earth‟s volcanoes.

• They are usually so explosive that when they erupt they tend to
collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.

• The collapsed depressions are called calderas. Flood Basalt Provinces

• These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long
distances.

• Some parts of the world are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick

basalt lava flows.

Batholiths

• Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

• They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes

remove the overlying materials.

• They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be
several km. These are granitic bodies.

Lacoliths

• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and
connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.

• It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only

these are located at deeper depths.

• It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way
to the surface.

Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills

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• As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend
to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane.

• It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a

saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.

• A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of

synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy
materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of
magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are
called the phacoliths.

• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called
sill or sheet, depending on the thickness of the material. The thinner
ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called
sills.

Dykes

• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures
developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.

• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure.

Such structures are called dykes.

• These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western
Maharashtra area.

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Chapter-4
Distribution of Oceans
and Continents
• Convective flow: The heated material rises to the surface,
spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper depths.
This cycle is repeated over and over to generate what scientists call
a convection cell or convective flow.

• PANGAEA: The super continent was named PANGAEA, which

meant all earth.

• PANTHALASSA: The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA,

meaning all water.

• Rim of Fire: The ring of the Pacific is also called rim of fire due
to the existence of active volcanoes in this area.

• Convergent Boundaries: Where the crust is destroyed as one

plate dived under another, it is called convergent boundaries.

• Subduction Zone: The location where sinking of a plate occurs is

called a subduction zone.

• Divergent Boundaries: Where new crust is generated as the

plates pull away from each other, these are called divergent

boundaries.

• Spreading Sites: The sites where the plates move away from

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each other are called spreading sites.

• Transform Boundaries: Where the crust is neither produced nor

destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.

• Tectonic plate: It is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid

rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic

lithosphere. Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as

rigid units. .

• Tillite: It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of

glaciers.

• Sea Floor Spreading: The deep trenches have deep-seated

earthquake occurrences while in the mid- oceanic ridge areas,

the quake foci have shallow depths. These facts and a detailed

analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either sides of the

mid-oceanic ridge led Hess in 1961 to propose his hypothesis. It

was called the “sea floor spreading”.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT: ABRAHAM ORTELIUS a Duchy map

maker 1596 first proposed the possibility of joining the continents

such as America with Europe and Africa ANTONIO PELLEGRINI

drew the map showing the three continents together

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ALFRED WEGENER

a German meteorologist put forth

THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY.

According to him,

•All continents formed a single

continental mass called PANGAEA.
•All oceans formed a single universal
ocean called PANTHALASSA. •AROUND 200 mya THE PANGAEA
BEGAN TO SPLIT INTO TWO LARGE MASSES CALLED
LAURASIA and

•GONDWANA LAND. By further splitting Laurasia formed northern

continents and Gondwana land formed southern continents.

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EVIDENCES TO SUPPORT THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT

1. The matching of continents (jig-saw fit)

A. the shorelines of S. America and Africa have remarkable match

B. a map was produced by Bullard in 1964 to show the jigsaw fit of

these two continents.

C. it was fit around 1000 fathom line of the shoreline

2. ROCKS OF SAME AGE ACROSS THE OCEANS

A. the belt of ancient rocks of 2000 my from Brazil coast matches

with those of Western Africa

B. Marine deposits of South America and Africa belong to Jurassic

age.

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3. TILLITE

A. sedimentary rock formed out of glacial deposits

B. sediments from India have similar counter parts at different

continents of south.

C. tillile indicates prolonged glaciations

D. The same glaciations is found in Africa, Falklands, Madagascar,

Antarctica and Australia

E. the glacial tillite indicates that unambiguous evidence of palaeo

climates and drifting of continents.

4. PLACER DEPOSITS

a. Formation of placer deposits of gold in Ghana coast has no source

rock.

a. The gold bearing veins of rocks are found in Brazil

5. DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS

• Identical species of animals and plants are found along the coastal
regions of the different continents.

• lemurs occurs in India, Madagascar and Africa.

• The contiguous Land mass was called LEMURIA

• the fossils of mesosaurus were found in only South Africa and

Brazil.

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FORCES FOR DRIFTING THE CONTINENTS

1. Wegner suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting

of the continents was caused by

A. POLAR FLEEING FORCE

B. TIDAL FORCE

Possible driving forces for plate tectonics:

 bottom lithosphere tractions by convection currents.

 trench pull (covered earlier).
 ridge push (sliding off a high, crust in compression).
 trench suck (rollback).
 global expanding or contracting forces.
 membrane forces on spinning ellipsoid (e.g. variants of polar
fleeing forces).

Limuria

 Lemuria is a hypothetical lost

land located in either the
Indian or the Pacific Ocean,
as postulated by a now-
discredited 19th-century
scientific theory.
 The idea was then adopted by
the occultists of the time and
consequently has been
incorporated into pop culture.
 Some Tamil writers have associated it with Kumari Kandam, a
mythical lost continent with an ancient Tamil civilization located
south of presentday India in the Indian Ocean.

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TIDAL FORCE

Wegener suggested that these two forces are responsible for the
movement of plates. Most of the scholars consider that these
forces are not sufficient to move the plates.

POST DRIFT STUDIES

Information collected from the ocean mapping is more useful to

study the continental drift

Convectional current theory

It was proposed by ARTHUR HOLMES IN 1930 Due to difference

in the temperature currents are formed due to disintegration of
radioactive materials inside the earth.

MAPPING OCEAN
FLOOR

1. Existence of ridges
and deep trenches
nearby continental
margins 2. Mid oceanic
ridge is the most active
for volcanic eruptions

3. The ocean floor is

much younger than the
continents

4. Rocks of equal
distance of the ridge
have similar chemical
composition and age

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OCEAN FLOOR CONFIGURATION

The ocean floor is segmented into three major divisions Based on

depth and configuration

1. Continental margins

a. Form transitional zone between continental shore and deep sea

basins
b. They include continental slope, shelf, continental rise and deep
oceanic trenches ABYSSAL PLAINS

[Link] PLAINS

[Link] BETWEEN CONTINENTAL MARIGN AND MID

OCEANIC RIDGE
4. CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTS GET DEPOSITED

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES

1. all volcanoes and earthquakes are paralle to the coast

2. this line also coinsides with mid- atalantic ridge

3. alpine hymalayan system

4. around the pacific ocean it is called ring of fire Mid oceanic ridges

5. Interconnected mountain system within the ocean

6. Longest mountain chain in the ocean floor

7. Consist of central rift system at the crust

8. Intense volcanic activity is found

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CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING

1 .it was proposed by Hess in 1961

2. he believed that new lava pushes out the plates from the mid

oceanic ridge

3. palaeo magnetic studies of the ocean floor reveals that

A. along the mid oceanic ridge there is intense volcanic eruption

B. huge amount of lava comes out along the mid atlanticn ridges

C. the equidistant rock formations have similar age and chemical

compositions & magnetic properties

4. rocks closer to the mid oceanic ridges are young and normal

polarity

5. The age of rocks increases as the distance increases from the

mid oceanic ridge

6. Oceanic crust is much younger(200my) than continental crust

(3200my)

7. The sediments of ocean floor is very thin.

8. earth quakes are common along the deep sea trenches

Positions of continents through geological past

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PLATE TECTONICS

1. The theory of plate tectonics was introduced by McKenzie, parker

and Morgan in 1967

2. A tectonic plate is also called as lithosphere plate

3. It is a massive irregularly shaped slab of solid rock

4. Consists of oceanic and continental sphere

5. Plates move horizontally over the Asthenosphere

6. Average thickness is 100 km of oceanic part and 200 km

continental part

7. It may be oceanic or continental

8. Pacific plate is largest oceanic plate where as Eurasian plate is the

largest continental plate

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MAJOR and MINOR PLATES OF THE EARTH CRUST

MAJOR PLATES MINOR PLATES

1. Antarctica And Surrounding 1. Cocos Plate

Oceanic Plate
2. Nazca Plate
2. North American Plate
3. Arabian Plate
3. South American Plate
4. Philippine Plate
[Link] Plate
5. Caroline Plate
[Link]-Australia-New Zealand
6. Fuji Plate
PLATE

[Link] Plate Eurasian Plate

 These plates are moving constantly throughout geological time not

the continent believed by Wegener Pangaea was the convergent
of all the plates Position of Indian subcontinent is traced with the
help of rocks analyzed from Nagpur area

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TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

I. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES

1. New crust is generated

2. plates move away from each other

3. These are called spreading sites

4. Ex. Mid Atlantic ridge

II. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY

1. Crust is destroyed

2. sinking of plate is called „subduction

zone‟

3. There are three ways in which

subduction occurs

i. Ocean and continent

ii. Ocean and ocean

iii. continent and continent plates

III TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES

1. Crust is neither produced nor

destroyed

2. Plates slide horizontally

3. Perpendicular to the mid oceanic ridges

4. Differential movement of a plate at the

same time

5. Rotation of the earth has its effect on this movement

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RATES OF PLATE MOVEMENT

1. The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field helped the

scientists to study the rate of plate movement

2. Arctic ridge has the slowest rate less than 2.5 cm / year east
pacific rise has more than

3. 15 cm/year

FORCES OF THE PLATE MOVEMENT

1. Surface of the earth is dynamic

2. Interior is always mobile

3. Beneath the lithosphere there is always movement of magma

horizontally

4. Heated material rises to the top and cooled material sinks down

5. This cycle is repeated over the time and form convection cells
SOURCES OF HEAT

A. Residual heat b. Radioactive decay

 It was first considered by Arthur Holmes in 1930

 Later it also influenced Harry Hess

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MOVEMENT OF INDIAN PLATE

1. Indian plate includes India and Australia

2. Northern boundary is along the Himalayas

3. It is the place of continental convergence

4. In the east it extends up to Rakinyoma mountains of Myanmar

5. Eastern margin is spreading site

6. Western margin extends along Kirthar mountains, Makran coast

red sea rift.

7. The boundary between India and Antarctica is called divergent

boundary

8. Till 225 m y a India was separated by Tethys sea

9. About 200 m y a India started its journey towards north

10. India collided with Asia about 40-50 m y a and caused the

upliftment of Himalayas

11. About 140 m y a the position of Indian plate is at 50°s latitude

12. During the movement of Indian plate two events occurred in

India

13. A. out pouring of lava and formation of Deccan plateau

B. Subsidence of west coast

14. The Himalayas started rising about 40 m y a

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Chapter – 5
Minerals and Rocks
 Petrology: It is science of rocks. A petrologist studies rocks in all
their aspects viz., mineral composition, texture, structure, origin,
occurrence, alteration and relationship with other rocks.

 Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from
the interior of the earth, they are known as primary rocks. The
igneous rocks (Ignis – in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed when
magma cools and solidifies.

 Sedimentary Rocks: The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the

Latin word sedimentum, which means settling.

 Metamorphic Rocks: The word metamorphic means ‘change of

form’. These rocks form under the action of pressure, volume and
temperature (PVT) changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks are
forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten
magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal
rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected to great amounts of
pressure by overlying rocks.

 Lithification: Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the

earth’s surface are exposed to denudational agents, and are broken
up into various sizes of fragments. Such fragments are transported
by different exogenous agencies and deposited. These deposits

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through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called

lithification.

 Metamorphism: It is a process by which already consolidated rocks

undergo recrystallisation and reorganization of materials within
original rocks.

 Dynamic Metamorphism: Mechanical disruption and reorganization

of the original minerals within rocks due to breaking and crushing
without any appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic
metamorphism.

 Rock Cycle: Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old

rocks are transformed into new ones.

 Lineation: In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or

minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an arrangement of
minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or
lineation.

 Banding: Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are

arranged into alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light and
dark shades. Such a structure in metamorphic rocks is called
banding.

 Banding Rocks: Rocks displaying banding are called banded rocks

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INTRODUCTION
 This unit deals with Minerals, elements, characteristics of minerals
such as crystal form cleavage, fracture, lustre, colour,
streak,transparency, structure, hardness specific grvity, important
minerals such as feldspar, quartz, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, olivine
and their characteristics classification of minerals, rocks, igneous,
sedimentary, metamorphic rocks rock cycle Minerals found in the
crust are in solid form where as in intrior they are in liquid
form98% of the crust consist of eight elements

[Link]

2. Silicon

3. Aluminium

4. Iron.

5. Calcium

6. Sodium

7. Potassium

8. Manganese

the rest is
constituted by
titanium, hydrogen,
phosphorous, manganese, sulphur carbon, nickel & other elements

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Mineral

Mineral naturally occuring inorganic

substance having an orderly atomic
structure and a definite chemical
composition and physical
properties. It is composed of two
or three minerals /single element
ex. S,Cu, Ag,Au, Graphite. There
are at least 2000 minerals in the
crust. There are at least six mineral groups which form rocks in the
crust. The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in the interior
of the earth. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are organic minerals

Physical Characteristics

(i) External crystal form — deter-mined by internal arrangement of

the molecules — cubes, octahe-drons, hexagonal prisms, etc.

(ii) Cleavage — tendency to break in given directions producing

relatively plane surfaces — result of internal arrangement of the
molecules — may cleave in one or more directions and at any angle to
each other.

(iii) Fracture — internal molecular arrangement so complex there are

no planes of molecules; the crystal will break in an irregular manner,
not along planes of cleavage.

(iv) Lustre — appearance of a material without regard to colour; each

mineral has a distinctive lustre like metallic, silky, glossy etc.

(v) Colour — some minerals have characteristic colour determined by

their molecular structure—malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., and

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some minerals are coloured by impurities. For example, because of

impurities quartz may be white, green, red, yellow etc.

(vi) Streak — colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be

of the same colour as the mineral or may differ— malachite is green
and gives green streak, fluorite is purple or green but gives a white
streak.

(vii) Transparency — transparent: light rays pass through so that

objects can be seen plainly; translucent — light rays pass through but
will get diffused so that objects cannot be seen; opaque — light will
not pass at all.

viii) Structure — particular arrange-ment of theindividual crystals;

fine, medium or coarse grained;fibrous — separable, divergent,
radiating.

(ix) Hardness — relative resistance being scratched; tenminerals are

selected to measure the degree of hardnessfrom 1-10. They are: 1.
talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; [Link]; 5. apatite; 6. feldspar; 7. quartz;
8. topaz; [Link]; 10. diamond. Compared to this for example,a
fingernail is 2.5 and glass or knife blade is 5.5.

(x) Specific gravity — the ratio between the weight of agiven object
and the weight of an equal volume of water;object weighed in air and
then weighed in water anddivide weight in air by the difference of the
two weights.

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Metallic Minerals

These minerals contain metal content and can be sub-divided into

three types:

(i) Precious metals : gold, silver, platinum etc.

(ii) Ferrous metals : iron and other metals often mixed with iron to

form various kinds of steel.

(iii) Non-ferrous metals : include metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin,

aluminium etc.

Non-Metallic Minerals

These minerals do not contain metal content. Sulphur, phosphates

and nitrates are examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a

mixture of non-metallic minerals

Rocks

 The earth’s crust is composed

of rocks.
 A rock is an aggregate of one
or more minerals.
 Rock may be hard or soft and
in varied colours.
 For example, granite is hard, soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and
quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not have definite
composition of mineral constituents.
 Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.

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Types of Rocks

 Igneous Rocks — solidified from magmaand lava.

 Sedimentary Rocks — the result ofdeposition of fragments of
rocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks — formed out ofexisting rocks undergoing
recrystallisation.

1) Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks

 The solidification of magma formed the first rocks on earth.

 Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the
surface) and lava (molten rock above the surface) and are known as
igneous or primary rocks.
 Having their origin under conditions of high temperatures the
igneous rocks are unfossiliferous.
 Granite, gabbro, basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
• There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time
taken in cooling of the molten matter, plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks
and intermediate rocks.
 There are two types of rocks based on the presence of acidforming
radical, silicon, acidic rocks and basic rocks.

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2) Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification ― consolidation and

compaction of sediments.
 Hence, they are layered or stratified of varying thickness.
Example: sandstone, shale etc.
 Sediments are a result of denudation (weathering and erosion) of
all types of rocks
 These types of rocks cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but
volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent (because they are available
only in the upper part of the crust).
 Ice deposited sedimentary rocks are called till or tillite.
Winddeposited sediments are called loess.
 Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are
classified into:

1. mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale,

loess.

2. organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.

3. chemically formed — limestone, halite, potash. Water containing

minerals evaporate at the mouth of springs or salt lakes and give rise
to Stalactites and stalagmites (deposits of lime left over by the lime-
mixed water as it evaporates in the underground caves).

Stalactites and stalagmites

Water containing minerals evaporate at

the mouth of springs or salt lakes and
give rise to Stalactites and stalagmites
(deposits of lime left over by the lime-
mixed water as it evaporates in the
underground caves)

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3) Metamorphic Rocks

 The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

 Metamorphism is a process by which recrystallisation and
reorganisation of minerals occur within a rock. This occurs due to
pressure, volume and temperature changes.
 When rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes
or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact
with the crustal rocks, metamorphosis occurs.
 In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals
get arranged in layers or lines. Such an arrangement is called
foliation or lineation
 Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged
into alternating thin to thick layers. Such a structure in is called
banding.
 Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples
of metamorphic rocks.

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Causes of Metamorphism

 Orogenic (Mountain Building)

Movements: Such movements
often take place with an
interplay of folding, warping
and high temperatures. These
processes give existing rocks
a new appearance.
 Lava Inflow: The molten
magmatic material inside the
earth’s crust brings the surrounding rocks under the influence of
intense temperature pressure and causes changes in them
 Geodynamic Forces: The omnipresent geodynamic forces such as
plate tectonics also play an important role in metamorphism

Metamorphic Rocks in India

 The gneisses and schists are commonly found in the Himalayas,

Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
 Quartzite is a hard rock found over Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and areas surrounding Delhi.
 Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur in Rajasthan and
parts of Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh.
 Slate, which is used as a roofing material and for writing in schools,
is found over Rewari (Haryana), Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) and
parts of Bihar.
 Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

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Rock cycle

 Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are

transformed into new ones.
 Igneous rocks are primary rocks, and other rocks form from these
rocks.
 Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic
rocks.
 The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form
into sedimentary rocks.
 Sedimentary and igneous rocks themselves can turn into
metamorphic rocks.
 The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) may be
carried down into the mantle (interior of the earth) through
subduction process and the same meltdown and turn into molten
magma, the source for igneous rocks

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Chapter -6

Geomorphic Processes
 Landslides: These are relatively rapid and perceptible
[Link] materials involved are relatively dry. The size and
shape of the detached mass depends on the nature of
discontinuities in the rock, the degree of weathering and the
steepness of the slope.

 Gradation: The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations

of the surface of the earth through erosion is known as
gradation.
 Geomorphic processes: The endogenic and exogenic forces
causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials
and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of
the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
 Exogenic forces: The external forces are known as exogenic
forces. These forces derive their energy from atmosphere
determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the
gradients created by tectonic factors.
 Endogenic forces: The internal forces are known as endogenic
forces.

 Geomorphic agents: An agent is a mobile medium (like running

water, moving ice masses, wind, waves and currents etc.) which
removes, transports and deposits earth materials. Running water,
groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can be
called geomorphic agents.

 Diastrophism: All processes that move, elevate or build up

portions of the earth‟s crust come under diastrophism.

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 Orogepy: It is a mountain building process

 Epeirogeny: It is continental building process.

 Volcanism: Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock called

magma onto or toward the earth‟s surface and also formation of
many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

 Stress: Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a

sloping surface and tend to produce movement of matter in down
slope direction. Force applied per unit area is called stress.

 Weathering: Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration

and chemical decomposition of rocks through the actions of
various elements of weather and climate

 Denudation: The term „denude‟ means to strip off or to uncover.

Weathering, mass wasting/ movements, erosion and
transportation are included in denudation.
 Solution: When something is dissolved in water or acids, the
water or acid with dissolved contents is called solution.

 Carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and

bicarbonate with minerals and is a common process helping the
breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
 Hydration: Hydration is the chemical addition of water.

 Structure: The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as

folds, faults, orientationand inclination of beds, presence or
absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of
constituent minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral
constituents; the permeability or impermeability etc. ,

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 Enrichment: When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are

removed through chemical or physical leaching by groundwater
and thereby the concentration of valuable materials increases. It
makes the concentration of the same valuable material sufficient
and economically viable to be exploited, processed and refined.
This is called enrichment.

 Debris Slide: Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without

backward rotation of mass is known as debris slide. • Erosion: The
erosion can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy
associated with the agent to the surface of the land along which
it moves”.

 Soil: A pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection of

natural bodies on the earth‟s surface containing living and/or dead
matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants. Soil is a
dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological
activities go on constantly.

 Deposition: The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence

energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start
to settle themselves. Therefore, deposition is not actually the
work of any agent. The coarser materials get deposited first and
finer ones later. By deposition depressions get filled up
 Slump: Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris
with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over which the
movement takes place.

 Pedology: It is soil science.

 Pedologist: A pedologist is a soil-scientist.

 Parent Material: Parent material is a passive control factor in

soil formation.

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 Earth Flow: Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth

materials down low-angle terraces or hillsides is known as earth
flow.

 Nitrogen Fixation: Humus accumulates in cold climates as

bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed organic matter
because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in sub-
arctic and tundra climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
climates, bacterial growth and action is intense and dead
vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in
the soil. Further, bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
nitrogen from the air and convert it into a chemical form that can
be used by plants. This process is known as nitrogen fixation.

 Desilication: Removal of silica from the soil is known as

desilication. • Exfoliation: It is a result but not a process. Flaking
off of more or less curved sheets of shells from over rocks or
bedrock results in smooth and rounded surfaces is called
exfoliation

 Exfoliation domes: Large, smooth rounded domes are called

exfoliation domes.

 Tors: In rocks like granites, smooth surfaced and rounded small

to big boulders form due to such exfoliation. It is called tors.

Why earth is uneven?

 Due to internal and external forces earth is changing its
surface conditions.
 The earth crust is always dynamic It moves vertically and
horizontally
 The differences in the internal forces making the surface
uneven Wearing down of relief features is called gradation.

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 The endogenic forces always elevate parts of the earth‟s

surface and hence the exogenic processes fail to even out the
relief variations of the surface of the earth.
 Variations remain as long as there is difference between
endogenic and exogenic forces.
 The surface of the earth is sensitive. Human being is using the
surface intensively and extensively.

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
 The endogenic and exogenic forces cause physical stress and
chemical actions on the earth material and bring the changes in
the configuration of the earth surface is called GEOMORPHIC
PROCESSES
 Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic processes
 Weathering, Mass wasting, Erosion & Deposition Are Exogenic
Processes Any Exogenic Element Of Nature Capable Of Acquiring
And Transporting Earth Materials Can Be Called A Geomorphic
Agent.
 They Become Mobile When There Is Gradient

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The Erosional Agents Are

1. Running Water,
2. Moving Ice,
3. Wind,
4. Underground Water,
5. Waves

 A process is a force applied on earth materials affecting the

same) agent is a mobile medium which removes transports and
deposits earth materials, avity also causes directional forces
activating downslope movements of matter raves and tides are
indirect movements of the earth caused by gravitation Without
gravity and gradient there is no mobility for erosional agents as a
result there is no erosion transportation, and deposition on the
earth surface.
 All the movements on/in the earth are due to gravitation and
gradient. from higher level to lower level and high pressure to
low-pressure areas

ENDOGENIC PROCESS:

 The energy generating from within the earth is the main force
behind the endogenic geomorphic processes.
 The energy genarated due to

1. Radioactivity 2. Rotational Force 3. Tidal Friction 4. Primordial

Heat From The Origin Of The Earth.

 Diastrophism And Volvanism Are Due To Geothermal Grdients And

Heat Flow From Within The Earth.
 Crustal Thickness, Strength, Action Of Endogenic Forces Are Due
To Variations In Geothermal Gradients And Heat Flow Are
Uneven.

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DIASTROPHISM:

All process that move elevate or duild up portions of the earth‟s

crust come under

DIASTROPHISM THEY ARE TWO TYPES

[Link] PROCESSES: mountain building through folding

2. EPEROGENIC PROCESS: uplifting large part of earth crust

3. EARTH QUAKES

4. PLATE TECTONICS: involve horizontal movements

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OROGENY AND EPEROGENY

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VOLCANISM:

Movement of molten rock towards the earth‟s surface and also

formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

Volcanism: it is the process in which volcanoes takes place Volcanoes

are the land forms formed due to volcanic process

EXOGENIC PROCESSES:

 They derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the

prime source The sun and also gradients created by the tectonic
factors.
 Gravitational force create gradient towards down slope direction.
 Force applied per unit area is called STRESS

Stress can be produced in a sold body pushing or pulling

 This includes deformation. Forces acting along the faces of earth

materials are shear stresses. (seperating forces). It is this stress
that breaks rocks and other earth materials. the shear stress
result in angular displacement/ slippage. Besides gravitational
stress there is molecular stress which is caused by temperature
change, crustallisation and melting. chemical processes normally
lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of soluble
minerals or cementing materials.
 The basic reason for weathering, mass movement erosion and
deposition is the development of stress in the earth materials.
 Since there are different climatic regions there is variation in
the exogenic process from region to region. Temperature and
precipitation are the two major elements that control various
processes.
 All the exogenic process are covered under general term
DENUDATION.

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 The word denude means uncover. Weathering, masswasting

erosion and transportation are included in denudation.

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES AND THEIR Driving Forces

This Chart We Observe That For Each Process There Is Driving

Force Called Energy On The Earth Surface Thermal Gradient Is
Caused By

1. Latitude

2. Seasons

3. Land And Water Distribution

4. Angle Of Earth‟s Inclination

→ The Density of Natural Vegetation Is Greatly Influenced By

The Temperature And Precipitation Helps Indirectly The
Exogenic Processes

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THE OTHER FACTORS OF CLIMATIC VARIATIONS ARE

1. Altitude

2. Angle Of Slope

3. Ocean Currents

4. Amount Of Insolation Received By The Region

5. Wind Velocity And Direction

6. Direcion Of The Slope

7. Amount And Kind Of Precipitation

8. Relation Between Precipitaion And Evaportion

9. Daily Rang Of Temperature

10. Freezing And Thawing Frequency

11. Depth Of Frost Penetration

The Sole Driving Force Behind All The Exogenic Process Is The Sun

When Climatic Factors Are Common

The Intensity Of Action Depend On Type And Structure Of
Rocks

STRUCTURE INCLUDES

 folds, faults, orientation inclination of beds, presence or absence

of joints ,bedding planes hareness, softness of constituent
minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents , the
permeability or impermeability.
 Different types of rocks offer varying resistances to various
geomorphic processes

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 Particular rock may be resistant to one process and nonresistant

to other process As a result there is varied relief over the earth
surface
 The effects of exogenic forces may be small and slow but inlong
run they have greater effects Finally the surface of the earth is
operated by different geomorphic processes and at varying rates

WEATHERING

it is the action of elements of weather on earth materials.

Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical

decomposition of rocks through the actions of various element so
weather and climate In weathering there is no motion of materials
takes place so it is in-situ or on site process

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WEATHERING& DEPTH OF

WEATHERING

I) CHEMICAL (II) PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL (III)BIOLOGICAL

WEATHERING

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I) CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

 A group of weathering processes viz; solution , carnonation,

hydration , oxidation and reduction asc on the rocks to
decompose, dissolve orreduce them to a fine clastic state through
chemical reactions by oxygen ,surface /soil water and other acids.
 Water and air along with heat must be present to speed up all
chemical reactions.
 Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air,
decomposition of plants and animals increases the quantity of
carbon dioxide underground.
 these chemical reactions on various minerals are very much
reactions on various minerals are very much similar to the
chemical reactions in a laboratory.
 CO3 are dissolved in carbonic acid and washed away to form the
caves in lime stone region.
 Clay minerals are easily eroded due to the presence of minerals
which can exchange the ions with the water.

II) PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

 Factors Influencing The Physical Weathering

1. Gravitational Force Overburden Pressure, Load And Shearing

Stress

2. Expansion Forces Due To Temperature Changes, Crystal Growth

Or Animal Activity

3. Water Pressures Controlled By Wetting And Drying Cycles.

 They are mostly due to thermal expansion, and pressure release.

The repeated action of these processes cause damage to the
rocks

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BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING:

 Removal or contribution of ions to the environment due to

biological activity is called biological weathering.
 burrowing and wedging by organism like earthworks tremites,
rodents help in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and
assists in the pentration of moinsture and air.
 SOltas are common features U shaped valleys and morians are
common Ex. Sahara, atacama Kalahari Amazon.

SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING:

Exfoliation is a is a result but not a process. Removal of layers from

curved surfaces result into rounded [Link] occurs due to
expansion and contraction induced by temperature changes.
exfoliation domes occur due to unloading where as tors occurs due to
thermal expansion.

SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING:

 Responsible for the formation of soils and erosion and deposition.

 biodiversity is basically depending on depth of weathering. erosion
may not be significant when there is no weathering.
 weathering aids mass wasting, erosion and reduction of relief and
changes in landforms.
 weathering of rocks and deposition helps in the enrichment and
concentrations of certain valuable ores of iron manganaese,
aluminium [Link] is an important process of soil formation

ENRICHMENT:

when rocks undergo weathering some materials are removed through

chemical or physical leaching by ground water and thereby the
concentration of remaining materials increases.

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Without such a weathering taking place, the concentration of the

same valuable material may not be sufficient and economically viable
to exploit, process and refine, this is what is called enrichment

MASS MOVEMENT:

these movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes
under the direct influence of gravity. air water ice donot carry
debris, but debris carry them. the movements of mass may range
from slow to rapid.

Activating causes precede mass movements:

(i) removal of support from below to materials above through natural

or artificial means

(ii) increase in gradient and height of slopes

(iii) overloading through addition of materials naturally or by

artificial filling

(iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall saturation and lubrication of

slope materials

(v) removel of material or load from over the original slope surfaces.
(vi) occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or macunery

(vii) excessive natural seepage

(viii) heavy draw down of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers (ix)
indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation

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CLASSIFICATION OF MASS MOVEMENTS

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TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS:

 creep, flow, slide and fall. mass movements are active over
weathered slopes than unwethered slopes.
 mass movements are aided by gravity not any erosional agent.
mass movements do not come under erosion though there is shift
of material.
 When force is greater than resistance mass movement occurs.
 Ex. Weak unconsolidated material, thinly bedded rocks, faults,
steeply diffing beds, vertical cliffs, steep slopes, abundant
precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity of vegetation

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CREEP:

It generally occurs on moderately steep, soil covered slopes.

Movement of material is extremely slow. Material may be rockdebris

or soil

Ex. Bending of telephone pole, and fence poles.

Types of creep: soil creep, talus creep rock creep rock glacier creep

Solifluction:

slow down slope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris
saturated or lubricated with water.

It is common in moist temperate areas where surface melting of

deeply frozen ground and long continued rain respectively occur
frequently.

MUD FLOW RAPID MOVEMENTS CONDITIONS

1. Humid climatic
regions

2. gentle to steep
slopes

3. Heavy rain

4. Loose soils

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EARTH FLOW:

 movements of water saturated

clayey or silty earth materials
down low angle terraces or
hillsides. EARTHFLOW
 In the absence of vegetation
cover and with heavy rainfall,
thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with
water and either slowly or
rapidly flow down along
definite [Link] looks like a
channels of mud. when they
overflow the channels they
engulf the roads and rail
bridges.
 They generally occur due to
volcanic eruptions. Volcanic ash dust and other fragments turn
into mud due to heavy rains and flow down as tougues or streams
of mud causing great

DEBRIS AVALANCHES:

 Found in humid regions with

or without vegetation in
narrow tracks of steep
slopes.
 It is much faster than mud
flow, it is similar. to snow
avalanches.

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LANDSLIDES:

 these are rapid and

perceptible
movements.
 dry materials are
found. the size and
shape of the
materials are
depending on the
nature of the rock,
degree of
weathering, steepness of slope.
 slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward
rotation with respect to the slope over which the movement takes
place

DEBRIS SLIDE:

 rapid rolling or sliding

of earth debris without
backward rotation of mass
is known as debris slide.

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Rockslide

 sliding of individual rock masses down bedding joint or fault

surfaces. it generally occurs at the steep slopes. Superficial
layers of the rock generally fall.

Mass movement

Reasons for land slides along the Himalayas

1. Tectonically active

2. Made of sedimentary rocks

3. Steep slopes

4. Heavy rains

5. Unconsolidated material is found

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

 Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris
Abration by rock debris carried by geomorphic agents also aids
erosion
 By erosion relief degrades. the landscape is work down.
Weatherin may not be precondition for erosion.
 Weathering, mass wasting, and erosion are degradational
processes. It is the erosion largly responsible for continuous
changes that the earth surface is undergoing.
 Erosion and transportation are controlled by kinetic energy. wind
running water and glaciers are controlled by climate.

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Comparison of wind running water and glacier

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EROSION:

“application of kinetic energy associated with the agent to the

surface of the land along which it moves”.

It is computed as KE =½ mv2

M=mass v= velocity KE= kinetic energy

SOIL FORMATION:
Soil is the collection natural bodies on the earth‟s surface containing
living matter and supporting or capable or supporting plants.

Soil is a dynamic material in which many chemical, biological, and

physical activities go on constantly. It is the result of decay, it is
also a medium of growth. It is changing and developing body.
Characteristics are changing from season to season.

Too cold, too hot, and dry areas biological activity stops. organic
matter increases when leaves fall and decompose.

PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION:

weathering is basic process for soil formation. The weathered

material is transported and decomposed due to bacteria lichens and
moss. The dead remains increases the humus of the soil. minor
grasses and ferns can grow. Bushes, trees also grow. plants roots
and burrowing animals help the soil formation.

PEDOLOGY:

is science of soil formation

PEDOLOGIST:

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is the scientist of soil formation

SOIL FORMING FACTORS:

1. Parent material

2. Topography

3. Climate

4. Biological activity.

[Link]

PARENT MATERIAL:

passive control factor, it is insitu, onsite, or [Link] depends

on texture, structure, chemical composition of the soil. Nature and
depth of weathering is an important factor. chemical composition,
texture are the characteristics derived from patent material

TOPOGRAPHY:

passive control factor, amount of exposer to the sun light, drainage

system, steep slopes have less deposition, gentle slopes have thick
soils. Plains have thick and dark coloured soils. In mid latitude
southern slopes expose to the sun light and get decomposed more.

CLIMATE:

it is an active factor in soil formation. Climatic elements are (i)

moisture (interms of its intensity, frequency and duration of
precipitation -evaporation and humidity (II) Temperature in terms
of seasonal and diurnal variation. Precipitation increases the
biological activity. Excess of water helps to transport the dissolved
particles to downward (eluviation)

Deposition of these particles is called ‘Illuviation’

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 Heavy rainfall removes the calcium, magnesium, sodium, potasium

along with silica.
 Removal of silica is called desilication
 In dry areas excess of evaporation leads to deposition of salts on
the surface of the soil These salt layers are called „hard pans‟ in
the hot deserts
 In tropical climates, under moderate rainfall conditions calcium
carbonate nodules are formed.

Biological activity:

plants and animals add organic matter to the soil. also helps in
moisture retention. Dead plants add humus to the soil In humid
areas, the bacterial activity is higher than cold areas As a result
undecomposed material is found in cold areas In hot areas bacteria
fix the nitrogen in the soil which is used by the plants Rhizobium is
the bacteria fix the nitrogen in the soil and live in the roots of
legumenace plantsants, temites, rodents, earthworms change the
chemical composition of the soil.

Time:

Important controlling factor of soil formation. Longer the time,

thicker the soil layers. No time limit for the formation of the soil
layers.

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Chapter - 7
Landforms and their
Evolution
Landforms:

 Small to Medium tract or parcel of earth surface

 Each landform has its own shape, size & is result of
geomorphic processes
 Landforms change due to action of geomorphic agents
 Landform has history of development and changes
through time – passes stages of youth, mature and old
age

Geomorphology:

 History of earth surface through study of its forms,

material and process (erosion or destruction & deposition
or construction)
 Geomorphic agents depends on folds, faults, joints,
fractures, hardness and softness, permeability and
impermeability, etc.
 Independent controls include stability of sea level,
tectonic stability and climate

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Factors influencing erosion:

1. Rock structures such as fold, fault, joints, fractures,

hardness, softness permeability, and impermeability

2. Stability of sea level

3. Tectonic stability of landmass

4. Climate

RUNNING WATER

1. In humid regions rainfall is heavy so running water is

dominant agent

2. there are two components of running water

A. OVERLAND FLOW -SHEET EROSION

B. LINEAR FLOW -STREAM EROSION

Most of the erosional features are formed in upper

course/youth full stage of the river Depositional features
are formed in the lower course /old stage of the river
Steep the slope more the erosion/gentle the slope more the
deposition Vertical erosion is more in the upper course
lateral erosion is more in the lower course

OVERLAND FLOW:

 it is also called as sheet erosion Depending on the

irregularities of the surface the sheet erosion
concentrate in to channels Due to sheer friction of the

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water narrow channels are formed They are called

rillsLandforms and their Evolution
 Rills develop into gullies, gullies further deepen and
converted into valleys In the early stages downward
cutting makes waterfalls, cascades in the middle stages
streams cut their beds slower and lateral erosion of
valley sides becomes severe. Later stages, the flat valley
is formed with monodknocks. This type of plain is called
peneplain

Stages Of The River

YOUTH

1. Less Streams

2. Less Integration

3. ‘V’shaped Valleys Are Common

4. Stream Divides Are Swampy Marshy Areas

5. Water Falls And Rapids Are Common

MATURE

1. More Streams

2. More Integration Of Streams

3. Deep ‘V’shaped Valleys

[Link] Flood Plains

5. Meanders Are Present

6. Rapids And Water Falls Disappear

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OLD

[Link] Tributaries

2. Few In Number

3. Flood Plains Are Common

4. Natural Leaves And Oxbow Lakes Are Also Present

5. Most Of The Landscape Is Just Above Sea Level.

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POTHOLES:

1. They are circular

depressions

2. formed by abrasion

3. pebbles and boulders get

collected in these holes and
rotated and make depression wider and deep

4. They keep valley deepened [Link] the foot of the water

falls they become plunge pools

PLUNGE POOLS:

• Found Foot Of The

Water Falls

• Formed Due To Soft

Rocks

• They Are Below The

Level Of River bed

MEANDERS:

Into oxbow lakes

1. Lateral erosion is common in the lower course of the

rivers

2. Due to low kinetic energy water is changing its course

3. Generally found in the floodplains

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4. When meanders are found in deep and hard rocky areas

they are called incised or entrenched meanders

5. Same meanders develop loops which later on converted

into oxbow lakes

6. Sometimes they deepen the rocks and converted into

canyons

RIVER TERRACES

 Marking old valley floor They represent flood plain levels

They may consist of stream deposits They are formed
due to verticles erosion There may be number of formal
floodplains If they are at the same level they are called
paired terraces If they are found at different levels
they are called non paired terraces Unpaired terraces
are found in the areas of slow upliftment areas Reasons
for the formation of river terraces

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1. receding water after a

peak flow

2. change in hydrological
regime due to climatic
change

3. tectonic uplift of land

4. sea level changes in

case of rivers closer to
the sea alluvial fans.

ALLUVIAL PLAIN

Formed along the river

banks

1. Made of alluvial soils

2. They are divided into two

types khaddar and bangar

3. Khadar soils are found near the river and bangar soils are
found away from the river

4. They are very fertile

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DELTAS

 Found near by the mouth of

the river
 Made of fine alluvial soils
 They are in triangular shape
 Similar to Greek letter
Delta
 Divided by distributaries
 Deposited material is stratified on the basis of size.
Coarse material is deposited first and then fine material

GANGA DELTA FLOOD PLAINS

 Major landorms in the

river deposition .
 big boulders are
deposited first and
then fine material is
carried to the longer
distance.
 The active flood plain is
found in the river bank
where as inactive flood
plain is found above the level of river bank. The flood
plains in deltas are called delta plains.

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Natural levees

 Natural levees are deposits containing mud, sand and

stones and are formed to slope away from either side of
the river or flood plain.
 Raised mounds are formed near the river bank where the
larger material is deposited and the gently sloping sides
are a result of the smaller particles deposited away from
the river bank
 Levees form an important part of the United States
infrastructure. Breaching of a levee can cause economic
and personal losses
 It's estimated that every county has at least one levee
with about 43 percent population living there, so it's
essential that these levees are maintained and
undisturbed

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POINT BARS:

 they are also called as meander bars.

 found along the convex side of meanders of large rivers.
They are uniform in profile. if there are more then one
ridge narrow and elongated depressions are found in
between the point bars.

BRAIDED CHANNEL

 When rivers carry coarse

material, there can be
selective deposition of
coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar,
which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this
flow increases lateral erosion
on the banks
 As the valley widens, the
water column is reduced and
more and more materials are
deposited as islands and lateral bars developing a number
of separate channels of water flow.

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Karst Topography

Limestone is an organically formed sedimentary rock. In its

pure state, limestone is made up of calcite or calcium
carbonate but where magnesium is also present it is termed
as dolomite. Limestone is soluble in rainwater

Conditions for the formation of Karst Topography

• A region with a large stretch of water-soluble rocks such

as limestone at the surface or sub-surface level

• Limestones should not be porous

• These rocks should be dense, thinly bedded and well

jointed

• A perennial source of water and a low water table to allow

the formation of conspicuous features.

• Moderate to abundant rainfall to cause the solvent action

of water i.e. solution of rocks

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Mechanism of erosion in Karst region

 In Karst regions, rocks are permeable, thinly bedded and

highly jointed and cracked.
 Thus there is the general absence of surface drainage as
the surface water has gone underground
 After vertically going down to some depth, the water
under the ground flows horizontally through the bedding
planes, joints or through the materials themselves.
 Rocks are eroded due to this downward and horizontal
movement of water
 It is through the chemical process of solution and
precipitation deposition by surface water and
groundwater, varieties of landforms are developed in
rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium
carbonate.

Caves

 In areas where there are

alternating beds of rocks
(shales, sandstones,
quartzites) with
limestones or dolomites in
between or in areas where
limestones are dense,
massive and occurring as
thick beds, cave formation
is prominent. Water percolates down either through the

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materials or through cracks and joints and moves

horizontally along bedding planes
 It is along these bedding planes that the limestone
dissolves and long and narrow to wide gaps called caves
result.
 There can be a maze of caves at different elevations
depending upon the limestone beds and intervening rocks.
 Caves normally have an opening through which cave
streams are discharged. Caves having openings at both
the ends are called tunnels.

Stalactite and Stalagmite

 The water containing

limestone in solution, seeps
through the roof in the form
of a continuous chain of drops
 A portion of the roof hangs
on the roof and on
evaporation of water, a small deposit of limestone is left
behind contributing to the formation of a stalactite,
growing downwards from the roof.
 The remaining portion of the drop falls to the floor. This
also evaporates, leaving behind a small deposit of
limestone aiding the formation of a stalagmite, thicker
and flatter, rising upwards from the floor
 Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join together to
form a complete pillar known as the column

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Glacier
 A glacier is a large mass of ice
that is persistently moving under
its own weight over the land or as
linear flows down the slopes of
mountains in broad trough-like
valleys
 Glaciers are formed in the areas where the accumulation of snow
exceeds its ablation (melting and sublimation) over many years,
often centuries.
 Glaciers move under the influence of the force of gravity. The
movement of glaciers is slow, unlike water flow. Glaciers flow like
very slow rivers
 Their movement could be a few centimetres to a few metres a
day or even less or more

Types of Glaciers

Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal

characteristics, and behaviour. Glaciers are mainly of four types –
continental glaciers, ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley glaciers.

1. Continental Glaciers -
Continental glaciers are
continuous masses of ice that are
much larger than alpine glaciers. By
definition, they have areas larger
than 50,000 km2, some examples
of Continental Glaciers are
Antartica, Iceland, Greenland etc.

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2. Ice caps - Ice caps are the

covers of snow and ice on the
mountain ranges from which the
valley or mountain glaciers
originate. Though they can also be
found at the lower altitudes. Ice
caps have an area of less than
50,000 km2.

3. Piedmont Glaciers - The

piedmont glaciers form a
continuous ice sheet at the base
of mountains. The Malaspina
Glacier in Alaska is one of the
most famous examples of this type
of glacier

4. Valley Glaciers - A glacier

that fills a valley is called a valley
glacier. The valley glaciers are
commonly known as Alpine Glacier
and are found in the valleys
created by lofty mountains such
as Himalaya in India.

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Erosional Landforms

Cirque

 Cirques are horseshoe

shaped, deep, long and
wide troughs or basins
with very steep to
vertically dropping high
walls at its head as well
as sides.
 Cirques are often found
along the head of Glacial Valley
 The accumulated ice cuts these cirques while moving down
the mountain tops
 After the glacier melts, water fills these cirques, and
they are known as cirque lake

Horns

 Horns form through

head-ward erosion of the
cirque walls.
 If three or more
radiating glaciers cut
headward until their cirques
meet, high, sharp pointed
and steep-sided peaks called
horns form.

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Aretes

 Arete is a narrow ridge of

rock which separates two
valleys
 Aretes are typically formed
when two glacial cirques
erode head-wards towards
one another
 The divides between Cirque
side walls or head walls get narrow because of
progressive erosion and turn into serrated or sawtoothed
ridges referred to as aretes with very sharp crest and a
zig-zag outline.

Glacial Valleys

 Glaciated valleys are

trough-like and U-shaped with
wide, flat floors and relatively
smooth, and steep sides.
 When the glacier
disappears, and water fills the
deep narrow sections of the
valley, a ribbon lake is formed

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Fjords/Fiords

 A fjord or fiord is a long,

narrow and steep-sided
inlet created by a glacier
 They are formed where
the lower end of a very
deep glacial trough is
filled with sea water
 Fjords are common in
Norway, Chile, and New Zealand etc.

Hanging Valleys

 A hanging valley is a
tributary valley that is higher
than the main valley. Hanging
valleys are common along
glaciated fjords and U-shaped
valleys.
 The main valley is eroded
much more rapidly than the
tributary valleys as it contains a much larger glacier •
After the ice has melted tributary valley, therefore,
hangs above the main valley
 The faces of divides or spurs of such hanging valleys
opening into main glacial valleys are quite often truncated
to give them an appearance like triangular facets

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 Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper

valley
 Thus, the hanging valley may form a natural head of water
for generating hydroelectric power

Depositional Landforms

Outwash plains

 An outwash plain is a plain at the foot of the glacial

mountain
 They are made up of fluvioglacial sediments, washed out
from the terminal moraines by the streams and channels
of the stagnant ice mass.
 As it flows, the glacier grinds the underlying rock surface
and carries the debris along.
 When the glacier reaches its lowest point and melts, it
leaves behind a stratified deposition material, consisting
of rock debris, clay, sand, gravel etc. with larger boulders
being deposited near the terminal moraine, and smaller
particles travelling further before being deposited.
 The stratified surface thus formed is called as an
outwash plain and a downward extension of the deposited
finer particles and clay material is called valley train.

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Moraines

 The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the

melting glaciers is called glacial till
 The long ridges of deposits of these glacial till is called
as Moraines
 Depending on its position, moraines are classified into be
ground, lateral, medial and terminal moraine.
 Terminal Moraines - Terminal moraines are long ridges of
debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.
 Lateral Moraines - Lateral moraines form along the sides
parallel to the glacial valleys. These moraines partly or
fully owe their origin to glaciofluvial waters pushing up
materials to the sides of glaciers.
 There can be many lateral moraines on either side in a
glacial valley. The lateral moraines may join a terminal
moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge
 Ground Moraines - Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly
leave an irregular sheet of till over their valley floors.
Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface
topography are called ground moraines
 Medial Moraines - The moraine in the centre of the
glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is called medial
moraine. They are imperfectly formed as compared to
lateral moraines
 Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable from
ground moraines.

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Eskers

 An esker is a long, winding sinuous ridge of stratified

sand and gravel
 Eskers are frequently several kilometres long and,
because of their peculiar uniform shape, are somewhat
like railway embankments
 When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the
surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or
even moves through holes in the ice
 These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow
like streams in a channel beneath the ice
 Such streams flow over the ground with ice forming its
banks.
 The stream underneath carries coarse materials such as
boulders, blocks which gets deposited in the bed and
when the glacier melts the deposits forms a sinuous ridge
called eskers.

Drumlins

 Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features

composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel
and sand.
 The drumlins form due to the dumping of rock debris
beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures in the glacier.
 The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of
ice movement.

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 They may measure up to 1000m in length and 30-35 m or

so in height
 One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the
stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other end
called the tail.

Marine landforms

The Coastal Landforms are formed by the constant action

of the waves, tides, and currents. The coastline under the
influence of these denudational agents changes the coastal
landforms and gives shapes to various types of marine
landform features

Agents of Erosion

Waves

 Waves accomplish most

of the changes along
the coasts.
 Constant impact of
breaking waves
drastically affects the
coasts.
 When waves break, the water is thrown with great force
onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is a great
churning of sediments on the sea bottom.

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 Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching

changes in a short period of time than normal breaking
waves.
 On calm days, when winds are slight, waves do little
damage to the shoreline and may instead help to build up
beaches and other depositional features.

Tides and Currents

 Tides and Currents, on

contact with the
shores, make very little
direct attack on the
coastline
 Tides affect marine
erosion mainly by
extending a line of erosion into a zone of erosion. This
zone correspond to the area between the low water level
and the high water level
 Currents help to move eroded debris and deposit it as
silt, sand and gravel along the coasts

The mechanism of marine erosion

The rate of marine erosion depends on the nature of rocks,

the amount of rock exposed to the sea, the effects of tides
and currents, and human interference. Marine agents of
erosion operate in the following ways to transform the
coastal landscape

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Corrasion
Corrasion is a process of mechanical erosion. Waves armed
with rock debris break on cliff faces and slowly erode it.
On-coming currents and tides complete the work by
sweeping the eroded material into the sea.

Attrition - Attrition occurs when waves cause loose pieces

of rock debris such as boulders, pebbles, shingle and fine
sand, to collide with each other. Under attrition, these
materials are broken down into finer, smaller and rounder
particles which are largely responsible for the fine sand
that forms the beaches

Hydraulic action in their forward surge, waves splashing

against the coast may enter joints and crevices in the rocks.
The air trapped inside is immediately compressed. When the
waves retreat, the compressed air expands with explosive
violence. Such repeated action causes enlargements of the
cracks and rock fragments are prised apart

Solvent action this refers to chemical erosion of rocks.

This process is limited to limestone coasts. On limestone
coasts, the solvent action of seawater on calcium carbonate
sets up chemical changes in the rocks and disintegration
takes place.

Types of Coasts

 Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms

depend upon the configuration of land and sea floor and

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whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or

retreating (submerging) landward
 There are different types of coastlines based on a great
variety of coastal features. However, it is important to
discuss, two types of coasts (assuming sea level to be
constant) to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
landforms:

1. Submerged coasts (high, rocky coasts)

2. Emerged coasts (low, smooth and gently sloping

sedimentary coasts)

Submerged coasts

 Submerged coasts are found either because of the

sinking of the land or due to the rise of the sea
 The coasts are rocky and river appears to have drowned
in the sea creating estuaries.
 Erosional landforms dominate coastal landform and
depositional landforms are absent
 Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force
against the land shaping the hill-sides into cliffs, which
further develops a wave-cut platform, caves etc
 . • As the erosion along the coast takes place a good
supply material becomes available to longshore currents
and waves to deposit them as beaches, bars, spits etc.

Emerged Coasts

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 Emerged coasts are found due to either uplift of the

land or fall in the sea level
 They are less common • Along, the low sedimentary
coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by
building coastal plains and deltas
 The coastline appears smooth with occasional
incursions of water in the form of lagoons and tidal
creeks.
 The land slopes gently into the water. • Marshes and
swamps may abound along the coasts
 Depositional features dominate.
 When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary
coast, the bottom sediments get churned and move
readily building bars, barrier bars, spits and lagoons
 The maintenance of these depositional features
depends upon the steady supply of materials
 Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build deltas
along low sedimentary coasts.

Marine Landforms
Erosional landforms

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Sea cliffs

 The most widespread landforms of erosional coasts are

sea cliffs.
 Generally, any very steep rock face adjoining the coast
forms a cliff
 Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range from a few
m to 30 m or even more
 .• Their steep nature is the result of wave-induced
erosion near sea level and the subsequent collapse of
rocks at a higher elevation
 At the base of the cliff, the sea cuts a notch, which
gradually undermines the cliff so that it collapses
 The best-known cliffs are the Chalk cliffs of the English
channel and the White Cliffs of Dover

Wave-cut platforms

 When the sea waves strike against a cliff, the cliff gets
eroded gradually and retreats
 With constant pounding by waves, as the cliffs recede,
an eroded base is left behind, called a wave-cut platform.
 The waves level out these platforms to create a flat
surface
 Such surfaces may measure from a few metres to
hundreds of metres wide and extend to the base of the
adjacent cliff.

Sea caves

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 Prolonged attack of waves against the base of the cliff

and the rock debris that gets smashed against the cliff
along with lashing waves create holes in regions of
weakness and
 These holes get further widened and deepened to form
sea caves.
 Example Flamborough head, England

Sea arches

 When two caves approach one another from either side

of a headland and unite, they form a bridge like
structure, known as arch
 These archways may have an arcuate or rectangular
shape, with the opening extending below water level.
 The height of an arch can be up to tens of metres above
sea level.
 It is common for sea arches to form when the waves
attack a rock- form from two opposite sides, the
differential erosion
 Example the Neddle Eye near Wick, Scotland

Sea Stack

 Continued erosion, under the attack of the wave, can

result in the total collapse of an arch
 The seaward portion of headland will remain as an
isolated pillar of rock known as stack

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 Like all other features, sea stacks is also temporary and

eventually, the stack will also disappear

Stump

 The stack is gradually eroded, leaving behind only the

stump
 Stumps are only just visible above the sea level

Blow holes

 The occasional splashing of the waves against the roof of

a cave may enlarge the joints when compressed air is
trapped inside
 A natural shaft is thus formed which may eventually
pierce through the surface
 Waves breaking into the cave may force blasts of water
from the top
 Such shaft is termed as Blow-hole or Gloup .
 Example Holborn Head, Scotland

Geos

 The enlargement of blow-holes and the continued action

of waves weaken the cave roof.
 When the roof collapses a long, narrow inlet or creek
develops.
 Such long and deep clefts are called Geos
 Example the Wife Geo, Scotland

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Depositional landforms

Beaches

 Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are

dominated by deposition but may occur as patches along
even the rugged shores.
 Sands and gravels loosened from the land are moved by
waves to be deposited along the shore as beaches
 Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes from
land carried by the streams and rivers or from wave
erosion.
 Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized materials.
Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small
pebbles and even cobbles.
 Beaches are temporary features.

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Dunes

 Just behind the beach, the coastal sands lifted and

winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be deposited
as sand dunes.
 On shore, winds play a major part in the formation of
these dunes
 Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline
are very common along low sedimentary coasts.
 Sand dunes are common in the coasts of Belgium,
Denmark and the Netherlands

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Bars

 When a ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the

off-shore zone (from the position of low tide waterline to
seaward), it is called a bar
 The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across
the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay
 Bars are submerged features and when bars show up
above water, they are called barrier bars.
 Generally, bars are approximately parallel to the coast

Tombolo

 Tombolo joins two landmasses by a connecting bar

 The tombolo is a deposition landform in which an island is
attached to the mainland by a narrow piece of lands such
as a spit or bar.
 A tombolo is a sandy isthmus.
 An example of Tombolo can be found in Chesil beach in
England which links the Isle of Portland with mainland

Barriers

 An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further

addition of sand is termed a barrier bar
 The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form across
the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
 They usually occur in chains
 They are subject to change during storms and other
action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and

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create areas of protected waters where wetlands may

flourish

Spits

 Barrier bar which gets keyed up to the headland of a bay

is called a spit
 . • Spits are projected depositional landforms with one
end attached to the land and the other end projecting
into the sea
 Spits may also develop attached to headlands/hills.
 The mode of formation of spit is similar to a bar or
barrier
 . • A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land is
called a hook.
 When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay
and block it, a lagoon forms.
 The lagoons would gradually get filled up by sediments
from the land giving rise to a coastal plain.

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Chapter 8
Composition and Structure
of Atmosphere
Atmosphere
 Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases
extending several thousands of kilometres above its surface. This
gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere.
 Like land (lithosphere) and water (hydrosphere), the atmosphere
is an integral part of the earth.
 Compared to the earth’s radius, the atmosphere appears to be
only a very thin layer of gases. However, because of the force of
gravity, it is inseparable from the earth.

Atmospheric pressure:
 The air exerts pressure on earth’s surface by virtue of its
weight. This pressure is called atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is the most important climatic element.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square
centimeter

Role of Earth’s Atmosphere

 The atmosphere contains various gases like oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen etc.
 Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while animals and many
other organisms need oxygen for their survival. The
atmosphere supplies these life giving gases.

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 All life forms need a particular range of temperature and a

specific range of frequencies of solar radiation to carry out
their biophysical processes. The atmosphere absorbs certain
frequencies and lets through some other frequencies
 of solar radiation. In other words, the atmosphere regulates
the entry of solar radiation.
 The atmosphere also keeps the temperature over the earth’s
surface within certain limits. In the absence of the
atmosphere extremes of temperature would exist between day
and night over the earth’s surface.
 Harmful ultraviolet radiation would find its way through, if the
atmosphere (ozone in stratosphere to be specific) were absent.
 The atmosphere also takes care of extra-terrestrial objects
like meteors which get burnt up while passing through the
atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) due to friction.
 Weather is another important phenomenon which dictates the
direction of a number of natural and man-made processes like
plant growth, agriculture, soilformation, human settlements,
etc. Various climatic factors join together to create weather.

Composition of Atmosphere

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 The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In addition, it

contains huge numbers of solid and liquid particles, collectively
called ‘aerosols’.
 Some of the gases may be regarded as permanent atmospheric
components which remain in fixed proportion to the total gas
volume.
 Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and
from time to time. If the suspended particles, water vapour
and other variable gases were excluded from the atmosphere,
then the dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an
altitude of about 80 kilometres.
 The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in
negligible quantity at the height of 120 km. Similarly, carbon
dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the
surface of the earth.
 Nitrogen and oxygen make up nearly 99% of the clean, dry air.
The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1%
of the atmosphere.
 Besides these gases, large quantities of water vapour and dust
particles are also present in the atmosphere. These solid and
liquid particles are of great climatic significance.
 Different constituents of the atmosphere, with their individual
characteristics, are discussed below.

Oxygen
 Oxygen, although constituting only 21% of total volume of
atmosphere, is the most important component among gases. All
living organisms inhale oxygen. Besides, oxygen can combine with
other elements to form important compounds, such as, oxides.
Also, combustion is not possible without oxygen.

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Nitrogen
 Nitrogen accounts for 78% of total atmospheric volume. It is a
relatively inert gas, and is an important constituent of all organic
compounds. The main function of nitrogen is to control combustion
by diluting oxygen. It also indirectly helps in oxidation of
different kinds.
Carbon Dioxide
 The third important gas is Carbon Dioxide which constitutes only
about 03% of the dry air and is a product of combustion. Green
plants, through photosynthesis, absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and use it to manufacture food and keep other bio-
physical processes going.
 Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is considered
to be of great climatic significance. Carbon dioxide is considered
to be a very important factor in the heat energy budget.
 With increased burning of fossil fuels – oil, coal and natural gas –
the carbon dioxide percentage in the atmosphere has been
increasing at an alarming rate.
 More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means more heat
absorption. This could significantly raise the temperature at
lower levels of the atmosphere thus inducing drastic climatic
changes.

Ozone (03)
 Ozone (03) is another important gas in the atmosphere, which is
actually a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three, instead of
two, atoms. It forms less than 00005% by volume of the
atmosphere and is unevenly distributed. It is between 20 km and
25 km altitude that the greatest concentrations of ozone are
found. It is formed at higher altitudes and transported
downwards.

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 Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet

radiation from the sun.
 Other gases found in almost negligible quantities in the
atmosphere are argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon, krypton,
methane etc.

Water Vapour
 Water Vapour is one of the most variable gaseous substances
present in atmosphere – constituting between 02% and 4% of the
total volume (in cold dry and humid tropical climates respectively).
90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of
the surface of the earth. Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays
a significant role in the insulating action, of the atmosphere.
 It absorbs not only the long-wave terrestrial radiation (infrared
or heat emitted by earth during nights), but also a part of the
incoming solar radiation.
 Water vapour is the source of precipitation and clouds. On
condensation, it releases latent heat of condensation —the
ultimate driving force behind all storms.

Solid Particles
 The Solid Particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand
particles (from weathered rocks and also derived from volcanic
ash), pollen grains, small organisms, soot, ocean salts; the upper
layers of the atmosphere may even have fragments of meteors
which got burnt up in the atmosphere. These solid particles
perform the function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the
radiation.
 The solid particles are, consequently, responsible for the orange
and red colours at sunset and sunrise and for the length of dawn
(the first appearance of light in the sky before sunrise) and

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twilight (the soft glowing light from the sky when the sun is below
the horizon, caused by the reflection of the sun’s rays by the
atmosphere. Dusk: the darker stage of twilight.). The blue colour
of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust particles.
 Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic (i.e. readily absorbing
moisture from air) in character, and as such, act as nuclei of
condensation. Thus, dust particles are an important contributory
factor in the formation of clouds, fog and hailstones.

Structure of Atmosphere
The atmosphere can be studied as a layered entity – each layer
having its own peculiar characteristics. These layers are
systematically discussed below

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Troposphere
 It is the atmospheric layer between the earth’s surface and an
altitude of 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator.
 The thickness is greater at the equator, because the heated air
rises to greater heights.
 The troposphere ends with the Tropopause.
 The temperature in this layer, as one goes upwards, falls at the
rate of 5°C per kilometer, and reaches -45°C at the poles and -
80°C over the equator at Tropopause (greater fall in temperature
above equator is because of the greater thickness of troposphere
– 18 km). • The fall in temperature is called ‘lapse rate’. (more
about this in future posts)
 The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence
and eddies.
 It is also meteorologically the most significant zone in the entire
atmosphere (Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog
and hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer).
 It is also called the convective region, since all convection stops
at Tropopause.
 The troposphere is the theatre for weather because all cyclones,
anticyclones, storms and precipitation occur here, as all water
vapours and solid particles lie within this.
 The troposphere is influenced by seasons and jet streams.

Tropopause

 Top most layer of troposphere.

 It acts as a boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
 This layer is marked by constant temperatures.

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Stratosphere

 It lies beyond troposphere, up to an altitude of 50 km from the

earth’s surface.
 The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance
but then rises to reach a level of 0°C at 50 km altitude.
 This rise is due to the presence of ozone (harmful ultraviolet
radiation is absorbed by ozone).
 This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather
phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes.
So aeroplanes fly in lower stratosphere, sometimes in upper
troposphere where weather is calm.
 Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.

Ozonosphere

 It lies at an altitude between 30 km and 60 km from the earth’s

surface and spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
 Because of the presence of ozone molecules, this layer reflects
the harmful ultraviolet radiation.
 The ozonosphere is also called chemosphere because, a lot of
chemical activity goes on here.
 The temperature rises at a rate of 5°C per kilometer through the
ozonosphere. Mesosphere
 This is an intermediate layer beyond the ozone layer and
continues upto an altitude of 80 km from the earth’s surface.
 The temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km altitude.
 Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space

Thermosphere
 In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increasing
height.

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 Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400

km. • This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by
this layer.
 Person would not feel warm because of the thermosphere’s
extremely low pressure.
 The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer.
(Though temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely
rarified – gas molecules are spaced hundreds of kilometers apart.
Hence a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel the heat)
 Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of this layer.

Ionosphere
 This layer is located between 80 km and 400 km and is an
electrically charged layer.
 This layer is characterized by ionization of atoms.
 Because of the electric charge, radio waves transmitted from the
earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
 Temperature again starts increasing with height because of
radiation from the sun.

Exosphere
 This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond
the ionosphere above a height of about 400 km.
 The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature gradually
increases through the layer.
 Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from
here.
 Temperature gradually increases through the layer. (As it is
exposed to direct sunlight)

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 This layer coincides with space.

Speed of sound follows temperature profile

 This is because speed of sound is directly proportional to
temperature as we move away from earth.

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Koeppen’s Climate Classification

 Koeppen’s Classification of climate is the most commonly used
classification of climate.
 This climate classification scheme was developed by Wladimir
Peter Koeppen in 1884.
 He recognized a close relationship between the distribution of
vegetation and climate.
 The categories are based on the data of annual and monthly
averages of temperature and precipitation.
 He selected specific values of temperature and precipitation and
related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these
values for classifying the climates.
 The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major
climatic types and each type is designated by a capital letter- A,
B, C, D, E, and H.
 The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w,
and s.

◦ f -no dry season

◦ m – Monsoon climate
◦ w- Winter dry season
◦ s – Summer dry season

 The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of

temperature.

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Chapter 10
Atmospheric Circulation
and Weather Systems
 Atmospheric pressure: The weight of a column of air contained in
a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is
expressed in units of millibar.
 Wind: The air in motion is called wind.
 Pressure gradient force: The differences in atmospheric
pressure produces a force. The rate of change of pressure with
respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
 Frictional force: It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest
at the surface and its influence generally extends upto an
elevation of 1 – 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
 Coriolis force: The rotation of the earth about its axis affects
the direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis force
after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
 Geostrophic wind: When isobars are straight and when there is no
friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis
force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This
wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
 General circulation of the atmosphere; The pattern of the
movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation
of the atmosphere.
 Cell: The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in
the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations
from the surface upwards and viceversa are called cells.

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 Hadley cells: A cell in the tropics is called Hadley cell.

 Ferrel cells: In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of
sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising warm air
that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds
are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
 Polar cell: At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies.
This cell is called the polar cell.
 Valley breeze: In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes
get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap
the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as
the valley breeze.
 Polar high: Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as
the polar high.
 El Nino: The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly
drifts towards South American coast and replaces the cool
Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast
of Peru is known as the El Nino
 Southern oscillation: The change in pressure condition over
Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
 ENSO: The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El
Nino is known as ENSO.
 Katabatic wind: During the night, the slopes get cooled and the
dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool
air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is
called katabatic wind.
 Air mass: The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of
temperature and humidity is called an air mass. It is defined as a
large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture.

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 Source regions: The homogeneous surfaces which are formed

over air masses are called the source regions.
 Fronts: When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone
between them is called a front.
 Cold front: When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass,
its contact zone is called the cold front.
 Warm front: If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air
mass, the contact zone is called warm front.
 Occluded front: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land
surface, it is called the occluded front.
 Extra tropical cyclone: The systems developing in the mid and
high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or
extra tropical cyclones.
 Landfall of the cyclone: The place where a tropical cyclone
crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone
 A mature tropical cyclone: It is characterized by the strong
spirally circulating wind around the centre, called the eye. The
diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250
km. The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air.
 Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are violent storms that
originate over oceans in tropical areas and shift to the coastal
areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the
most devastating natural calamities.
 Tornado: From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind
descends like a trunk of an elephant with great force, with very
low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its
way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado.
 Water spouts: The tornado over the sea is called water spouts.

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Atmospheric pressure
 The weight of a column of
air contained in a unit area
from the mean sea level to
the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric
pressure.
 It is measured in force per
unit area. • It is expressed
in ‘milibar’ or mb unit.
 In application level, the
atmospheric pressure is
stated in kilopascals.
 It is measured by the aneroid barometer or mercury barometer.
 In lower atmosphere, pressure declines rapidly with height.
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of
the horizontal pressure gradient and is commonly balanced by an
almost equal but opposite gravitational force.
 Low-pressure system is encircled by one or more isobars with the
lowest pressure at centre.
 High pressure system is also encircled by one or more isobars
with highest pressure in centre
 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure

Pressure belts
 There is a pattern of alternate high and low-pressure belts over
the earth.
 There are seven pressure belts. • Except the Equatorial low,
there are two Sub-Tropical highs (in North and South), the two

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Sub-polar lows (in North and South), and the two Polar highs (in
North and South).
 The above-given pressure belts oscillate with the movement of
the sun.
 In the northern hemisphere, they move southwards in winter, and
in summers they move northwards.
 The Equatorial region gets abundant heat and warm air being
light, the air at the Equator rises, generating a low pressure.
• Equatorial low
◦ It is found near the equator.
◦ The sea level pressure is low.
• Subtropical high
◦ The region in 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South, which
are high-pressure areas.
• Sub-polar Lows
◦ The region in 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South, which
are low-pressure belts.
• Polar Highs
◦ These occur near poles which have high pressure.

Pressure Gradient Force

The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force. The
rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure
gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are
close to each other and is weak where the isobars are apart.

Frictional Force
 It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface
and its influence generally extends upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km.
Over the sea surface the friction is minimal

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Coriolis Force and Wind Movement

 The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of
the wind. This force is called the Coriolis force. It has great
impact on the direction of
wind movement.
 Due to the earth’s
rotation, winds do not
cross the isobars at right
angles as the pressure
gradient force directs, but
get deflected from their
original path.
 This deviation is the result
of the earth’s rotation and
is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis force.
 Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get
deflected to the right of their path and those in the southern
hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s Law (the law that
wind is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to
the left in the Southern Hemisphere, derived from the
application of the Coriolis effect to air masses).
 This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in
motion and increases with wind velocity, air mass and an increase
in latitude.
 •the Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient
force (pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar)
 As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each
other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it
(cyclonic conditions).

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Pressure Systems
 Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This
results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
 The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of
air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion.
Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or
sink.
 Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind redistributes the heat
and moisture across latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
 The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and bring
precipitation.

Air Pressure
 Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure of air at a
given place is defined as a force exerted in all directions by
virtue of the weight of all the air above it.
 The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the
mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is called the
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is expressed in
various units.

Measurement of Air Pressure

 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given
place and time. It is measured by means of an instrument called
barometer.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called
millibars (mb).

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 One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square

centimeter. A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight
of 1.053 kilograms per square centimeter.
 In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury
75 cm high.
 The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76
centimeters (1013.25 millibars).

Vertical Variation of Pressure

 In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with
height.
 At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about two-
thirds less than what it is at the sea level.
 The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is not constant.
Since the factors controlling air density – temperature, amount of
water vapour and gravity are variable, there is no simple
relationship between altitude and pressure.
 In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on an average at
the rate of about 34 millibars every 300 metres of height.
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of
the horizontal pressure gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a
nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
 Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and hence has
higher pressure. Since air pressure is proportional to density as
well as temperature, it follows that a change in either
temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in the
pressure.

• The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies

from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of air

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motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas.

 A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather, while a falling

pressure indicates unstable and cloudy weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

 Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of

the wind direction and velocity. Horizontal distribution of
pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels.
 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure. In
order to eliminate the
effect of altitude on
pressure, it is
measured at any
station after being
reduced to sea level
for purposes of
comparison.
 The spacing of isobars
expresses the rate and
direction of pressure
changes and is referred to as pressure gradient
 Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure
gradient, while wide spacing suggests weak gradient. The pressure
gradient may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit
distance in the direction in which the pressure decreases most
rapidly
 There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal
pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’. On the earth’s surface,
there are in all seven pressure belts.

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 The seven pressure belts are :

1. equatorial low,

2. the sub-tropical highs,

3. the sub-polar lows, and

4. the polar highs.

• Except the equatorial low, all others form matching pairs in the
northern and southern hemispheres.

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centers

 Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the

lowest pressure in the centre. Highpressure system is also
enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the
centre.

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World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

 The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034 gm per square cm

at sea level. This amount of pressure is exerted by the
atmosphere at sea level on all animals, plants, rocks, etc.
 Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is
known as equatorial low. Along 30° N and 30° S are found the
high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs. Further
pole wards along 60° N and 60° S, the low-pressure belts are
termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles the pressure is
high and it is known as the polar high.
 These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They
oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun. In the
northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in
the summer northwards

Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’

 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.

 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.
 This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds
from two hemispheres from sub-tropical high pressure belts.
 This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely
calm air movements.
 The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of
the Sun.

Formation
 As this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount
of insolation.
 Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and rises over the
equatorial region (convection).

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 Whenever there is vertically upward movement of air, the region

at the surface will be at low pressure. Thus the belt along the
equator is called equatorial low pressure belt.

Climate
 This belt is characterized by extremely low pressure with calm
conditions.
 This is because of the absence of Surface winds since winds
approaching this belt begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only
vertical currents are found.
 As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes along the
oceans, the winds obtain huge amount of moisture.
 Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus
clouds and lead to thunderstorms (convectional rainfall)
 Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the
equator because of ‘zero’ coriolis force. (we will see more later)

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Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

• The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N
and S.

Formation
• After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the ITCZ, the air
moving away from equatorial low pressure belt in the upper
troposphere becomes dry and cold.

• This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.

• So the high pressure along this belt is due to subsidence of air

coming from the equatorial region which descends after becoming
heavy.

• The high pressure is also due to the blocking effect of air at upper
levels because of the Coriolis force.

Climate
• The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore, most of the deserts
are present along this belt, in both hemispheres.

• A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this

high pressure belt.

• The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards

adjoining low pressure belts.

• This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical

disturbances

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Horse Latitudes

• The corresponding latitudes

of sub-tropical high pressure
belt are called horse
latitudes.

• In early days, the sailing

vessels with cargo of horses
found it difficult to sail
under calm conditions of this
high pressure belt.

• They used to throw horses

into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

 Located between 45°N and S latitudes and the Arctic and the
Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes).
 Owning to low temperatures in these latitudes the sub polar
low pressure belts are not very well pronounced year long.
 On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub polar low-pressure
belts of the northern hemisphere are grouped into two centers
of atmospheric activity: the Iceland low and the Aleutian
depression (Aleutian low).
 Such belts in the southern hemisphere surround the periphery
of Antarctica and are not as well differentiated

Formation

 These are dynamically produced due to Coriolis Force produced by

rotation of the earth on its axis, and. Ascent of air as a result of

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convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies (we will more about

these in next topic – wind systems).
 Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly encountered above

Seasonal behavior

 During winter, because of a high contrast between land and sea,

this belt is broken into two distinct low centers – one in the
vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the other between Iceland
and Greenland.
 During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and
regular belt.

Climate

 The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces
polar jet streams which encircles the earth at 60 degrees
latitudes and is focused in these low pressure areas

Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of the winds

from sub-tropical and polar source regions, extra tropical
cyclonic storms or lows’ (temperate cyclones or frontal cyclones)
are produced in this region.

Polar High Pressure Belt

 The polar highs are small in area and extend around the poles.
 They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.

Formation

 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after saturation

becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold while moving towards
poles through upper troposphere.

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 The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides creating a high

pressure belt at the surface of earth.

Climate

 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.

Pressure belts in July

 In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent

northward shift of the sun, the thermal equator (belt of highest
temperature) is located north of the geographical equator.
 The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average
locations.

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Pressure belts in January

 During winter, these conditions are completely reversed and the

pressure belts shift south of their annual mean locations.
Opposite conditions prevail in the southern hemisphere. The
amount of shift is, however, less in the southern hemisphere due
to predominance of water.
 Similarly, distribution of continents and oceans have a marked
influence over the distribution of pressure. In winter, the
continents are cooler than the oceans and tend to develop high
pressure centres, whereas in summer, they are relatively warmer
and develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the oceans

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Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

• There are two main causes, thermal and dynamic, for the pressure
differences resulting in high and low pressure systems.

Thermal Factors

 When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases.

This naturally leads to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling
results in contraction. This increases the density and thus leads
to high pressure.
 Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of
thermal lows and thermal highs, respectively

Dynamic Factors

 Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure

belts may be explained by dynamic controls arising out of
pressure gradient forces and rotation of the earth (Coriolis
force)

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of

low pressure in equatorial latitudes. This is where the northeast and
the southeast trade winds converge. This convergence zone lies
more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south with
the apparent movement of the sun.

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Land Breeze

The movement of local wind system from land to water at late night
is called Land Breeze. It is created when the land is cooler than the
water such as at night and the surface winds have to be very light.

Sea Breeze

The pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind
blows from the sea to the land is called as Sea Breeze. It is created
when the surface of the land is heated sufficiently to start air
rising.

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Thunderstorm

It is a storm resulting from

strong rising air currents; heavy
rain or hail along with thunder and
lightning. It is caused by intense
convection on moist hot days.

Tornado

When severe thunderstorms sometimes

spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low
pressure at the centre, causing massive
destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon
is called a tornado. It is generally occur in
middle latitudes.

General Circulation of
the Atmosphere

The pattern of the

movement of the planetary
winds is called the general
circulation of the
atmosphere

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Factors for General Circulation of the Atmosphere

 The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:

 Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
 The emergence of pressure belts
 The migration of belts following the apparent path of the sun
 The distribution of continents and oceans
 The rotation of the earth
 The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the
marine water circulation which affects the climate of the Earth.
 The air at the ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) upsurges
because of convection caused by high insolation and low pressure
is generated.
 The winds from the tropics join at this low-pressure zone.
 The joined air upsurges along with the convective cell.
 It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km.
It further moves toward the poles. This causes accumulation of
air at about 30o North and South.
 Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches
30 degrees North and South latitudes.
 Downward near the land surface, the air flows towards the
equator as the easterlies.
 Such circulations from the surface up and vice-versa are called
cells.
 This type of cell in the tropics is called the Hadley Cell.
 In the mid-latitudes, the circulation is that of dipping cold air
that comes from the poles and the mounting warm air that blows
from the subtropical high.
 At the surface, these winds are called westerlies and the cell is
known as the Ferrel cell.

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 At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and
blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is
called the polar cell.
 These Ferrel cells, Hadley Cell, and polar cell set the
configuration for the general circulation of the atmosphere.

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans

 The general circulation of the atmosphere also influences the

oceans.
 Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most significant in
terms of general atmospheric circulation.
 The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean gradually drifts
towards the South American coast and substitutes the cool
Peruvian current.
 Such presence of warm water off the coast of Peru is known as
the El Nino.
 The El Nino is associated with the pressure variations in
Australia and Central Pacific.
 This variation in pressure condition over the Pacific is known as
the southern oscillation.
 The combined phenomenon of El Nino and southern oscillation
is known as ENSO

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Chapter 12

The World Climate and

Climate Change
Koeppen’s Climate Classification

• Koeppen’s Classification of climate is the most commonly used

classification of climate.

• This climate classification scheme was developed by Wladimir

Peter Koeppen in 1884.

• He recognized a close relationship between the distribution of

vegetation and climate.

• The categories are based on the data of annual and monthly

averages of temperature and precipitation.

• He selected specific values of temperature and precipitation and

related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these values
for classifying the climates.

• The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major

climatic types and each type is designated by a capital letter- A, B,
C, D, E, and H.

• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w,

and s.

◦ f -no dry season

◦ m – Monsoon climate

◦ w- Winter dry season

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◦ s – Summer dry season

• The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of

temperature.

The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry

climates.

The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small

letters, based on seasonality of precipitation and temperature
characteristics.

The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w

and s, where f corresponds to no dry season

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The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided

depending upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree of
dryness or cold.

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a: hot summer, average temperature of the warmest month over

22°C

c: cool summer, average temperature of the warmest month under

22°C

f: no dry season

w: dry season in winter

s: dry season in summer

g: Ganges type of annual march of temperature; hottest month

comes before the solstice and the summer rainy season.

h: average annual temperature under 18°C

m (monsoon): short dry season

The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two

subdivisions of dry climate:

1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and

3. arid or desert (W).

Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two

subdivisions of polar climate

1. tundra (T) and

3. icecap (F).

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Koppen Climate Classification

• Koppen’s Group-A climates are found in the unbroken belt around

the Earth at low latitudes, typically within 15° North and South.

• Group A climates are regulated largely by the seasonal variations

of the trade winds, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ),
and the Asian monsoon.

Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

• Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic

of Capricorn.

• Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.

• The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas

the annual rainfall is high.

• The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:

◦ Af – Tropical wet climate

◦ Am – Tropical monsoon climate

◦ Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

• Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.

• The chief areas that lie in this climate are

: ◦ Amazon Basin in South America

◦ Western Equatorial Africa ◦ The islands of East Indies

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• A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.

• These regions receive thundershowers in the afternoon.

• The temperature is uniformly high.

• The annual range of temperature is negligible.

• The maximum temperature during daytime is about 30°C whereas

the minimum temperature is about 20°C.

• The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large

biodiversity.

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

• Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:

◦ The Indian sub-continent

◦ North Eastern part of South America

◦ Northern Australia

• These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer.

• Winter in this area seems to be dry

Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

• Tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of

Tropical Wet Climate (Af) type climate regions.

• It borders with Cf or Cw on the eastern part and dry climate on

the western part of the continent.

Extensive Aw climate is found in

◦ Sudan

◦ South of Central Africa

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◦ North and South of the Amazon forest in Brazil

◦ Connecting parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America

• The annual rainfall in Tropical Wet and Dry Climate is significantly

less than that in Af and Am climate types.

• The wet season is shorter in this region.

• The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.

• The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.

• Temperature is high throughout the year.

• Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands main flora found

in this region.

Group B: Dry Climates

The Group-B Climates of Koppen’s Climate Classification are Dry

Climates

• These arid and semiarid climates cover about a quarter of the land
surface of the Earth.

• This region lies between 50° North and 50° South.

• But these regions are predominantly seen in the 15–30° latitude

belts in northern and southern hemispheres.

• These regions have intense solar radiation and clear skies.

• These regions experience

◦ Low precipitation

◦ Great variability in precipitation from year to year

◦ Low relative humidity

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◦ High evaporation rates

• Dry climates are divided into:

◦ Steppe or semi-arid climate (BS)

◦ Subtropical steppe (BSh)- Latitudes from 15° – 35°

◦ Mid-latitude steppe (BSk)

◦ Desert climate (BW)

◦ Subtropical desert (BWh) – Latitudes between 35°- 60°

◦ Mid-latitude desert (BWk)

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common

temperature and precipitation characteristics.

• The maximum temperature in this region in summer is very high.

• The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.

• The highest temperature of 58°C was recorded at Libya in 1922 at

Al Aziziyah.

• This region is positioned in the transition zone between dry

climates and humid.

• Subtropical steppe region receives slightly more rainfall than the

subtropical desert which is sufficient enough for the growth of
meager grasslands.

• The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.

• Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is

futile in building soil moisture.

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• The inconsistency in the rainfall distresses the life in the steppe

much more than in the desert, more frequently causing famine.

• Fog is common in coastal deserts neighbouring cold currents.

Group C-Warm Temperate

Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates stretch from 30° – 50° of

latitude mainly on the western and eastern margins of continents.

• These climates usually have warm summers with mild winters. •

They are classified into four types:

1. Humid subtropical – Cwa

2. Mediterranean Climate – Cs

3. Humid subtropical climate – Cfa

4. Marine west coast climate – Cfb

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)

The Humid subtropical climate is found in the poleward of Tropic of

Cancer and Capricorn.

This climate is predominantly found in the North Indian plains and

interior plains of South China.

The Humid Subtropical Climate is similar to Tropical Wet and Dry

Climate (Aw) climate excluding that the temperature in winter is
warm

Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

• Mediterranean climate is found around Mediterranean sea, along

the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes between 30° –
40° latitudes

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• The climate is predominantly found in the

◦ Central Chile

◦ Central California

◦ Along the coast in South Eastern

◦ South Western Australia

• These areas come under the influence of westerly wind in winter

and sub-tropical high in summer.

• Therefore, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summer and

mild, rainy winter.

• The monthly average temperature in winter below 10°C and in

summer is around 25° C.

• The annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)

• The Humid subtropical climate is found in the Eastern parts of the

continent lying in the subtropical latitudes.

• In this area, the air masses are usually uneven and cause rainfall
throughout the year.

• This Climate is found in:

◦ The Eastern United States of America

◦ Southern and eastern China

◦ Southern Japan

◦ North-eastern Argentina

◦ Coastal South Africa

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◦ Eastern coast of Australia

• The annual average of precipitation stretches from 75-150 cm.

• Frontal precipitation in winter and thunderstorms in summer are

usual.

• The average monthly temperature in winter it differs from 5°-12°

C and in summer is about 27°C.

Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

• Marine west coast climate is situated poleward from the

Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the continents.

• The main areas are:

◦ North-western Europe

◦ West coast of North America

◦ North of California

◦ Southern Chile

◦ South-eastern Australia

◦ New Zealand • The temperature is moderate and in winter, it is

warmer than for its latitude due to marine influence.

• The mean temperature in winter 4°-10°C and in summer months

ranges from 15°-20°C.

Group D-Cold Snow Forest Climates

Cold snow forest climate is found in the large continental area in the
northern hemisphere between 40°-70° North latitudes.

• The regions lying in this climate are:

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◦ Europe ◦ Asia

◦ North America

• Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types:

◦ Df- cold climate with humid winter.

◦ Dw- cold climate with dry winter.

• The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes.

Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)

• Cold climate with humid winters is found in the poleward of mid-

latitude steppe and marine west coast climate.

• The winters are snowy and cold.

• The frost-free season is short.

• The annual ranges of temperature are high.

• The weather changes are unexpected and short.

• Poleward, the winters are extreme.

Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)

• Cold climate with dry winter mainly found over North-Eastern Asia.

• Precipitation occurs in summer.

• The annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.

• The progress of pronounced winter anticyclone and its weakening

in summer sets in the monsoon-like reversal of the wind in this area.

• Poleward summer temperatures are poorer and winter

temperatures are very low with several locations experiencing below
freezing point temperatures.

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Group E - Cold Climates

• Group E climates are regulated by the polar and arctic air masses
of high latitudes which lie above 60° North and South latitudes.

Polar Climates (E)

• Polar climates are found in the poleward beyond 70° latitude

. • Polar climates consist of two types:

◦ Tundra (ET)

◦ Ice Cap (EF)

Tundra Climate (ET)

• The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation,

such as lichens, low-growing mosses, and flowering plants.

• The regions experiencing this climate are:

◦ Mount Rainier

◦ Macquarie Island

◦ Crozet Islands

◦ Campbell Island

◦ Kerguelen Islands

◦ Prince Edward Islands

• This is the region of permafrost.

• The subsoil in this region is permanently frozen.

• The waterlogging and short growing season support only low

growing plants.

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• The tundra regions have a very long period of daylight during

summer.

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

• The ice cap climate (EF) found in the interior Greenland and
Antarctica.

• The regions experiencing this climate are:

◦ Vostok Station, Antarctica ◦ Mount Ararat, in Turkey

◦ Mount Everest

◦ Scott Base, Antarctica

◦ Summit Camp, Greenland

◦ Plateau Station, Antarctica

• The temperature is below freezing point even in summer.

• This region receives very little precipitation.

• The ice and snow get amassed and the increasing pressure causes
the deformation of the ice sheets and they break.

• These broken pieces move as icebergs and float in the Antarctic

and Arctic waters

Group H-Highland Climates

• Group H climate contains all highland areas not easily categorized

by other climate types.

• Highland climates are dominated by topography.

• In high mountains, large changes in average temperature occur

over short distances.

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• Precipitation types and intensity of the precipitation also differ

spatially across highlands.

• There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with

elevation in the mountain environment

What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to changes in average weather conditions of a

given area observed over an extended period of time.

The term Climate change was used by World Meteorological

Organization in the 1960s to refer to climate variability observed on
a time scale of over 10 years irrespective of causes, but in later
years the term became associated with human-induced changes in
weather patterns.

Climate Change, which is today a cause for worry, has been

evidenced by rising temperatures since the mid-20th century,
retreating glaciers and melting of polar ice caps, increased
frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, heavy
rainfall, cyclones, heat waves etc.

Causes

Factors that shape climate are called climate forcing . These could
be grouped into natural and anthropogenic Natural Causes

Biotic processes: Processes pertaining to living beings shape and

influence water cycle and nutrient cycles (Carbon, nitrogen etc.) and
thereby shape climate. For instance glaciation in the past occurred
on earth with the evolution of plants that depleted atmosphere of
Carbon dioxide (using it in photosynthesis)

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• Variations in solar radiation received by Earth: Sunspot cycle

(periodic variation in the number of sunspots) amounts to changes in
incoming solar radiation that have a bearing on climate.

• Plate tectonics: The location of continents and seas across the

globe has a bearing on ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation
which brings about the meridional transfer of heat. Changes in these
dynamics can induce climate changes

• Volcanic eruptions: These inject sulfate aerosols into the

atmosphere which induce cooling by reflecting solar radiations.

• Variations in the Earth's orbit: Changes in earth s axial tilt

cause changes in incident solar radiation and result in climate
change.

• Changes in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents,

atmosphere, and oceans

Anthropogenic causes

• Emissions of Greenhouse gases: Build-up of heat-trapping gases

such as CO2, Water vapour, HFCs, Nitrous oxides etc in the
atmosphere is a major factor behind rising global temperatures and
consequent climate variability. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
has increased from 288 ppm in 1870 to 404 ppm (2016).

• The World Resource Institute (WRI) in its report estimates that

the world produces 31,000 million tonnes of Carbon dioxide every
year and the earth naturally assimilates 17,500 mt of CO2 annually,
leaving a substantial amount of CO2 to accumulate in the
atmosphere.

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• Ozone depletion: Caused by the release of ODS (Ozone depleting

substances) used in refrigerants, coolants, sprays, dyes and paints
etc

• Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

• Deforestation: Clearing of forests has removed natural carbon

sinks and facilitated an increase in CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere. Deforestation has also adversely impacted rainfall
patterns in monsoon regions.

Impact of Climate Change

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Global Warming

Average surface temperature has risen by 0.95 degree Celsius since

1880 (as per NOAA). NASA records show that the world witnessed
16 of its hottest years post year 2000. Current levels of Emissions,
global temperatures are predicted to rise by up to 5.4%. Scientists
have also observed that spring seasons now begin early and last
longer causing disruptions in ecology and economy (agriculture,
fisheries etc.).

Sea Level Rise and Glacier Retreat

Each ton of CO2 emitted is known to melt 32 square feet of arctic

ice. Globally sea levels have risen by 8 to 9 inches since 19th
Century. Arctic ice caps have reduced from nearly 3 million square
miles to less than 2 million square miles. Further ice melts could
raise sea levels to dangerous degrees leading to coastal submergence
and displacements. In addition to this, Himalayan glaciers have lost
21-30% of their cover in the last 40 years (CSE).

Climate-related disasters

Average number of climate-related disasters such as droughts,

floods, cyclones and heat waves etc. has tripled since 1980 from an
average of 218 to 700 in 2016. Researchers have observed that
warming of 0.85 degree Celsius in the present day is responsible for
75% of daily heat extremes and 18% of precipitation extremes. If
global temperature rises by 2 degree Celsius, 40 percent of rainfall
extremes would then be a result of anthropogenic climate
disruptions

Impact on Biosphere

47 percent of species are reported to have gone extinct due to

human-induced climate change and many have come under stress.

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Rising temperatures have caused a reduction in plant and animal

populations, distress migrations, coral bleaching and die-offs.

Self-reinforcing

Increasing temperatures have caused an increase in demand for

cooling appliances refrigerants, air conditioners etc. Energy use for
cooling is predicted to witness a 90% jump on 2017 levels which is
likely to reinforce global warming by raising CO2 concentrations in
the atmosphere by nearly 2.5 Gt by 2050.

On civilization

A renowned epidemiologist, McMichael in his book Climate Change

and health of nations observes that novel infectious disease could
appear in future due to cross-species microbial traffic in response
to climate change. He cites Kawasaki disease occurring in Japan as
an example and states that change in wind patterns could widen the
geographical range of the disease affecting greater number of
people in near future, thus threatening human civilization. One may
note here that collapse of Mesopotamian and Harappan Civilizations
is also often associated with climate change.

Impact on India Climate

• Warming of Tibetan plateau is associated with the instability of

western winds resulting in variability in western Disturbances. This
changes the pattern of winter rainfall witnessed in northern and
north-western India.

• The Indian Ocean is showing signs of large warming as compared to

suppressed warming of the Indian subcontinental landmass. This will
result in weakening of summer monsoons.

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• By 2100, the temperature in tropics might rise by more than 4

degree Celsius.

• IMD study shows a rise of about 1 degree Celsius in mean

temperatures in the Himalayan cold arid zone since 1950.

Agriculture and Food security

• Temperature rise beyond the biological limit for food crops could
spell agrarian crisis and jeopardize food security in the country.

• Declining yield: By 2030, a 10 percent drop in rice yield is expected

in South Asia. By 2050, this will impact wheat and maize

• Fish catch is expected to reduce by 60 percent owing to habitat

destruction and fish migrations

Economy

• Agriculture is the mainstay of economy employing nearly 50% of

the population, the country s economy will come under stress due to
climate change. The Economic Survey points out that climate change
could cause a 25% drop in agricultural incomes in the next 7
decades.

• Fiscals will come under stress due to rising spate of disasters and
disease burden.

Others

• The rise in water stress

• Resource conflicts

• Displacements

• Impoverishment

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What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon
of gradual increase in temperature
near the Earth’s surface. This
phenomenon has been observed over
the past one or two centuries. This
change has disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth. However,
the concept of global warming is quite controversial. But, the
scientists have provided relevant data in support of the fact that
the temperature of the Earth is rising constantly.

There are several causes of global warming which have a negative

effect on human, plant and animal lives. These causes may be natural
or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the
issues, it is very important to understand the negatives of global
warming

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming: Man-made Causes

of Global Warming

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Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide
and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. The
forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial
purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance thereby giving
rise to global warming

. Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles even for very short distances results into
various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a
large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere
resulting in a temperature increase

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators,

humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects
the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth
surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The
CFCs has led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet
rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth

has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the
factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth. In 2013,
the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the
increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been
0.9 degrees Celcius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celcius when
compared to the preindustrial mean temperature.

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Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas.

These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase
the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation

Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an

increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing
global warming, in the atmosphere

Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global

warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes
out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in

earth’s temperature more water gets evaporated from the water
bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost

Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil

that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years. As the
permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere
increasing the earth’s temperature.

Forest Blazes

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Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-

containing smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and
increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature

Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s

temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by
1.4 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in melting of glaciers
which have led to an increase in the sea levels. This could have
devastating effects on coastal regions.

Threat to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to a loss
of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made
the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change

Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are

droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance
is the result of global warming

Spread of Diseases

Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and

humidity. This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and
spread diseases.

Decrease in the Human Population

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Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities,

the population of humans tend to decrease. Also, the spread of
diseases leads to a decrease in the human population.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several

plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from
their natural and many of them even get extinct. This is yet another
major impact of global warming on biodiversity

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Chapter 11

The Water in the Atmosphere

Important definitions

1. Humidity : A generic term to refer to the amount of water

vapour present in the atmosphere.

2. Absolute Humidity : Its the actual weight of the water

vapour(grams) present per unit volume(cubic meter m^3) of the
atmosphere. This gives us an estimate of the actual amount of water
present in a given atmosphere.

3. Relative Humidity : The % of water vapour present in the

atmosphere compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is
called Relative Humidity.

4. Condensation : Transformation of water vapour into water is

called condensation. It releases heat.

5. Sublimation : When the water vapour directly condenses into

solid form, it is called sublimation

Water Cycle – Hydrological cycle

• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere,

the oceans and the continents through the processes of evaporation,
transpiration, condensation and precipitation.

• The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies

through evaporation and from plants through transpiration
(evapotranspiration).

• Evaporated water undergoes condensation and forms clouds.

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• When saturation is reached, clouds give away water in the form of

• Since the total amount of moisture in the entire system remains

constant, a balance is required between evapotranspiration and
precipitation. The hydrological cycle maintains this balance.

Evaporation

 Evaporation is a process by which water is converted from liquid

to gaseous state.
 Temperature is the main cause for evaporation.
 The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is known
as latent heat of vaporisation.
 Rise in temperature escalates water absorption and retention
capacity of the given parcel of air.
 Movement of air substitutes the saturated layer with the
unsaturated layer.
 Hence, the greater the movement of air, the greater is the
evaporation.

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Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation

• Amount of water available.

• Temperature.

• Relative humidity. [explained in previous post]

• Area of evaporating surface.

Wind speed: A high wind speed removes the saturated air from the
evaporating surface and replaces it with dry air which favors more
evaporation.

• Whenever there is a combination of high temperature, very low

relative humidity and strong winds, the rate of evaporation is
exceptionally high. This leads to dehydration of soil to a depth of
several inches.

• Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected by the atmospheric

pressure exerted on the evaporating surface. Lower pressure over
open surface of the liquid results in a higher rate of evaporation.

• Composition of water: Evaporation is inversely proportional to

salinity of water.

• Rate of evaporation is always greater over fresh water than over

salt water. [Because of the reduction in the water vapor pressure at
the water surface due to salinity.]

• Under similar conditions, ocean water evaporates about 5% more

slowly than fresh water.

• More evaporation by plants: Water from plants generally

evaporates at a faster rate than from land.

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Condensation

• The transformation of water vapour into water is called

condensation.
• Condensation is caused by the loss of heat (latent heat of
condensation, opposite of latent heat of vaporization).
• When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
to hold water vapour ceases (Saturation Point = 100% Relative
Humidity = Dew Point reached). Then, the excess water vapour
condenses into liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid
form, it is known as sublimation.

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 In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small

particles termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei. Particles of
dust, smoke, pollen and salt from the ocean are particularly good
nuclei because they absorb water.
 Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact
with some colder object and it may also take place when the
temperature is close to the dew point.
 Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and
the relative humidity of the air.
 Condensation takes place: 1. when the temperature of the air is
reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant
(adiabatically), 2. when both the volume and the temperature are
reduced, 3. when moisture is added to the air through
evaporation,
 After condensation the water vapour or the moisture in the
atmosphere takes one of the following forms — dew, frost, fog
and clouds.
 Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the
freezing point as well as higher than the freezing point

Processes of Cooling for Producing Condensation

• These processes can be studied under the” headings, adiabatic and

non-adiabatic.

Adiabatic Temperature Changes

 (Explained in detail in previous posts)

 When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat available per unit
volume is reduced and, therefore, the temperature is also
reduced. Such a temperature change which does not involve any

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subtraction of heat, and cooling of air takes place only by

ascent and expansion, is termed ‘adiabatic change’
 • The vertical displacement of the air is the major cause of
adiabatic and katabatic (cold, dense air flowing down a slope)
temperature changes.
 Near the earth’s surface, most processes of change are
nonadiabatic because horizontal movements often produce
mixing of air and modify its characteristics

Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes

 Non-adiabatic processes include cooling by radiation,

conduction or mixing with colder air. The air may be cooled due
to loss of heat by radiation.
 In case there is direct radiation from moist air, the cooling
produces fog or clouds, subject to presence of hygroscopic
nuclei in the air.
 Cooling by contact with a cold surface produces dew, frost or
fog depending on other atmospheric conditions.
 But the effect of cooling produced by radiation, conduction
and mixing is confined to a thin layer of the atmosphere
 • The non-adiabatic processes of cooling produce only dew, fog
or frost. They are incapable of producing a substantial amount
of precipitation.

Forms of Condensation

• The forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of

temperature at which the dew point is reached.

• Condensation can take place when the dew point is

1. lower than the freezing point,

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2. higher than the freezing point.

• White frost, snow and some clouds (cirrus clouds) are produced
when the temperature is lower than the freezing point.

• Dew, fog and clouds result even when the temperature is higher
than the freezing point.

• Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their

location, i.e. at or near the earth’s surface and in free air

• Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas
clouds are in the second category

Dew

• When the moisture is deposited in

the form of water droplets on cooler
surfaces of solid objects (rather than
nuclei in air above the surface) such as
stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it
is known as dew.

• The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high
relative humidity, and cold and long nights.

• For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is

above the freezing point

White Frost

• Frost forms on cold surfaces when

condensation takes place below freezing
point (0° C), i.e. the dew point is at or
below the freezing point.

• The excess moisture is deposited in the

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form of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets.

• The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the
same as those for the formation of dew, except that the air
temperature must be at or below the freezing point

Fog

• When the temperature of an air

mass containing a large quantity of
water vapour falls all of a sudden,
condensation takes place within
itself on fine dust particles.

• So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero.

• In urban and industrial centers smoke provides plenty of nuclei

which help the formation of fog and mist. Such a condition when fog
is mixed with smoke, is described as smog (will be discussed in detail
in next post). [Related Question Asked in Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi
and Kolkata are the three mega cities of the country but the air
pollution is much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the
other two. Why is this so?]

• Radiation fog results from radiation, cooling of the ground and

adjacent air. These fogs are not very thick. Usual in winters.

• Fogs formed by condensation of warm air when it moves

horizontally over a cold surface, are known as advectional fog. These
fogs are thick and persistent. Occurs over warm and cold water
mixing zones in oceans.

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• Frontal or precipitation fog is produced due to convergence of

warm and cold air masses where warm air mass is pushed under by
the heavier cold air mass.

• Precipitation in the warm air mass condenses to produce fog at the

boundary of the two air masses. These are called frontal or
precipitation fog

In fog visibility is less than one kilometer.

Mist

• The difference between the

mist and fog is that mist contains
more moisture than fog.

• In mist each nuclei contains a

thicker layer of moisture.

• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the
slopes meets a cold surface.

• Mist is also formed by water droplets, but with less merging or

coalescing. This means mist is less dense and quicker to dissipate.

• Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm
currents of air come in contact with cold currents.

• In mist visibility is more than one kilometer but less than two
kilometres

Haze

• Haze is traditionally an atmospheric

phenomenon where dust, smoke and other
dry particles obscure the clarity of the
sky (No condensation. Smog is similar to

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haze but there is condensation in smog).

• Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in dry

weather), traffic, industry, and
wildfires.

Smog

Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused

by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes
(Primary pollutants).

CLOUD

Cloud is a mass of minuscule water drops or minute crystals of ice

formed by the condensation of water vapour in free air at
significant altitudes.

According to their altitude, stretch, density, and transparency

or opaqueness clouds are
classified under four
types:

•Cirrus

•Cumulus

•Stratus

•Nimbus

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Cirrus

 Cirrus clouds are formed at high

altitudes of 8,000 – 12,000m.
 •They are detached thin clouds.
They have a feathery appearance.
 •They are always white in colour

Cumulus

•Cumulus clouds are generally formed at

a height of 4,000 – 7,000 m.

•They look like cotton wool. They exist in

patches and can be seen dispersed here
and there.

•They have a flat base.

Stratus

•Stratus clouds are layered clouds

covering big portions of the sky.

•These clouds are usually formed due to

the mixing of air masses with various
temperatures or due to loss of heat

Nimbus

•Nimbus clouds form at middle levels or

very near to the surface of the earth.

•They are usually found in black or dark

gray colour.

•These are very dense and opaque to the

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rays of the sun.

•Occasionally, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the
ground.

•These clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

A combination of these four types can give rise to the following

types of clouds:

•High clouds

Cirrus

Cirrostratus

Cirrocumulus

•Middle clouds

Altostratus

Altocumulus

•Low clouds

Stratocumulus

Nimbostratus

•Clouds with extensive vertical development

Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

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Precipitation

The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the

condensed particles to grow in size. When the resistance of the air
fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the
earth’s surface. So after the condensation of water vapour, the
release of moisture is known as precipitation. This may take place in
liquid or solid form.

• Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall, when

the drop size is more than 5 mm.

• It is called VIRGA when raindrops evaporate before reaching the

earth while passing through dry air.

• Drizzle is light rainfall with drop size being less than 0.5 mm, and
when evaporation occurs before reaching the ground, it is referred
to as

• When the temperature is lower than the 0° C, precipitation takes

place in the form of fine flakes of snow and is called snowfall.
Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals. These
crystals form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow, other forms of
precipitation are sleet and hail (more about hail while studying
thunderstorms), though the latter are limited in occurrence and are
sporadic in both time and space.

Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water. When a

layer of air with the temperature above freezing point overlies a
subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the
form of sleet.

• Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the colder air
below. As a result, they solidify and reach the ground as small

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pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which they are
formed. Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds
become solidified into small rounded solid pieces of ice and which
reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones. These are
formed by the rainwater passing through the colder layers.
Hailstones have several concentric layers of ice one over the other.

• Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm. • Virage: raindrops evaporate
before reaching the earth. • Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less
than 0.5 mm.

• Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching the ground leading to

foggy weather.

• Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less

than 0°C.

• Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; mixture of

snow and rain or merely partially melted snow.

• Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is known as

hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.

Types of Rainfall

• On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main

types –

the convectional,

orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.

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Convectional Rainfall

• The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection

currents. As it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently,
condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. This
process releases latent heat of condensation which further heats
the air and forces the air to go further up.

• Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly

localised and is associated with minimum amount of cloudiness. It
occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums
in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and the islands of south-east
Asia.

• Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of Condensation

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Orographic Rainfall

• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced

to ascend and as it rises, it expands (because of fall in pressure);
the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.G

• This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an

orographic barrier (a mountain range) head on. Because of the initial
momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture laden air gains
height, condensation sets in, and soon saturation is reached. The
surplus moisture falls down as orographic precipitation along the
windward slopes

• The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward

slopes receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the windward
side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and
their temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture
increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is
known as the rain-shadow area (Some arid and semi-arid regions are
a direct consequence of rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian

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desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats). It is also

known as the relief rain.

• Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives

more than 600 cm of rainfall, whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow
area, has only about 70 cm

The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is heated adiabatically

and is called Katabatic Wind

Frontal Precipitation

• When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent

conditions are produced. Along the front convection occurs and
causes precipitation (we studied this in Fronts). For instance, in
north-west Europe, cold continental air and warm oceanic air
converge to produce heavy rainfall in adjacent areas.

Fronts – Frontogenesis – Stationary Front, Cold Front, Warm Front,

Occluded Front

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Cyclonic Rain

• Cyclonic Rainfall is
convectional rainfall on a
large scale. (we will see this
in detail later)

• The precipitation in a
tropical cyclone is of
convectional type while that
in a temperate cyclone is
because of frontal activity

Monsoonal Rainfall

• This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of

winds which carry oceanic moisture (especially the south-west
monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south and
southeast Asia. (More while studying Indian Monsoons)

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World Distribution of Rainfall

• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts

of rainfall in a year and that too in different seasons. In general, as
we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on
decreasing steadily.

• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall

than the interior of the continents. The rainfall is more over the
oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water.

• Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain
is heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
west. But, between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, due to the
westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the western margins of
the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.

Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on

the coastal plain, on the windward side and it decreases towards the
leeward side.

• On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major

precipitation regimes of the world are identified as follows.

• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along

the western coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per
annum.

• Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from

100 – 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of the continents receive
moderate amount of rainfall.

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• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior
parts of the temperate lands receive rainfall varying between 50 –
100 cm per annum.

• Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the

continents and high latitudes receive very low rainfall – less than 50
cm per annum.

• Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to

judge its effectiveness. In some regions rainfall is distributed
evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions.

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Chapter 13
Water Oceans
Continent shelf: The continental shelf is the extended margin of
each continent occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs. It is
the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1°
or even less.

Thermocline: The boundary region, from where there is a rapid

decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline.

Trenches: These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. The
trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins. They are some 3-
5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.

Mid-oceanic ridges: A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains

of mountains separated by a large depression. The

mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even
reach above the ocean’s surface.

Continental slope: The continental slope connects the continental

shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the bottom of the
continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope. The gradient
of the slope region varies between 2-5°.

Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the

seafloor that does not reach the surface of the ocean. Seamounts
are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000 — 4,500 m tall.

Shelf break: The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called
the shelf break.

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Submarine canyons: These are deep valleys, some comparable to the

Grand Canyon of the Colorado river. They are sometimes found
cutting across the continental shelves and slopes, often extending
from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the best
known submarine canyon in the world.

Guyot: It is a flat topped seamount. It shows evidences of gradual

subsidence through stages to become flat topped submerged
mountains. It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and
guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.

Water cycle: All living organisms, the atmosphere and the

lithosphere maintain between them a circulation of water in solid,
liquid or gaseous form referred to as the water or hydro-logic cycle.

Atoll: These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting
of coral reefs surrounding a central depression. It may be a part of
the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
brackish, or highly saline water.

Salinity: Salinity is the term used to define the total content of

dissolved salts in sea water. It is calculated as the amount of salt (in
gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.

Halocline: It is a distinct zone where salinity increases sharply.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

The hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water within the earth’s

hydrosphere in different forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous
phases. It also refers to the continuous exchange of water between
the oceans

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 The above table shows the distribution of water on the surface

of the earth.
 About 71 per cent of the planetary water is found in the oceans.
 The remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps,
groundwater sources, lakes, soil moisture, atmosphere, streams
and within life.

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 Nearly 59 per cent of the water that falls on land returns to the
atmosphere through evaporation from over the oceans as well as
from other places.
 The remainder runs-off on the surface, infiltrates into the
ground or a part of it becomes glacier. It is to be noted that the
renewable water on the earth is constant while the demand is
increasing tremendously.
 This leads to water crisis in different parts of the world –
spatially and temporally. The pollution of river waters has further
aggravated the crisis.

RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

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Divisions of the Ocean Floors:

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:

 The Continental Shelf;

 The Continental Slope;
 The Deep Sea Plain;
 The Oceanic Deeps.

Besides, these divisions

There are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors
like ridges, hills, sea mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.

Continental Shelf :

 The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent

occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs.
 It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average
gradient of 1° or even less.
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf
break.
 The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km.
 On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.
 The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as
30 m in some areas while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses
of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the
land and distributed by waves and currents. [Link]
sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the
continental shelves, become the source of fossil fuels.

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Continental Slope :

 The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
 The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the
ocean basins.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
 It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply
drops off into a steep slope.

Deep Sea Plain :

 Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
 These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay
and silt.
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches :

 These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.

 The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
 They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island
arcs and are associated with active volcanoes and strong
earthquakes.
 That is why they are very significant in the study of plate
movements.

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 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32

are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the
Indian Ocean.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges :

1. A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains

separated by a large depression.
2. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and
some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
3. Iceland, a part of the mid Atlantic Ridge, is an example.

Seamount :
 It is a mountain with pointed summits,
rising from the seafloor that does not
reach the surface of the ocean.
Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
 These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
 The Emperor seamount, an extension
of the I example, Hawaiian Islands in

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the Pacific Ocean.

 Submarine Canyons These are deep valleys, some comparable to
the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
 They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves
and slopes, often extending from the mouths of large rivers.
 The Hudson Canyon is the best known submarine canyon in the
world.
Guyots :
 It is a flat topped seamount.
 They show evidences of
gradual subsidence through
stages to become flat topped
submerged mountains.
 It is estimated that more than
10,000 seamounts and guyots
exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.

Atoll :
These are low islands found in the
tropical oceans consisting of coral
reefs surrounding a central
depression. It may be a part of
the sea (lagoon), or sometimes
form enclosing a body of fresh,
brackish, or highly saline water.

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TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS :

 Ocean waters get heated up by the solar energy just as land.
 The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower
than land.

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution ON THE OCEANS :

 The factors which affect the distribution of temperature of

ocean water are:

Latitude: The temperature of surface water decreases from the

equator towards the poles because the amount of insolation
decreases pole ward.

Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the

northern hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with
larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.

Prevailing wind: The winds blowing from the land towards the
oceans drive warm surface water away form the coast resulting in
the upwelling of cold water from below.

Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in

cold areas while the cold currents decrease the temperature in
warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the
temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the
West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current)
lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North
America.

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Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature:

 The temperature-depth profile for the ocean water shows how

the temperature decreases with the increasing depth.
 The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters
of the ocean and the deeper layers. The boundary usually begins
around 100 – 400 m below the sea surface and extends several
hundred of metres downward.
 This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of
temperature, is called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the
total volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep
ocean.

In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C. The temperature

structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described
as a three-layer system from surface to the bottom.

 The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water
and it is about 500m thick with temperatures ranging between
20° and 25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is present
throughout the year but in mid -latitudes it develops only during
summer.
 The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first
layer and is characterized by rapid decrease in temperature with
increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
 The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean
floor.

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SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS

Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved

salts in sea water It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm)
dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. It is usually expressed as
parts per thousand (o/) or ppt. Salinity is an important property of
sea water. Salinity of 24.7°/oo has been considered as the upper
limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’.

Factors affecting ocean salinity are mentioned below:

 The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly

on evaporation and precipitation.
 Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the
fresh water flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the
processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
 Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to
other areas.
 The ocean currents contribute to the salinity, temperature and
density of water are interrelated.
 Hence Any change in the temperature or density influences the
salinity of water in an area.

Highest salinity in water bodies

Lane Van in Turkey (330o/oo).

Dead Sea (238o/oo).

Great Salt Lake (220o/oo).

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HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY :

 The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 o/oo. and
37 o/oo. In the land locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41 o/00 while
in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 –
35 o/oo, seasonally. In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is
high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/
 The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its
shape and larger areal extent. Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo on
the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the
influx of melted water from the Arctic region. In the same way,
after 15° – 20° south, it decreases to 33 – 31 o/oo The average
salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 0/00 The highest
salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
 Maximum salinity (37 o/oo.) is observed between 20° N and 30° N
and 20° W – 60° W. It gradually decreases towards the north.

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Vertical Distribution of Salinity :

 Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon
the location of the sea.
 There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface
zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
 Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or
evaporation, or decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as
from the rivers.
 Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that
water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’
 Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct
zone called the halocline, where salinity increases sharply. Other
factors being constant, increasing salinity of sea water causes its
density to increase. High salinity sea water, generally, sinks below
the lower salinity water.

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Chapter- 14
Movements Of Ocean water
 Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge amount of water
in a definite direction. Ocean currents are like river flow in
oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite
path and direction.

Waves

Waves are nothing but the oscillatory movements that result in the
rise and fall of water surface.

• Waves are a kind of horizontal movements of the ocean water. •

They are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves
across the ocean surface.

• This energy for the waves is provided by the wind.

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• In a wave, the movement of each water particle is in a circular

manner.

• A wave has two major parts: the raised part is called as the crest
while the low-point is called as the trough.

Tides

The periodical rise and fall of the water level in oceans and sea, once
or twice a day, due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon,
is called a tide. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and
temporally, as it has great variations in frequency, magnitude and
height

The Ocean's Tide

There are three major forces causing an occurrence of tides

they are

1. Moon s gravitational pull

2. Sun s gravitational pull.

3. Centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of the

Earth

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• Tides occur due to an imbalance between the various forces

acting on the ocean water at a point in time. In general, the
tidegenerating force is the difference between these two
forces; i.e. the gravitational attraction due to the mass of the
moon and the centrifugal force due to rotation of the earth.

MECHANISM

• When the two forces are not in balance, it gives rise to the tide-
generating force. The side of the Earth which is closest to the moon
has the strongest gravitational attraction towards the moon while
water on the other side of the Earth experiences a weaker
gravitational force.

• The moons gravitational force has a greater effect than the sun's
gravitational force due to the relative distance of moon and sun
respectively. The tide-generating force is proportional to the
product of the mass of the two bodies but also inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

• The tide-generating force due to the Sun is 0.46 that of the moon

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OTHER FACTORS CONTROLLING TIDES

• Uneven distribution of water over the globe.

• Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans.

• Differences in the coastal topography of a region. For example,

Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the tide
is channelled into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents.

TYPES OF TIDES

There is no single method to classify them hence they are grouped

arbitrarily based on

• Frequency

• The position of the earth, moon, and sun

• The time period between high tide and low tide

• Magnitude

Based on frequency

• Semi-diurnal Tide: This is the most common tidal pattern,

featuring two high tides and two low tides each day.

• Diurnal Tides: Only one high tide and one low tide each day. The
successive high and low tides are approximate of the same height.

• Mixed Tide: Tides having variations in heights are known as mixed

tides. They generally occur along the west coast of North America
and also in the Pacific Ocean

Based on sun, moon and earth s positions

• Spring Tides: When the position of the sun, the moon, and the
earth are aligned in such a way that it forms a straight line, the

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height of the tide will be higher than normal. These are called as
spring tides. It occurs twice in a month-one on the full moon and the
other on the new moon.

• Neap Tides: After seven days of spring tides the sun and the
moon form a 90-degree angle between each other. The resultant
force of gravitation gives rise to a tide of very low magnitude which
is termed as the neap tide. It also occurs twice in a month

Based on magnitude

• Perigee: When the moon s orbit is closest to the earth, it is called

as perigee. During this period, unusual heights of high and low tide
occur.

• Apogee: When the moon s orbit is farthest from the earth, it is

called as apogee. Tidal ranges will be much less than average height
during this period.

• Perihelion: It is the position where the earth is closest to the sun

(around January 3rd). Unusually high and low tides occur at this
time.

• Aphelion: It is the position where the earth is farthest from the

sun (around July 4th). Tidal ranges will be much less than the
average height during this period.

The time period between high tide and low tide

The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is
falling is called the ebb. The time between the low tide and high
tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow.

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IMPORTANCE OF TIDES

• They help in navigation. During high tide when the water level rises,
large ships can enter or leave harbour safely. Diamond Harbour in
West Bengal and Kandla in Gujarat are examples of such ports.

• They help the ships to travel up the mouth of the river in case of
river ports. High tide increases the volume of water at the river
ports to a high volume so that large ships can sail in safely and use a
retreating tide to leave the port. Hooghly (Kolkata), London and New
York are examples of some of the important river ports of the world

• They help in removal of silt. Rivers wear away and carry down a lot
of soil and sand. Tides wash away these deposits and help to keep
the mouth of the river clear.

• Saltwater freezes at a temperature that is low than that of fresh

water. In cold regions whereas the rivers are frozen in winter, the
warmer seawater rushes into the harbours to keep it free from
freezing.

• Tidal energy is largely being harnessed to produce electricity as a

renewable source of energy.

• They also bring in huge volumes of fish and these areas serve as
fishing zones for fishermen without venturing too deep into the sea

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Bay of Fundy

• The highest tides in the world

occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova
Scotia, Canada.

• The tidal bulge is 15 – 16 m.

• Because there are two high

tides and two low tides every day
(slightly more than a 24 hour
period); then a tide must come in within about a six hour period.

How to learn the names of ocean currents, faster?

shown the major current systems in the three oceans – Atlantic

ocean, Indian ocean and Pacific ocean – from left to right.

Continents are represented in ‘Green’, warm ocean currents in ‘Red’,

and cold ocean currents in ‘Blue’. Hope it’s easy now!

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What are the points to remember?

• There are gyres in each of the oceans – The Pacific, Atlantic and
Indian ocean. (Any large system of rotating ocean current,
particularly those involved with large wind movements is called as a
Gyre.).

• Current direction: In general, currents in the northern

hemisphere travel in the clockwise direction in a gyre, while currents
in southern hemisphere travel in the anti-clockwise direction ( the
only exception is the current direction in the Indian ocean, which
changes seasonally.)

• The ocean current movement in the north-Atlantic gyre, as well as

northPacific gyre, is clockwise, while the gyres in the Southern
hemisphere are anti-clockwise.

• Current temperature: In general, currents in the western part of

every continent are cold (the exceptions are mentioned in the article
on movements of the ocean water).

• Currents coming from the polar region are generally cold

• Currents near to equator are generally warm.

• There is a counter-equatorial current, which moves from west to

east (warm).

• The west-wind drift moves from west to east (cold)

[Link] Equatorial Current

• It is a significant Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean current that

flows from east to west.

• They flow in between 100 north and 200 north latitudes.

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• Despite its name, the North Equatorial Current is not connected to

the equator.

• In both oceans, it is separated from the equatorial circulation by

the equatorial countercurrent, which flows eastward.

2. South Equatorial Current

• It is a significant ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic and the

Indian Ocean that flows from east to west.

• They flow in between the equator and about 200 south.

• In the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it extends across the equator

to about 50 north

3. Equatorial Counter Current

• It is an eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian and

Pacific Oceans.

• It is found in between the North Equatorial and South Equatorial

Currents at about 3-100 northern latitudes.

• This counter-current replaces the water removed from the eastern

side of the ocean by the North Equatorial and South Equatorial
Currents.

• In the Indian Ocean, the current tends to reverse hemispheres

seasonally due to the impact of reversing Asian monsoons.

4. Antarctic Circumpolar Current or West Wind Drift

• It is an ocean current that flows from west to east around the

Antarctica.

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• The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass

connecting with the Antarctica and thus keeps warm ocean waters
away from the Antarctica.

• The Antarctic Convergence is associated with this current. It is

the region where the cold Antarctic waters meet the water of the
SubAntarctic, creating a zone of upwelling (a zone of very high
marine productivity)

Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

• To the north and south of the equator, there are two westward
moving currents, i.e., the North and the South Equatorial Currents.

• Between these two, there is the counter equatorial current which

moves from west to east.

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ATLANTIC OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

• The South Equatorial Current bifurcates into two branches near

the Cape De Sao Roque in Brazil and its northern branch joins the
North Equatorial Current.

• A part of this combined current enters the Caribbean Sea and the
Gulf of Mexico, while the remaining current passes along the eastern
side of the West Indies as the Antilles Current.

• The part of the current which enters the Gulf of Mexico comes
out from the Florida Straight and joins the Antilles current.

• This combined current moves along the south-eastern coast of the

U.S.A and is known as the Florida Current up to Cape of Hatteras.

• Beyond Cape of Hatteras, it is known as the Gulf Stream

A cold current from the Arctic Ocean called Labrador Current,

which flows along the eastern coast of Canada, meets the warm Gulf
Stream near the north-east corner of U.S.A.

• The confluence of these two currents, one cold and the other
warm, produce fog around the region and makes it the most
important fishing ground in the world.

• The Gulf Stream then deflected eastward under the combined

influence of the westerlies and the rotation of the earth.

• It then crosses the Atlantic Ocean as the warm North Atlantic

Drift.

• In this journey, another cold current from the Arctic called as the
East Greenland Current joins with the North Atlantic Drift.

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• The North Atlantic Drift bifurcates into two branches on reaching

the eastern part of the ocean.

• The northern branch continues as North Atlantic Drift; reaches

the British Isles from where it flows along the coast of Norway as
the warm Norwegian Current and enters the Arctic Ocean.

• The southern branch flows between Spain and Azores Island as

the cold Canaries Current.

• The Canaries Current finally joins the North Equatorial Current

and completes the circuit.

ATLANTIC OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

• The South Equatorial Current turns south and flows along the
eastern coast of South America as Brazil Current.

• At about 350 south latitude, due to the influence of westerlies

and the rotation of the earth, the current moves eastward.

• A cold current called as the Falkland Current which flows along

the south-eastern coast of South America from south to north joins
with the current at this time.

• The Brazil Current moves eastward and crosses the Atlantic Ocean
as South Atlantic Current.

• A part of the west wind drift or the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

merges with the South Atlantic Current while crossing the Atlantic.

• Near the Cape of Good Hope, the South Atlantic Current is

diverted northward as the Cold Benguela Current

. • Benguela Current finally joins with the South Equatorial Current

and completes the circuit

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Currents of the Pacific Ocean

PACIFIC OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

• The North Equatorial Current turns northward and flows along the
Philippines Islands, Taiwan, and Japan to form the warm Kuro Shio or
Kuro Siwo current.

• Later, a cold current called Oya Shio or Oya Siwo which flows
along the eastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula merges with the
Kuro Shio Current (Okhotsk Current is a cold current which merges
with the Oya Shio before its confluence with Kuro Shio).

• From south-east coast of Japan, the Kuro Shio current comes

under the influence of westerlies and flow right across the ocean as
the North Pacific Current.

• After reaching the west coast of North America, it bifurcates

into two branches: the northern branch flows anti-clockwise along
the coast of Alaska as warm Alaska Current and the southern branch

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moves southward along the coast of California as the cold California

Current.

• California Current eventually joins with the North Equatorial

Current and completes the circuit.

PACIFIC OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

• In the South Pacific Ocean, the South Equatorial Current flows

towards the west and turns southward as the East Australian
Current.

• From Tasmania, it flows as the cold South Pacific Current from

west to east and crosses the Pacific Ocean along with the West
Wind Drift.

• On reaching the south-western coast of South America, it turns

northward and flows as the cold Peru Current or Humbolt Current.

• The cold waters of the Peru Current are partially responsible for
making the coast of the northern Chile and western Peru with very
scanty rainfall.

• Peru Current eventually joins with the South Equatorial Current

and completes the circuit

Currents of the Indian Ocean

• The pattern of circulation of ocean currents in the Indian Ocean

differs from the general pattern of circulation in the Atlantic and
the Pacific Oceans.

• This is because the Indian Ocean is blocked by the continental

masses in the north.

• The general pattern of circulation in the southern hemisphere of

the Indian Ocean is anti-clockwise as that of the other oceans.

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• In the northern hemisphere, there is a clear reversal of currents

in the winter and summer seasons, which are completely under the
influence of the seasonal changes of monsoon winds.

INDIAN OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE DURING WINTER

• During winter, Sri Lanka divides the currents of the Arabian Sea
from those of the Bay of Bengal.

• The North East Monsoon Drift flows westward just south of Sri
Lanka with a countercurrent flow between it and the South
Equatorial Current.

• During the winter season, in the northern section, the Bay of

Bengal and the Arabian Sea are under the influence of North East
Monsoon Winds.

• These North East Monsoon winds drive the waters of the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea westward to circulate in an anti-
clockwise direction

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INDIAN OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE DURING SUMMER

• In summer, the northern part comes under the influence of the

South West Monsoon.

• It results in an easterly movement of water in the Bay of Bengal

and the Arabian Sea in a clockwise direction

. • This current is called as the South West Monsoon Drift.

• In the Indian Ocean, the summer currents are more regular than
those of the winter.

INDIAN OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

• In the southern part, the South Equatorial Current which flows

from east to west is strengthened by its corresponding current of
the Pacific Ocean.

• It then turns southward along the coast of Mozambique in Africa

. • A part of this current moving in between the African mainland and

the Mozambique is called as the warm Mozambique Current.

• After the confluence of these two parts, the current is called as

Agulhas Current.

• Agulhas Current merges with the West Wind Drift when it crosses
the Indian Ocean.

• A branch of this merged current flows along the western coast of

the Australia as cold West Australian Current.

• It later joins with the South Equatorial Current to complete the

circuit

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Impact of Ocean Currents

Local Climate

• Warm and Cold currents affect the local climate of a region.

• For example, the Gulf Stream which is driven to the western coast
of Europe as the North Atlantic Drift keeps the coasts of North
Sea warm which is unusual for such high latitudes.

• Similarly, the warm waters of the Kuroshio current in the North

Pacific ocean are carried as the North Pacific Drift keeping the
ports of the Alaskan coast ice-free in winter.

Rains and Desert Formation

• Warm ocean currents bring rains to the coastal regions and also
the interiors while cold currents do not.

• Warm currents flow along the east coast of continents in tropical

and sub-tropical latitudes resulting in warm and rainy climates while
cold currents flow along the west coast of continents.

• Cold currents are one of the reasons why deserts are located the
western margins of continents in the sub-tropical belts.

• For example, Californian current which is a cold current brings a

dry and desert type of climate to the region.

Fishing grounds

• The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen
and favour the growth of planktons which is the regions are rich in
microscopic marine plants and animals.

• These are crucial for the survival of marine ecosystems.

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• Hence these regions form excellent fishing grounds as

phytoplankton is the primary source of food for the fish.

• For example, the Great Banks near Newfoundland is formed by the

mixing of cold Labrador current with the warm Gulf Stream.

Navigation

• The atmospheric circulation of the winds and the oceanic

circulation of the currents are almost coincidental and together
they aid in the navigation of the ships.

• Ocean currents flow for great distances and together with the
winds create a conveyor belt kind of system for navigation of the
ships.

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Chapter-16

Biodiversity And Conservation

 Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the varieties of plants,
animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the
ecosystems they form. It relates to the variability among living
organisms on the earth, including the variability within and
between the species and that within and between the ecosystems.
 Species: Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities
in their physical characteristics are called species.
 Genetic biodiversity: Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation
of genes within species.
 Species diversity: Species diversity refers to the variety of
species. It relates to the number of species in a defined area.
The diversity of species can be measured through its richness,
abundance and types.
 Ecosystem diversity: The broad differences between ecosystem
types and the diversity of habitats and ecological processes
occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem
diversity.
 Hotspots: Some areas are richer in species than others. Areas
rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity
 Exotic species: Species which are not the natural inhabitants of
the local habitat but are introduced into the system, are called
exotic species.
 Sensitive species: Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak species.
These are called sensitive species.

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 Mega diversity centre: There are some countries which are

situated in the tropical region; they possess a large number of the
world’s species diversity. They are called mega diversity centres.
 IUCN: The International Union of Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources is an international organization which published
information about species under the red list.
 Endangered species: Endangered species includes those species
which are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes
information about endangered species world-wide as the red list
of threatened species.
 Vulnerable species: Vulnerable species includes the species which
are likely to be in danger o’f extinction in near future if the
factors threatening to their extinction continue. Survival of
these species is not assured as their population has reduced
greatly.
 Rare species: Rare species are those species whose population is
very small in the world and they are confined to limited areas or
thinly scattered over a wider area.

IUCN

 The International Union for

Conservation of Nature (IUCN;
officially International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources) is an international
organization working in the field of
nature conservation and sustainable
use of natural resources.
 It is involved in data gathering and
analysis, research, field projects,
advocacy, and education. IUCN's

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mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout

the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of
natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".

IUCN

Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.

• Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as

a naturalized population outside its historic range.

• Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of

extinction in the wild.

• Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.

• Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.

• Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered in the near

future.

• Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-
risk category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this
category

• Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to make an assessment of

its risk of extinction.

• Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the
criteria

List of critically endangered species in India as per IUCN

Red List 2019

Critically Endangered Mammals

1. Pygmy Hog

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2. Andaman White-toothed Shrew

3. Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew

4. Nicobar White-tailed Shrew

5. Kondana Rat

6. Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat

7. Namdapha Flying Squirrel

8. Malabar Civet

9. Sumatran Rhinoceros

10. Javan Rhinoceros

Critically Endangered Reptiles

1. Gharial

2. Hawksbill Turtle

3. Leatherback Turtle

4. River Terrapin

5. Bengal Roof Turtle

6. Sispara day gecko

Critically Endangered Birds

1. Aythya baeri

2. Forest Owlet

3. Great Indian Bustard

4. Bengal Florican

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5. Siberian Crane

6. Spoon-billed Sandpiper

7. Sociable Lapwing

8. Jerdon’s Courser

9. White-backed Vulture

10. Red-headed Vulture

11. White-bellied Heron

12. Slender-billed Vulture

13. Indian Vulture

14. Pink-headed Duck

15. Himalayan Quail

Critically Endangered Fishes

1. Pondicherry Shark

2. Ganges Shark

3. Knife-tooth Sawfish

4. Large-tooth Sawfish

5. Narrow-snout Sawfish

Objectives of IUCN

The International Union for Conservation of Nature works to

achieve the following goals:

1. To provide scientific data on the status of species and subspecies

at a global level.

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3. To address the factors of concern and spread awareness

regarding the species and biodiversity extinction.

5. To plan a layout for the conservation of biodiversity.

Purpose of the IUCN Red List Data

The information cited in the IUCN Red List is used by various

organizations in the following ways:

• International Agreements such as CITES, Ramsar Convention use

the Red List data to make important decisions in sync with the
status of nature as and when required.

• World Bank Group performance standard uses the IUCN Red List
data to evaluate the risk of damage to biodiversity due to large-
scale infrastructures and global projects.

• Zoos and National parks use this information to upgrade important

policies like parks regulations from time to time.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

(i) Genetic diversity;

(ii) Species diversity;

(iii) Ecosystem diversity

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Genetic Diversity

Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species.

Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their
physical characteristics are called species. Human beings genetically
belong to the homo sapiens group and also differ in their
characteristics such as height, colour, physical appearance, etc.,
considerably. This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic diversity
is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species.

Species Diversity

This refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of

species in a defined area.

The diversity of species can be measured through its richness,

abundance and types. Some areas are more rich in species than
others. Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of
diversity (Figure 16.5).

Ecosystem Diversity

The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity

of habitats and ecological processes occurring within each
ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem diversity.

The ‘boundaries’ of communities (associations of species) and

ecosystems are not very rigidly defined. Thus, the demarcation of
ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex.

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Importance of Biodiversity

1. Biodiversity has
contributed in many ways to
the development of human
culture

In turn, human communities

have played a major role in
shaping the diversity of
nature at the genetic,
species and ecological levels.
Biodiversity plays the
following roles:

1. ecological, 2. economic 3. scientific.

2. Species of many kinds perform some function or the other in an

ecosystem. Nothing in an ecosystem evolves and sustains without any
reason.

3. That means, every organism, besides extracting its needs, also

contributes something of useful to other organisms.

4. Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic

materials, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the
ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the climate.

5. These functions are important for ecosystem function and human

survival.

6. The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the
species to survive through adversities and attacks, and consequently,
is more productive.

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7. the more the variety of species in an ecosystem, the more stable

the ecosystem is likely to be.

Economic Role of Biodiversity

1. ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity

2. Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon

for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic
products.

3. This concept of biological resources is responsible for the

deterioration of biodiversity.

4. At the same time, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing

with rules of division and appropriation of natural resources.

5. Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity

supplies to humankind are: food crops, livestock, forests, fish,
medicinal resources, etc.

Scientific Role of Biodiversity

1. Biodiversity is important because each species can give us some

clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve.

2. Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and

the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems of which we are
also a species.

3. This fact must be drawn upon every one of us so that we live and
let other species also live their lives.

4. The level of biodiversity is a good indicator of the state of our

relationships with other living species. In fact, the concept of
biodiversity is an integral part of many human cultures

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LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Tropical regions which

occupy only about one-
fourth of the total area of
the world, contain about
three fourth of the world
human population. Over-
exploitation of resources
and deforestation have
become rampant to fulfill
the needs of large population. Tropical rainforests contain 50 per
cent of the species on the earth. Destruction of natural vegetation
have proved disastrous for the entire biosphere.

1. Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions,

forest fires, droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and fauna of
the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected
regions.

2. Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic

heavy metals destroy the weak and sensitive species.

3. Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat
but are introduced into the system, are called exotic species

 There are many examples when a natural biotic community of the

ecosystem suffered extensive damage because of the
introduction of exotic species.
 During the last few decades, some animals like tigers, elephants,
rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks and birds were hunted mercilessly
by poachers for their horn, tusks, hides, etc

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 It has resulted in the rendering of certain types of organisms as

endangered category.
 The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) has classified the threatened species of plants
and animals into three categories for the purpose of their
conservation.
 It includes those species which are in danger of extinction. The
IUCN publishes information about endangered species world-wide
as the Red List of threatened species.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is important for

human existence.

1. All forms of life are so

closely interlinked that
disturbance in one gives rise
to imbalance in the others.

2. If species of plants and

animals become endangered,
they cause degradation in
the environment, which may
threaten human being’s own
existence.

3. There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt

environmentfriendly practices and reorient their activities in such a
way that our development is harmonious with other life forms and is
sustainable.

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4. There is an increasing consciousness of the fact that such

conservation with sustainable use is possible only with the
involvement and cooperation of local communities and individuals.

5. For this, the development of institutional structures at local

levels is necessary. The critical problem is not merely the
conservation of species nor the habitat but the continuation of
process of conservation. The Government of India along with 155
other nations have signed the Convention of

Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

in June 1992.

The world conservation strategy has suggested the following steps

for biodiversity conservation:

(i) Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are

endangered.

(ii) Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and

management.

(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock,

animals and their wild relatives should be preserved;

(iv) Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and

ensure their protection.

(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young
should be safeguarded and protected.

(vi) International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.

(vii) To protect, preserve and propagate the variety of species

within natural boundaries, the Government of India passed the Wild

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Life (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and

sanctuaries were established and biosphere reserves declared.

There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region;
they possess a large number of the world’s species diversity. They
are called mega diversity centres. There are 12 such countries,
namely

1. Mexico, 7. Madagascar,

2. Columbia, 8. China,

3. Ecuador, 9. India,

4. Peru, 10. Malaysia,

5. Brazil, 11. Indonesia

6. Democratic Republic of 12. Australia

Congo,

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 The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources (IUCN) has identified certain areas as
biodiversity hotspots Hotspots are defined according to their
vegetation. Plants are important because these determine the
primary productivity of an ecosystem.
 Most, but not all, of the hotspots, rely on species-rich
ecosystems for food, firewood, cropland, and income from timber.
 In Madagascar, for example, about 85 percent of the plants and
animals are found nowhere else in the world, Other hotspots in
wealthy countries are facing different types of pressures. The
islands of Hawaii have many unique plants and animals that are
threatened by introduced species and land development.

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