Chapter-1

Introduction to logic and mathematical

proof

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 1.1 Introduction to logic and statement
1. Logic is the science of the correctness or
incorrectness of reasoning, or the study of the
evaluation of arguments.
2. A statement is a declarative sentence, or part of a
sentence, that can be true or false.
3. A proposition is what is meant by a statement (the
idea or notion it expresses) (this might be the same
for different sentences)
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 Logical connectives
There are five logical connectives:

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 1. Negation

• The negation of a proposition can also be

considered the result of the operation of the
negation operator on a proposition.

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 Cont’d
Example 1: let p: Man is mortal.

¬𝑝: Man is not mortal.

Definition 2: ( Conjunction)
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction
of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q, is the
proposition
“p and q.”
The conjunction p ∧ q is true when both p
and q are true and is false otherwise.
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 Cont’d
• Note that in logic the word “but” sometimes is
used instead of “and” in a conjunction. For
example, the statement “The sun is shining, but it
is raining” is another way of saying “The sun is
shining and it is raining.”

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 Cont’d
Definition 3: Let p and q be propositions. The
disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q, is the
proposition “p or q.”
 The disjunction p ∨ q is false when both p and q are
false and is true otherwise.
Example: Let p: 2 + 3 = 5.
q: Addis Ababa is a capital city of Ethiopia.
a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 : 2 + 3 = 5 and Addis Ababa is a capital city of
Ethiopia.
b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞:

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 Conditional Statements
• Definition 4: Let p and q be propositions. The
conditional statement p → q is the proposition “if
p, then q.”
• The conditional statement p → q is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise.
• In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the
hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is
called the conclusion (or consequence).

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 Bi-Conditional Statements
• Definition 5: Let p and q be propositions. The bi-
conditional statement p ↔ q is the proposition “p
if and only if q.” The bi-conditional statement p ↔
q is true when p and q have the same truth values,
and is false otherwise. Bi-conditional statements
are also called bi-implications.

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Discrete Mathematics
 Propositional Equivalences
• Definition: A compound proposition that is always
true, no matter what the truth values of the
propositional variables that occur in it, is called a
tautology. A compound proposition that is always
false is called a contradiction. A compound
proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction is called a contingency.
The compound propositions p and q are called
logically equivalent if p ↔ q is a tautology.
• The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are
logically equivalent.
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 Cont’d

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 Predicates and Quantifiers
Definition: An open statement (also called a predicate)
is a sentence that contains one or more variables and
whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the
variables. We represent an open statement by a capital
letter followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g.,
𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦), etc.
 Two open propositions 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are said to be
equivalent if and only if 𝑃 𝑎 = 𝑄 𝑎 for all individual
𝑎.
 If the universe U is specified, then 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄 𝑥 are
equivalent if and only if 𝑃 𝑎 = 𝑄 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ U.

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 p
p q
q

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 ”

p
p q
q

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 Modus Tollens

q
p q

¬𝑝

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 Modus Tollens example

q
p q
p

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 p
 p q

pq
p

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 p q
pq pq p q
p q p 19
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 More rules of inference
p
q
pq p q
p
q
p q
p  r
q  r p q
q r
 p r
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6/4/2023 Discrete Mathematics 22
 Example of proof

p
p q q
p pq p q
6/4/2023 q  p q p p 25 23
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 r

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48
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 Proof by cases

p1  p2  ...  pn  q

p1  p2  ...  pn  q  p1  q  p2  q  ...  pn  q 

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 Proof by cases example
a a
Prove that 
b b
 Note that b ≠ 0
Cases:
 Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0 a a a
 
Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and b b b
 Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a a a a
Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and   
b b b b
 Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0
a a a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and   
b b b b
 Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0
a a a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and   
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 Proofs of equivalence example
Show that m2=n2 if and only if m=n or m=-n
 Rephrased: (m =n ) ↔ [(m=n)(m=-n)]
2 2

Need to prove two parts:

 [(m=n)(m=-n)] → (m =n )
2 2

Proof by cases!
Case 1: (m=n) → (m2=n2)
2 2 2 2
 (m) = m , and (n) = n , so this case is proven

Case 2: (m=-n) → (m2=n2)

2 2 2 2
 (m) = m , and (-n) = n , so this case is proven

 (m =n ) → [(m=n)(m=-n)]
2 2

Subtract n2 from both sides to get m2-n2=0

Factor to get (m+n)(m-n) = 0
Since that equals zero, one of the factors must be zero
Thus, either m+n=0 (which means m=-n)
Or m-n=0 (which means m=n)
Therefore, (m2=n2) ↔ [(m=n)(m=-n)]
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 indeed

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 Counter examples

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 Elementary Number Properties
• Properties of integers (whole numbers), rational
numbers (integer fractions), and real numbers.
Definition: For any real number 𝑥, the floor of 𝑥, ⌊𝑥⌋,
is the largest integer that is less than or equal to x
 Example:⌊2.3⌋ = 2; ⌊12.99999⌋ = 12; ⌊−1.5⌋ = −2.
• For any real number x, is ⌊x−1⌋ = ⌊x⌋ −1?
yes (true)
• For any real numbers x and y, is ⌊x−y⌋ = ⌊x⌋ −
⌊y⌋?
no (false)
⌊2.0−1.1⌋ = ⌊0.9⌋ = 0
o ⌊2.0⌋ − ⌊1.1⌋ = 2 − 1 = 1 57
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 Introduction to Number Theory

•Number theory is about integers and their properties.

•We will start with the basic principles of

• divisibility,
• greatest common divisors,
• least common multiples, and
• modular arithmetic

•and look at some relevant algorithms.

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 Divisibility Theorems

•For integers a, b, and c it is true that

• if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c)
• Example: 3 | 6 and 3 | 9, so 3 | 15.

• if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c

• Example: 5 | 10, so 5 | 20, 5 | 30, 5 | 40, …

• if a | b and b | c, then a | c
• Example: 4 | 8 and 8 | 24, so 4 | 24.

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 Primes

•A positive integer p greater than 1 is called prime if the

only positive factors of p are 1 and p.

•A positive integer that is greater than 1 and is not prime

is called composite.

•The fundamental theorem of arithmetic:

•Every positive integer can be written uniquely as the
product of primes, where the prime factors are written in
order of increasing size.

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 Cont’d
•Examples:
15 = 3·5
48 = 2·2·2·2·3 = 24·3
17 = 17
100 = 2·2·5·5 = 22·52
512 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 29
515 = 5·103
28 = 2·2·7

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 The Division Algorithm

•Let a be an integer and d a positive integer.

•Then there are unique integers q and r, with
0  r < d, such that a = dq + r.

•In the above equation,

• d is called the divisor,
• a is called the dividend,
• q is called the quotient, and
• r is called the remainder.

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 Cont’d

•Example:
•When we divide 17 by 5, we have

•17 = 53 + 2.

• 17 is the dividend,
• 5 is the divisor,
• 3 is called the quotient, and
• 2 is called the remainder.

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 Cont’d

•Another example:
•What happens when we divide -11 by 3 ?
•Note that the remainder cannot be negative.
•-11 = 3(-4) + 1.

• -11 is the dividend,

• 3 is the divisor,
• -4 is called the quotient, and
• 1 is called the remainder.

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 Greatest Common Divisors
•Let a and b be integers, not both zero.
•The largest integer d such that d | a and d | b is called
the greatest common divisor of a and b.
•The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by
gcd(a, b).
•Example 1: What is gcd(48, 72) ?
•The positive common divisors of 48 and 72 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48, 72) = 24.
•Example 2: What is gcd(19, 72) ?
•The only positive common divisor of 19 and 72 is
1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
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 Cont’d
•Using prime factorizations:
•a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
•where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n

•gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1 ) p2min(a2, b2 ) … pnmin(an, bn )

•Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 = 6

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 Relatively Prime Integers
•Definition:
•Two integers a and b are relatively prime if
gcd(a, b) = 1.

•Examples:
•Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
•Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1.
•Are 55 and 28 relatively prime?
•Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1.
•Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?
•No, gcd(35, 28) = 7.
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 Cont’d
•Definition:
•The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively prime if
gcd(ai, aj) = 1 whenever 1  i < j  n.

•Examples:
•Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively prime?
•No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3.
•Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively prime?
•Yes, because gcd(15, 17) = 1, gcd(15, 28) = 1 and gcd(17,
28) = 1.

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 Least Common Multiples
•Definition:
•The least common multiple of the positive integers a and
b is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a
and b.
•We denote the least common multiple of a and b by
lcm(a, b).
•Examples:
lcm(3, 7) = 21
lcm(4, 6) = 12
lcm(5, 10) = 10
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 Cont’d
•Using prime factorizations:
•a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
•where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n

•lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1, b1 ) p2max(a2, b2 ) … pnmax(an, bn )

•Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 4275 = 540

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 GCD and LCM

a = 60 = 22 31 51

b = 54 = 21 33 50

gcd(a, b) = 21 3 1 50 =6

lcm(a, b) = 22 3 3 51 = 540

Theorem: ab = gcd(a,b)lcm(a,b)

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 Modular Arithmetic
•Let a be an integer and m be a positive integer.
We denote by a mod m the remainder when a is divided
by m.

•Examples:

9 mod 4 = 1
9 mod 3 = 0
9 mod 10 = 9
-13 mod 4 = 3

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 Congruence

•Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer. We say

that a is congruent to b modulo m if
m divides a – b.

•We use the notation a  b (mod m) to indicate that a is

congruent to b modulo m.

•In other words:

a  b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod m.

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 Cont’d
•Examples:
•Is it true that 46  68 (mod 11) ?
•Yes, because 11 | (46 – 68).
•Is it true that 46  68 (mod 22)?
•Yes, because 22 | (46 – 68).
•For which integers z is it true that z  12 (mod 10)?
•It is true for any z{…,-28, -18, -8, 2, 12, 22, 32, …}

•Theorem: Let m be a positive integer. The integers a and b

are congruent modulo m if and only if there is an integer k
such that a = b + km.

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 Cont’d

•Theorem: Let m be a positive integer.

If a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m), then
a + c  b + d (mod m) and ac  bd (mod m).
•Proof:
•We know that a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m) implies
that there are integers s and t with
b = a + sm and d = c + tm.
•Therefore,
•b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm) = (a + c) + m(s + t) and
•bd = (a + sm)(c + tm) = ac + m(at + cs + stm).
•Hence, a + c  b + d (mod m) and ac  bd (mod m).

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 The Euclidean Algorithm

•The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest common

divisor of two integers a and b.
•For example, if we want to find gcd(287, 91), we divide
287 by 91:
•287 = 913 + 14
•We know that for integers a, b and c,
if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c).
•Therefore, any divisor of 287 and 91 must also be a
divisor of 287 - 913 = 14.
•Consequently, gcd(287, 91) = gcd(14, 91).

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 Cont’d
•In the next step, we divide 91 by 14:
•91 = 146 + 7
•This means that gcd(14, 91) = gcd(14, 7).

•So we divide 14 by 7:
•14 = 72 + 0
•We find that 7 | 14, and thus gcd(14, 7) = 7.

•Therefore, gcd(287, 91) = 7.

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 Representations of Integers

•Let b be a positive integer greater than 1.

Then if n is a positive integer, it can be expressed uniquely
in the form:

•n = akbk + ak-1bk-1 + … + a1b + a0,

•where k is a nonnegative integer,

•a0, a1, …, ak are nonnegative integers less than b,
•and ak  0.

•Example for b=10:

•859 = 8102 + 5101 + 9100

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 Cont’d

•Example for b=2 (binary expansion):

•(10110)2 = 124 + 122 + 121 = (22)10

•Example for b=16 (hexadecimal expansion):

•(we use letters A to F to indicate numbers 10 to 15)
•(3A0F)16 = 3163 + 10162 + 15160 = (14863)10

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 Cont’d
•How can we construct the base b expansion of an integer
n?
•First, divide n by b to obtain a quotient q0 and remainder
a0, that is,
•n = bq0 + a0, where 0  a0 < b.
•The remainder a0 is the rightmost digit in the base b
expansion of n.
•Next, divide q0 by b to obtain:
•q0 = bq1 + a1, where 0  a1 < b.
•a1 is the second digit from the right in the base b expansion
of n. Continue this process until you obtain a quotient equal
to zero.
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 Cont’d
•Example:
What is the base 8 expansion of (12345)10 ?

•First, divide 12345 by 8:

•12345 = 81543 + 1
•1543 = 8192 + 7
•192 = 824 + 0
•24 = 83 + 0
•3 = 80 + 3
•The result is: (12345)10 = (30071)8.

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 Cont’d

•procedure base_b_expansion(n, b: positive integers)

•q := n
•k := 0
•while q  0
•begin
• ak := q mod b
• q := q/b
• k := k + 1
•end
•{the base b expansion of n is (ak-1 … a1a0)b }

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 Addition of Integers
•Let a = (an-1an-2…a1a0)2, b = (bn-1bn-2…b1b0)2.
•How can we add these two binary numbers?
•First, add their rightmost bits:
•a0 + b0 = c02 + s0,
•where s0 is the rightmost bit in the binary expansion of a
+ b, and c0 is the carry.
•Then, add the next pair of bits and the carry:
•a1 + b1 + c0 = c12 + s1,
•where s1 is the next bit in the binary expansion of a + b,
and c1 is the carry.

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 Cont’d

•Continue this process until you obtain cn-1.

•The leading bit of the sum is sn = cn-1.

•The result is:

•a + b = (snsn-1…s1s0)2

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 Cont’d
•Example:
•Add a = (1110)2 and b = (1011)2.

•a0 + b0 = 0 + 1 = 02 + 1, so that c0 = 0 and s0 = 1.

•a1 + b1 + c0 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 12 + 0, so c1 = 1 and s1 = 0.
•a2 + b2 + c1 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 12 + 0, so c2 = 1 and s2 = 0.
•a3 + b3 + c2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 12 + 1, so c3 = 1 and s3 = 1.
•s4 = c3 = 1.

•Therefore, s = a + b = (11001)2.

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 Cont’d
•How do we (humans) add two integers?

1 11 carry
•Example: 7583
+ 4932
1 25 1 5
1 1 carry
Binary expansions: (1011)2
+ (1010)2

( 1 0 1 0 1 )2

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 Cont’d
•Let a = (an-1an-2…a1a0)2, b = (bn-1bn-2…b1b0)2.
•How can we algorithmically add these two binary
numbers?
•First, add their rightmost bits:
•a0 + b0 = c02 + s0,
•where s0 is the rightmost bit in the binary expansion of a
+ b, and c0 is the carry.
•Then, add the next pair of bits and the carry:
•a1 + b1 + c0 = c12 + s1,
•where s1 is the next bit in the binary expansion of a + b,
and c1 is the carry.
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 Cont’d

•Continue this process until you obtain cn-1.

•The leading bit of the sum is sn = cn-1.

•The result is:

•a + b = (snsn-1…s1s0)2

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 Cont’d
•Example:
•Add a = (1110)2 and b = (1011)2.

•a0 + b0 = 0 + 1 = 02 + 1, so that c0 = 0 and s0 = 1.

•a1 + b1 + c0 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 12 + 0, so c1 = 1 and s1 = 0.
•a2 + b2 + c1 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 12 + 0, so c2 = 1 and s2 = 0.
•a3 + b3 + c2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 12 + 1, so c3 = 1 and s3 = 1.
•s4 = c3 = 1.

•Therefore, s = a + b = (11001)2.

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 Cont’d
•procedure add(a, b: positive integers)
•c := 0
•for j := 0 to n-1
•begin
• d := (aj + bj + c)/2
• sj := aj + bj + c – 2d
• c := d
•end
•sn := c
•{the binary expansion of the sum is (snsn-1…s1s0)2}

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 THE END

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