types of power plants.- A.

Steam Plants using Coal, Oil or Nuclear Fission- Construction of LaMont Boiler : This boiler is the first force circulation boiler.
1.The steam plants in which coal or oil is used comprise the steam generating This boiler consists of various parts which are as follow: A.Economiser : It is used
equipment and the primemovers. 2.In the boilers/steam generators steam is to preheat the water by using remaining heat of the combustion gases.
produced and then utilised to drive the turbines / engines which are coupled to B. Centrifugal Pump : It is used to circulate water inside the boiler. This pump is
generators to get electricity. 3.The steam plants in which coal or oil is used driven by a steam turbine. C.Evaporator Tube :The evaporator tube or water
comprise the steam generating equipment and the primemovers. 4.In the tubes are situated at furnace wall which inerease the heating surface of boiler. It
boilers/steam generators steam is produced and then utilised to drive the is bottom side of furnace. d. Grate: The space in the furnace where the fuel is
turbines / engines which are coupled to generators to get electricity. B. Internal burn is called grate. E. Furnace : In the Lamont boiler vertical furnace is used. The
Combustion Engine Plants : 1.In these plants spark ignition (S.I) or compression main function of furnace is to burn the fuel. F.Superheater : The saturated steam
ignition (C.I) engines are used as primemovers to drive electric generators. 2.The sends to the superheater where it can increase the temperature of steam.
C.I. engines using diesel fuel are most commonly used whereas the use of S.I. G.Water Steam
engines is restricted to drive small portable electric generators. 3.The diesel Separator Drum :
engine power plant may, besides the engine proper, include fuel handling, oil The mixture of
cooling, water cooling, starting and supercharging equipment.C. Gas Turbine water and steam
Plant : 1.A gas turbine plant, working on a modified gas cycle, would contain from the
besides the gas turbine, the starting device, auxiliary lubrication, fuel control evaporator tube
system, oil cooler, combustor, reheater, regenerator ete. 2.A combination gas send to the steam
turbine plant employs an auxiliary steam plant obtaining its heat from gas turbine separator where
exhaust. 3.Such a combination plant has advantage of both gas and steam plants it separate the
and some commercial plants are working on this system. D. Hydro-electric steam and send it
Plants- 1.This type of plant makes use of energy of water stored at an elevation to superheater.
and allowed to drop to a lower level.2.The electric generator is driven by a water H.Air Preheater : Its main function is to preheat air before entering into furnace.
turbine through which the water from the pond is made to work. trends of Working- 1.A feed pump forces the water into the economiser where the
energy. 3.A hydro-electric plant comprises the turbines, governing gear, coolant temperature of water increases. 2.This water forced into the evaporator tube by
circulators etc. 4.The operation of such a plant is usually much simpler than that using a centrifugal pump driven by steam turbine. Water passes 10 -15 times into
of a steam, diesel or gas powered plant. the evaporator tube. 3.The mixture of saturated steam and water is formed
inside the tube. 4 This mixture sends to the steam separator drum which is
modern thermal power plant Coal and Ash Circuit – A. Coal and Ash outside the boiler. 5.Steam from the separator sends to the superheater, where
Circuit - Coal arrives at the storage yard and after necessary handling, passes on the saturated steam converts into superheated steam. 6.The water again sends
to the furnaces through the fuel feeding device. 2.Ash resulting from combustion to the economiser where it again passes by the evaporator tubes. 7.The air from
of coal collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard the air preheater enter into the furnace where fuel burn. The flue gases first heat
through ash handling equipment. B.Air and Gas Circuit- Air is taken from the evaporator tube then passes by the superheater. 8 These gases from the
atmosphere through the action of a forced or induced draught fan and passes on superheater again use to preheat the air into air preheater before exhaust into
the furnace through the air preheater, where it has been heated by the heat of atmosphere.
flue gases which pass to the chimney via the preheater.C .Feed Water and Steam
Flow Circuit: 1.In the water and steam circuit condensate leaving the condenser Working of Babcock and Wilcox Boiler: 1.Fig. shows the Babcock and Wilcox
is first heated in a closed feed water heater through extracted steam from the water tube boiler. It
lowest pressure extraction point of the turbine. 2.It then passes through the consists of a large
deaerator and a few more water heaters before going into the boiler through number of parallel
economiser. D.Cooling Water Circuit- 1.The cooling water supply to the tubes inclined at an
condenser helps in maintaining a low pressure in it.2.The water may be taken angle which varies
from a natural source such as river, lake or sea or the same water may be cooled from 5 to 15 to the
and circulated over again. horizontal. 2.These
tubes connect the
reheat regenerative up take header
Rankine cycle with the down take
header. 3.Both of
1.Reheating is adopted to these are
gain advantage of dry connected to the
steam in low pressure at shell havinga
stages 2.Regeneration is substantial quantity of water in
adopted for increasing the it.4.The uptake header is
connected to the shell through
a short tube. 5.A long tube is
employed to connect the down
take header with the shell.
6.The coal is fed through the fire hole on to the chain grate stolker. 7.The velocity
of the chain is so adjusted as to ensure complete combustion of coal by the time
it reaches the other end of the grate.8.The flue gases first rise up then move
down and once again rises up due to presence of baffles. 9.The hot water and
steam moisture rise up through the uptake header into the boiler shell. 10.The
steam separates from water in the shell and collects in the steam space. 11.The
cold water flows down into the tubes through the down take header. 12.Thus a
thermalefficiency of the cycle.
continuous circulation of water is maintained by the connection current set up.
Working of Lancashire Boiler: 1Fuel is burn at the grate. The water is pumped
into the shell through the economiser which increases the temperature of water. 3.For once through boilers and boiling water nuclear reactors, which require high
2.Now the shell is half filled with water. The fire tube is fully immersed into the water purity, a condensate polishing system is used to further polish the water.
water.3.The fuel is charged at the grate which produces flue gases. These flue Working of DM Plant for Feed Water Treatment: 1.Demineralization is defined
gases first passes through the fire tube from one end to another. This fire tubes as the process of removing dissolved solid by ion exchange. Two types of resins
transfer 80-90 % of total heat to the water. 4.The steam produces in drum shell it namely cation and anion are commonly used. 2.Cation resin has a positively
taken out from the upper side where it flows through super heater if required. So charged hydrogen ion attached to a negatively charged polymer. 3.The hydrogen
the steam produce is taken by out for process work. ion is exchanged for the cations calcium, magnesium and sodium. 4.Anion resin is
similar to cation except that it has negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH),
Supercritical Boilers The steam generators in which steam is produced above attached to a positively charged polymer structure. 5.The hydroxide ion is
critical pressure of 221.2 bar are known as super critical boilers. 2.It operates on exchanged for the anions sulphates, chlorides and bicarbonate. 6.Fig.shows a
Rankine cycle and drum less boiler. typical demineralizing process which consists of a series of demineralizers that
3Usually, a sub-critical boiler contains weak-acid cation, strong-acid cation, decarbonators, weak-base anion,
consists of three distinct section as strong-base anion and mixed bed units. 7.Strong-base anion-exchange material
economizer, superheater, absorbs weak acids as well as strong acids. 8.Weak-base anion exchange
evaporator 4.The condensate materials are most efficient for removing chlorides and nitrates.
water from the condenser is Types of cpoling towers- A) Natural Draught
compressed from the condenser Cooling Tower: 1.In this type of tower, the hot
pressure to super critical pressure water from the condenser is pumped to the
in the feed pump. The operation troughs and nozzles situated near the bottom.
theoretically is shown by process 2.Troughs spray the water falls in the form of
1-2. 5.This water is heated at super critical pressure shown by process 2-3. It may droplets into a pond situated at the bottom of the
be observed that water is in sub-cooled state at point 2 Its temperature goes on
tower. 3.The air enters the cooling
increasing with heat addition. conventional boiler. 6.No distinction is observed
tower from air openings provided near
between the liquid and the gaseous state. 7.The liquid water becomes gas after
the base, rises upward and takes up the
its temperature is raised above critical temperature of 374. 15 °C. 8.Thus it is a
heat of falling water.4.A concrete
continuous tube which is heated along its length with water going in at one end
hyperbolic cooling tower is shown in
and superheated steam leaving at the other end. 9.Due to large frictional
Fig. B)Mechanical Draught Cooling
resistance the feed pump pressure is about 40 % higher than boiler pressure.
Towers- 1.In these towers the draught
Supercharged Boiler: 1.In a supercharged boiler, the combustion is carried out of air for cooling the tower is produced mechanically by means of propeller fans.
under pressure in the combustion chamber by supplying the compressed air. 2.These towers are usually built in cells or units, the capacity depending upon the
2.The exhaust gases from the combustion chamber are used to run the gas number of cells used. 3.Fig.shows a forced draught cooling tower. 4.It is similar to
turbine as they are exhausted to high pressure. 3.The gas turbine runs the air natural draught tower as far as interior construction is concerned, but the sides
compressor to supply the compressed air to the combustion chamber. of the tower are closed and form an air and water tight structure.
4.Following are the advantages of supercharged boiler : a)Owing to very high
overall heat transfer coefficient the heat transfer surface required is hardly 20 to general layout ofa hydroelectric power plant in which an artificial storage
25 % of the heat transfer surface of a conventional boiler. b) The part of the gas
reservoir formed by constructing dam has been shownm.
turbine output can be used to drive other auxiliaries. c)Small heat storage
Functions- i. Reservoir: Its purpose is to store water which may be utilised to run
capacity of the boiler gives better response to control. d)Rapid start of the boiler
the prime mover to produce electrical
is possible. e)Comparatively less number of operators is required.
power. ii. Dam:The function of dam is to
provide a head of water to be utilised in
1.In fluidized bed boilers, crushed coal (6-20 mm) is injected into the fluidized the water turbine. iii. Trash rack: The
bed of limestone just above an air- purpose of providing a trash rack is to
distribution grid at the bottom of prevent entry debris which might
the bed. 2.The air flows upwards damage the wicket gates and turbines
through the grid from the air runners or mean choking of nozzles of
plenum into the bed, where the impulse turbines. iv. Forebay : The
combustion of coal occurs.3.The forebay serves as a regulating reservoir
products of combustion leaving storing water temporarily when load on
the bed contain a large proportion the plant is reduced and providing water for initial increase on account of
of unburnt carbon particles which increasing load during which time water in the canal is being accelerated.v. Surge
are collected in cyclone separator tank : This may be considered as an additional storage space near the turbine,
and fed back to the bed.4.The boiler water tubes are located in the furnace. usually provided in high head, medium head plants when there is a considerable
5.Since most of the sulphur in coal is retained in the bed by the bed material used distance between the water source and turbine which necessitates a long
(limestone), the gases can be cooled to a lower temperature before leaving the penstock. vi. Penstock : It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake
stack with less formation of acid (H,SO,). 6.As a result of low combustion works and forebay to the turbinos. vii. Spillway :This may be considered a Nort of
temperatures (800-900 °C), inferior grade of coal can be used without slagging safety valve for a dam. A spillway serves to discharge excoss in the reservoir
problems and there is less formation of NO,. 7.The volumetric heat release rates beyond the full permissible lovel. viii. Power house :lt is generally located at the
are 10 to 15 times higher and the surface heat transfer rates are 2 to 3 times foot of the dam and near the storage reservoir. ix. Prime mover:The purpOse of
higher than a conventional boiler. This makes the boiler more compact. prime mover is to convert kinetic energy of water into mochanical energy.

Necessity of Feed Water Treatment:1.Boiler make-up water to the extent of Various Pactors While Selecting a Site for a Hydroelectric Plant :
1.5-2 percent of the total flow rate is required to replenish the losses of water i. Water Availability- Since all the designs of a hydroclectrie power plant are
through leakage from depend upon the availability of the water at the site. Ii. Therefore the run-off
fittings and bearings, data at the proposed site must be available before hand. It may not be possible
boiler breakdown, escape to have run-ofl data at the
with non condensable proposed site but data
gases in the deaerator, concerning the rainfall over
turbine glands, and other the large catchment areas
causes. 2.Raw water is, is always available. ii.
therefore first pre treated Water Storage : 1.During
and then demineralized. the year there is a wide
variation in rainfall, therefore it is always necessary to store the water for as combustion air in the steam boiler.5.The maximum steam temperature in a
continuous power generation.iii. Water Head: 1.To generate a requisite quantity power cycle does not exceed 600 °C, although the temperature in a dry bottom
of power it is necessary that a large quantity of water ata sufficient head should pulverized coal furnace is about 1300 °C. 6.Therefore, there is a great thermal
be available. 2. An increase in effective head, for a given output, reduces the irreversibility and a decrease of availability because of heat transfer from
quantity of water required to be supplied tÍ the turbines. iv.Accessibility of the combustion gases to steam through such a large temperature difference. 7.By
Site: 1.The site where hydroelectric plant is to be constructed should be easily superposing a high temperature power plant as a topping unit to the steam
The site is selected should have transportation facilities of rail and road. plant, higher energy conversion eficiency from fuel to electricity can be achieved,
v.Distance from the Load Centre : 1 The power plant should be set up near the since the combined plant operates through a higher temperature range.
load centre; this will reduce the cost of maintenance of transmission line.
Fission of Nuclear Fuel: 1.Nuclear fission is defined as a type of nuclear
Gas Turbine Power Plant: 1.Gas turbine is used in electrical power generation, disintegration in which heavy nucleus splits up into two nuclei of nearly
propulsion, compressor and pump drives. 2.The favourable power output to comparable masses with liberation of energy. 2.The fission is accompanied by the
weight ratio of gas turbines makes them well suited for transport applications release of three neutrons and radiation energy in the form of y-rays. 3.The
such as aireraft propulsion, marine power plants, etc. 3.In a GT power plant, reaction is represented as,
power is generated by 4.A neutron strikes the
235
expanding high temperature and U nucleus and in the process two nuclides 141Ba and 92Kr are formed with the
pressure gas (air, inert gas or release of 3 neutrons. 5.The wavy lines indicate
burnt gases) through the several the energy released in the form of y radiations. A
rings of fixed and moving blades slow neutron is used to cause fission. 6.Further
of a gas turbine. 4.In a GT power whereas one neutron is lost in the process to
plant, the working gas is produce fission, three neutrons are produced as a
compressed continuously to a high pressure (4 to 10 bar) in a compressor. 5.The product of the fission. This fact has tremendous
temperature of the compressed working gas leaving the compressor is increased significance in the construction of nuclear bomb.
by adding heat, either directly in a combustion chamber if it is air or indirectly in Distribution of Fission Energy : Following table shows the distribution of
a heat exchanger. 6.GT power plant can utilize oil, natural gas, coal gas, producer fission energy:
gas, and pulverized coal as a fuel for heat addition. 1.A chain reaction
is that process in
Significance of Reheating with Layout 1.In reheat cycle, combustion gases which the number of
are not expanded in one turbine only but in two turbines. 2.Exhaust of high neutrons keeps on
pressure turbine is reheated in a reheater and then expanded in a low pressure multiplying rapidly
turbine. 3.By reheating, power output of turbine is increased but the cost of during fission till
additional fuel may be heavy unless a heat exchanger is also used. It reduces whole of the fissionable material is disintegrated. 2.If at least one fission neutron
efficiency slightly. becomes available for causing fission of another nucleus then the chain reaction
will become self-sustaining or self-propagating.3.This condition can be
conveniently expressed in
the term of multiplication
factor or reproduction factor of the system which may be defined as 4.If K> 1,
chain reaction will continue and if K< 1, chain reaction cannot be maintained.
Significance of Intercooling with Layout – 1.If the process is isothermal then
the work input in compressor is minimum. 2.To achieve this, the heat from the Radioactive Decay: 1.It is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus
compressed air is removed between stages of compression. By intercooling loses energy by radiation.2.Three of the most common types of decay are a-
efficiency and net work output both decay, B-decay and y decay. 3.The weak force is the mechanism that is
improves slightly. responsible for B-decay while the other two are governed by the usual
electromagnetic and strong forces. 1.Half-life represents the rate of decay of
the radioactive isotopes. 2.The half-life is the time required for
half of the parent nuclei to decay or to disintegrate. 3.Half-life of
radioactive nuclei is given as, 4.After passing every half-life the number of nuclei
is reduced to half and so is the activity. This process is repeated for the several
halflives till the activity becomes negligible. 5.The variation of half-life is from
Significance of Regeneration with Layout- 1.In regeneration, the heat fraction of seconds to millions of years. Moderating Power : The power
energy from the exhaust gases is transferred to the compressed air before it required to slow down neutrons in a nuclear reactor so that they can easily
enters the combustion chamber. 2.The amount of fuel used is less by promote fission of a nucleus is known as moderating power.
regeneration method. Hence by this method work output is unchanged but moderating ratio is the ratio of the macroscopic slowing down power to the
efficiency increases. macroscopic cross section for absorption. 2 The higher the moderating ratio, the
more effectively the material performs as moderator.

A nuclear reactor is a device used to initiate, sustain, and control a nuclear

chain reaction, usually for the production of energy.. Here are the main
components of a nuclear reactor and their functions: 1.Fuel Rods- 1.These rods
contain the nuclear fuel, usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239, which
combined steam and gas turbine power plants. 1.The characteristics of the undergoes fission. The fuel is
gas turbine plants render these plants very well suited for use in combination fabricated into pellets and
with steam or hydroplants. 2.These assembled into rods, then bundled
plants can be quickly started for together to form a fuel assembly.
emergency or peak load service. 3.The 2.When a neutron strikes a fuel
combination 'gas-turbine-steam cycles' atom, it causes it to split, releasing
aim at utilising the heat of exhaust gases heat and additional neutrons, which
from the gas turbine and thus, improve continue the chain reaction.
the overall plant efficiency. 4.The 2.Moderator- 1.The moderator
popular designs of combination cycle slows down the neutrons produced
comprise of : i.Heating feed water with exhaust gases. ii.Employing the gases during fission, making them more
from a supercharged boiler to expand in the gas turbine. iii. Employing the gases
likely to induce fission in other fuel atoms. Common moderators are water, heavy only saturated steam. By providing a separate furnace the steam formed from
water (D₂O), and graphite. 2.Slowed (thermal) neutrons are more effective in the reactor could be superheated. 1.In a boiling water reactor enriched
sustaining the chain reaction. 3.Control Rods- 1.Control rods are made of fuel is used. 2.The pressure in the forced circulation is maintained constant
materials like boron, cadmium, or hafnium, which absorb neutrons. By absorbing irrespective of the load. 3.The plant can be safely operated using natural
neutrons, they control the rate of the nuclear reaction. 2.Raising or lowering convection within the core or forced circulation. 4.In case of part load operation
these rods into the reactor core controls the fission rate, and thereby the heat of the turbine some steam is by-passed. 5.In BWR the steam flowing to the
generated. Inserting the rods fully can stop the reaction. 4.Coolant- 1.The turbine is produced directly in the reactor core. 6.Steam is separated and
coolant is a fluid, often water, liquid metal (like sodium), or gas, that flows dried by mechanical devices located in the upper part of the pressure vessel
through the reactor core to remove the heat produced during fission. 2.This heat assembly. 7.The dried steam is sent directly to the high pressure turbine thus
is then used to generate steam, which powers the turbines for electricity eliminating the need for steam generators. 8.The coolant thus serves the triple
production. In pressurized water reactors (PWRs), the water is kept under function of coolant, moderator and working fluid. 9.Since the coolant boils in the
pressure to prevent it from boiling. 5.Pressure Vessel or Reactor Core- 1.The reactor itself, its pressure is much less than that in a PWR (pressurized water
core is the central part of the reactor, housing the fuel rods, control rods, and reactor) and it is maintained at about 70 bar with steam temperature around 285
moderator. It’s where the nuclear fission reaction takes place. 2. A pressure °C. 11. An increase
vessel (in PWRs) surrounds the core, maintaining the coolant under high in the boiling rate
pressure. 6.Containment Structure- 1.This is a thick, reinforced concrete and displaces water
steel structure that encases the reactor core, shielding the surroundings from (moderator) to
radiation. 2.In case of an accident, the containment structure prevents thermalize
radioactive materials from escaping into the environment. 7.Cooling System- neutrons and
1.The cooling system (often an external water source or cooling towers) hence, reduces the
dissipates the residual heat from the reactor. This keeps the reactor and reactor power
surrounding components from overheating. 2.In some plants, water from rivers, level. 12. The
lakes, or oceans is used in a separate cooling loop, ensuring the safety and saturated liquid
efficiency of the process. Lighter Materials used as Moderator: that separates from
1.Light water Hydrogen works well as a neutron moderator because its mass is the vapour at the
almost identical to that of a neutron. 2.This means that one collision will top of the reactor in a steam separator flows downward either internally within
significantly reduce the speed of the neutron because of the laws of conservation the reactor or externally outside the reactor and mixes with the return
of energy and momentum. condensate. 1.CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) is a thermal nuclear
power reactor in which heavy water (99.8 % deuterium oxide D,0) is the
Nuclear power plant: 1.The main components of a nuclear power plant are moderator and coolant as well as the neutron reflector. 2.In this type of reactor
nuclear reactor, steam generator, steam turbine, condenser and electric natural Uranium (0.7 % U235) and heavy water used as fuel and moderator
generator. 2.In respectively. 3.These reactors are used by those countries which do not produce
nuclear power plant enriched Uranium as the enrichment of Uranium is very costly. 4.CANDU (heavy
nuclear fission of the water) reactor differs basically from light water reactors (LWR) in that in the
fuel taken place in latter the same water serves as both moderator and coolant, whereas in the
the nuclear reactor CANDU reactor the moderator and coolant are kept separate. 5.Consequently
thereby producing unlike the pressure vessel of a LWR, the CANDU reactor vessel, which contains
heat. 3.This heat the relatively cool heavy water moderator, does not have to withstand a high
liberated in the pressure. 6. Only the heavy water coolant circuit has to be pressurized to inhibit
reactor is taken by boiling in the reactor core. Working:- 1.The heavy water coolant is pumped
the coolant circulating through the reactor care. 4.This hot coolant then flows through the reactor core's tubes in a closed loop. 2.The tubes contain fuel
through the tubes of steam generator and passes on its heat to the feed water. bundles to pick up heat generated from the nuclear fission taking place in the
5.The steam so produced flows to the steam turbine, producing work. After that core. 3.The heavy water coolant loop passes through steam generators where
it is condensed in the condenser. 6.Now the work produced in the steam turbine the heat from the heavy water boils ordinary water into high pressure . 4.The
rule an electric generator thereby producing electrical energy. heavy water, now cooler, is circulated back to the reactor as the closed loop
cooling cycle continues 5.The high pressure steam from the steam generator is
A pressurized water reactor is a light water cooled and moderated thermal piped outside the reactor containment building to power conventional turbines.
reactor having an unusual core design, using both natural and highly enriched 6.These turbines drive generators to produce electricity that is then distributed
fuel. 2.The principle parts of the reactors are: i.Pressure vessel, ii. Reactor to the grid. 7.The nuclear reactor is separated from the equipment used to
thermal shield,iii. produce electricity. 8.The steam coming out of the turbine is condensed back
Control rods, iv Fuel into water and is pumped back into the steam generator. Merits : 1.Heavy water
elements, v.Reactor is used as moderator, which has higher multiplication factor and low fuel
containment, consumption. 2.Enriched fuel is not required. 3.The cost of the vessel is less as it
vii Reactor pressurizer. has not to withstand a high pressure. 4.Less time is needed (as compared to PWR
3.In PWR, the primary and BWR) to construct the reactor. Demerits: 1.It requires a very high standard
circuit which passes of design, manufacture and maintenance. 2.The cost of heavy water is very high.
through the fuel core 3.There are leakage problems. 4.The size of the reactor is extremely large as
and is radioactive. power density is low as compared with PWR and BWR.
4.This primary circuit
then produces steam in a secondary circuit which consists of heat exchanger or 1.A fast breeder reactor is a
the boiler and the turbine. 5.As such the steam in the turbine is not radioactive small vessel in which the
and need not be shielded. 6.The pressure in the primary circuit should be high so necessary quantity or enriched
that the boiling of water takes place at high pressure. 7.A pressuring tank keeps Uranium or Plutonium is kept
the water at about 100 kgf/cm2 so that it will not boil. 8.Electric heating coil in without a moderator. 2.The
the pressurizer boil some of the water to form steam that collects in the dome. vessel is surrounded by a fairly
9.The pressure of the dome goes on thick blanket of depleted fertile
increasing as more steam is forced into it. Uranium. 3.The fertile material
10.By providing the cooling coils or absorbs neutrons from the
spraying water on the steam the pressure fissile material and gets
may be reduced. 11.Water acts both as converted into fissile material.
coolant as well as moderator. 12.A 4.The reactor core is cooled by
pressurized water reactor can produce liquid metal. U-238 can be
converted to Pu-239 (or Th-232 to U-233); the latter can be used in other thermal wind electric generating system A} Rotor- 1.Rotors are mainly of two types :
or fast breeder reactors. 5.In fast breeder reactors neutron shielding is provided i.Horizontal axis rotor, ii Vertical axis rotor. 2.The Windmill Head supports the
by the use of Boron, light water, oil or graphite. Gamma-ray shielding is effected rotor, housing the rotor bearings. 3.It also houses any control mechanism
by lead, concrete, concrete with added magnetite or barium etc. Advantages- incorporated
1.The moderator is not required. 2.High breeding is possible. 3.Small core is like changing
sufficient (since it gives high power density than any other reactor). the pitch of the
Disadvantages- 1.It requires highly enriched fuel. 2.It is necessary to provide blades for
safety against melt-down. 3.Neutron flux is high at the centre of the core. safety devices
and tail vane to
Solar photovoltaic power system- 1.Solar PV cell generate electric power by orient the rotor
photovoltaic effect. 2.The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an to face the
electromotive force as a result of wind building
absorption of ionizing radiation. 4.The latter is
3.Energy conversion devices facilitated by
which are used to convert mounting it on the top of the supporting structure on suitable bearings.
sunlight to electricity by the use B.Transmission- 1.The rate of rotation of large wind turbine generators operating
of photovoltaic effect are called at rated capacity or below is conveniently controlled by varying the pitch of the
Solar cells. 4.A single converter rotor blades, but it is low, about 40 to 50 revolutions per minute (rpm).
cell is called a solar cell or a 2.Because optimum generator output requires much greater rates of rotation,
photovoltaic cell, and such as 1800 rpm, it is necessary to increase greatly the low rotor rate of turning.
combination of such cells used 3.Among the transmission options are mechanical systems involving fixed ratio
to increase the electric power output is called a solar module or solar energy. 5.A gears, belts, and chains, singly or in combination or hydraulic systems involving
photovoltaic cell is simply a wafer of semiconductor in which there is a junction fluid pumps and motors. 4.Fixed ratio gears are recommended for top mounted
between N and P materials. equipment because of their high efficiency, known cost, and minimum system
working principle of geothermal power plant.1. These are the plants which risk. C.Generator- 1.Either constant or variable speed generators area possibility,
utilize the energy which lies beneath the earth. 2.As the earth has a molten core but variable speed units are expensive and/or unproved. 2.Among the constant
so the steam and hot water comes speed generator candidates for use are synchronous induction and permanent
naturally to the surface of the earth in magnet types. D.Controls- 1.Many combinations are possible in terms of the
some location of the earth. 3.For optimize control system and may involve the following components: i.Sensor : mechanical,
use bore holes are normally sunk with electrical, or pneumatic. ii Decision elements : relays, logic modules, analog
depth upto 1000 m, releasing steam and circuits, a microprocessor, a fluidic unit or a mechanical unit; and iii. Actuators
water at temperature upto 200 °C or 300 :hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic. E.Towers: 1.Reinforced concrete tower, 2.Pole
°C and pressure upto 30 kgf/cm2. 4.There tower, 3.Built up shell-tube tower, and 4.Truss tower.
are two ways for producing power from Working of Wind Power Plant – 1.A wind power plant is a group of wind
geothermal energy. 5.In first the heat turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. 2.Wind power plant
energy is transferred to a working fluid which operates the power cycle. 6.This varies in size from a small number of turbines to several hundred wind turbines
may be particularly useful at places of fresh volcanic activity. 7.Where the molten covering an extensive area. 3.Wind power plant can be either onshore or
interior mass of earth vents to the surface through the fissures and substantial offshore. 4.The wind power plant is used for the generation of electricity in high
high temperatures, such as between 450 to 550 °C can be found. wind area with the help of wind turbines. 5.The process of wind-produced
electrical generation begins when the force of the wind pushes against the
types of prime movers used in geothermal energy conversion systems. turbines blades, causing them to rotate, creating mechanical energy. 6.The
i.Impulse turbine: 1.In this type of turbine, the superheated steam is projected at spinning blades, attached to a hub and a low-speed shaft., turn along with the
high velocity from fixed nozzles in the casing. 2.When the steam strikes the blades. 7.The rotating low-speed shaft is connected to a gearbox that connects to
blades (sometimes called buckets), it causes the turbine shaft to rotate. 3.The a high-speed shaft on the opposite side of the gearbox. 8.This high-speed shaft is
high pressure and intermediate pressure stages of a steam turbine are usually connected to an electrical generator that converts the mechanical energy from
impulse turbines.4.The main feature of these turbines is that the pressure drop the rotation of the blades into electrical energy. Hence electricity is produced
per single stage can be quite large, allowing for large blades and a smaller with the rotation of generator. 9.This electricity will be passed to the grounding
number of stages. ii.Reaction Turbine: 1.In this type of steam turbine, the steam transformers through various step-up transformers. 10.This electricity is then
passes from fixed blades of the stator through the shaped rotor blades nozzles transferred to the desired location through substation and power grid. 11.In a
causing a reaction and rotating the turbine shaft. 2.The low-pressure stage of a wind power plant, all the turbines are interconnected. 12.They are connected to
steam turbine is usually a reaction-type turbine. 3.These have high efficiency. each other by a medium voltage power collection Limitations- 1.The
4.The main feature of this type of turbine is that in contrast to the impulse efficiency of turbine rotor is less (10 45 % only). 2.Large transmission losses as
turbine, the pressure drop per stage is lower, so the blades become smaller, and the wind farms are located in remote areas. 3.The capital cost per kWh is more in
the number of stages increases. iii.Condensing and Non-condensing Turbines: small unit with respect to larger unit. 4.Weight of power system is high and
1.In condensing turbines, steam is condensed at below atmospheric pressure so requires large area.
as t0 gain the maximum amount of energy from it. 2.In non-condensing turbines,
steam leaves the turbine at above atmospheric pressure and is then used for Spring Tides- 1.A tide in which the difference between high and low tide is the
heating or for other required processes before being returned as water to the greatest. 2.Spring tides occur when the moon is either new or full, and the sun,
boiler. iv.Back-Pressure Steam Turbine: 1.The term backpressure refers to steam the moon, and the Earth are aligned. When this is the case, their collective
turbines that exhaust steam at above atmospheric pressures. 2.The discharge gravitational pull on the Earth's water is strengthened. A tide in which the
pressure is usually established by the specific application of the steam in a plant. difference between high and low tide is the least. Neap Tides- 1.A tide in which
V.Extraction Steam Turbine: 1.An extraction turbine has one or more openings in the difference between high and low tide is the least..2.Neap tides occur twice a
its casing for the extraction of a portion of the steam at some intermediate month when the sun and moon are at right angles to the Earth. When this is the
pressure.2.The steam extraction pressure may or may not be automatically case, their total gravitational pull on the Earth's water is weakened because it
regulated depending on the steam turbine design. 3.Regulated extraction allows comes from two different directions. Tidal Power Schemes and Configurations-
for better steam flow adjustments through the steam turbine to generate i.Single Basin (Single Pool Tidal
additional mechanical power depending on the operating scenarios. System)-1. Single-pool tidal
system has one pool or basin
behind a dam that is filled from
the ocean at high tide and
emptied at low tide. 2.In single
pool tidal system the power
house is situated at the mouth of basin. 3.The hydraulic turbine in the power 1/14th that of air. 3.The noise is considerably reduced due to lighter cooling
house only operates during the discharge of water from the basin during ebb tide medium and lower friction.
and during the high tide the basin is again filled. 4.The direction of flow through
the turbine during the ebb and flood tides alternates and generation of power is methods of cooling the transformers. A) Dry Type Transformers: Small
accomplished, both during the emptying and filling cycle of basin. 5.Though the transformers upto 25 kVA size are of the dry type and have the following cooling
double cycle system has only short duration interruptions in turbine generator arrangements : i.Natural Air: 1.In this method the natural circulation of
operation, but the continuous power generation is still not possible. 6.Further, surrounding air is utilized to carry away the heat generated by losses. 2.A sheet
the power generation coincides occasionally with the peak power demands. metal enclosure protects the winding from mechanical injury.
ii.Double Basin (Two Pool Tidal System)- 1.This system has two basins at ii.Blast Air: 1.In this method, the transformer is cooled by a continuous blast of
different levels and a dam is provided in between these basins. 2.Inlet and outlet cool air forced through the core and windings. 2.A fan is used to produce blast.
sluice gates are provided in the dam and the water level in upper basin is B) Oil Immersed Forced Air-Cooled Transformers :The oil provides better
maintained above the level of water in the lower basin. 3.When the water level in insulation than air and it is a better conductor of heat than air. Mineral oil is used
upper basin is maximum during high tide, in these transformers. Oil immersed transformers are classified as follows :
the inlet sluice is closed and the level of i.Oil Immersed Self-Cooled Transformers : 1.The transformer is immersed in oil
water in lower basin keeps on rising due and heat generated in cores and windings is passed to oil by conduction. 2.Oil in
to discharge of water by the turbine. contact with heated parts rises and its place is taken by cool oil from the bottom.
4.When the level of water in lower basin ii.Oil Immersed Forced Air-Cooled Transformers: 1.In this type of cooling, air is
equals during the ebb tide, the outlet directed over the outer surfaces of the tank of the transformer immersed in oil
sluice is opened and it is closed when the just below the top of the tank. 2.The heated water is in turn cooled in a spray
water level reaches to its minimum level which is equal to the level of water in pond or a cooling tower. iii.Oil Immersed Water-Cooled Transformers: 1.Heat is
upper basin. 5.Again the inlet sluice is opened and the cycle is repeated. extracted from the oil by means of a stream of water pumped through a metallic
coil immersed in the oil just below the top of the tank. 2.The heated water is in
Working Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion : 1.The principle turn cooled in a spray pond or a cooling tower.
of ocean thermal energy conversion (0TEC) is that there is a temperature
difference between water at the bottom of the sea and the water at the top. A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to
2.This temperature difference can be used to operate a heat engine and most of protect an electrical circuit from damaged caused by excess current. Types of
the radiation is being absorbed at the surface layer of water. 3.The mixing Circuit Breakers: A) Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker: 1.Fig. shows the arrangement
between hot and cold water is prevented because no thermal convection occurs of this breaker. There is a strong weather tight earthed metal tank, containing oil
between hot and cold water layer. This means that the surface layer will act as a upto a predetermined level, and an air cushion above the oil. 2.The oil pressure
source and cold layers act as a sink. 4.Therefore, it is essential to connect the of this breaker tank is only due to the
reversible heat engine between source and cold sink to produce work that can be head of oil above the contacts which are
converted into required applications enclosed in the tank. 3.When the
Advantages :1.Itis eco-friendly. ii.It eliminates the need for a surface heat contacts separate an arc is struck. This
exchanger. Disadvantages: i.Due to low pressure, large size of steam turbine is vaporizes oil into gas. The sudden
used. ii.Cost of plant is high. formation of the gas by arc may dissipate
heat generated as a result of arc.
Constructional Detail of a Generator: i. Magnetic Field System- 1.The B) Air Circuit Breaker:1. In air circuit breakers the compressed air at presure
magnetic field is the stationary part of the machine. It produces the main around 15 kgf/cm2. 2.The extinction of arc is caused by flow of air around the
magnetic flux. 3.The outer frame or yoke is a hollow cylinder of cast steel or moving circuit. The breaker is closed by applying
rolled steel. 4.The poles are laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. pressure at the lower opening, and opened by
ii.Armature: 1.The rotating part of the applying pressure at the upper opening. 3.When
DC machine is called the armature. the contacts separate, the cold air rushes round the
2.The armature consists of a shaft upon movable contact and blows out the arc.
which a laminated cylinder, called C) Water Circuit Breaker: 1.The contacts are in
armature core, is mounted. 3.The water, which is turned into steam by the arc and
conductors are suitably connected. This rushes past the opening to blow out the arc.
connected arrangement of conductors
is called armature winding. 4.Two types of winding are used wave winding and protective equipment- 1.The equipments which are
lap winding. iii.Commutator and Brush Gear: 1.Alternating voltage is produced in used to protect the electrical power systems from
a coil rotating in a magnetic field. To obtain direct current in the external circuit a faults are known as protection equipments. 2.Circuit
commutator is needed. 2.Current is collected from the armature winding by breaker, Relay and switchgear are the common
means of two or more carbon brushes mounted on the commutator. 3.Each protective equipments used in electrical power
brush is supported ina metal box called a brush box. 4.Current produced in the system. 3.The objective of power system protection is
armature winding passed on to the commutator and then to the external circuit to isolate a faulty section of electrical power system from rest of the live system.
by means of brushes. Need of Generator Cooling: 1.Heat is produced 4.Primary protection and back-up protection are two types of protection in
in a generator as a result of resistive losses caused by current flow in the stator electrical power system. 5.Primary protection is the protection which is designed
and field windings, stator core magnetic losses and winding losses. 2.The heating to protect the component parts of the power system. 6.Back-up protection is the
effect which depends on the load and power factor is the limiting factor in the second line of defense in case of failure of the primary protection.
generator rating. 3.Further, insulating gets damaged due to overheating. In order
to prevent the temperature rise exceeding the maximum permissible value every Cost of Electricity- 1.The rates of electricity sold to the consumers depend
generator requires continuous cooling during operation. upon the type of consumers namely to domestic, commercial and industrial.
2.The rates depend upon the total energy consumed and the load factor of the
methods of cooling of an alternator. i.Open System using Air: 1.In this consumers demand. 3.For any type of consumer all tariffs for electrical energy
system the cold air from the atmosphere is taken in with the help of fan and must cover the following elements: i.Recovery of capital cost invested.
passed through the machine. 2.The out coming hot air is either discharged to ii.Recovery of running cost such as operation cost, maintenance cost, maintaining
atmosphere or into the machine hall for station warming. ii.Closed System using the equipment cost, billing cost and many others. iii. Reasonable profit on the
Air: 1.In this system a given volume of air is circulated continuously through the invested capital. Reduction in Power Generation Cost : 1.By reducing the initial
alternator. 2.This system is universally used for large machines. investment in the power plant. 2.By selecting the equipment of longer life for less
iii.Hydrogen Cooling: 1.The gaseous hydrogen is better cooling medium than air depreciation. 3.By selecting generating units of adequate and proper capacity.
and now-a days it is universally used in almost all thermal power plants upto 200 4.By running the power plant at minimum possible load factor. 5.By increasing
MW capacity alternators. 2.Less windage losses since the density of hydrogen is the efficiency of power plant. 6.By keeping proper supervision and doing proper
maintenance. 7.By simplifying the operation of power plant.
factors affecting economics of generation and distribution of power- 2.The hyperbolic shape given to the tower automatically induces air from the
a. Plant Capacity Factor : It is the ratio of the average load on a plant or bottom to flow upwards and the water is cooled by coming in direct contact with
equipment to the rating of plant or equipment for a certain period of time the air. This is a natural convection cooling and is also called 'wet-cooling tower'.
considered.
b. Plant Use Factor : It is defined as the ratio
of energy produced in a given time to the
maximum possible energy that could have
been produced during the same time of operation.
c. Diversity Factor : It is the ratio of the sum of the
individual maximum demands to the maximum
demand of the total group. It is always greater than unity. Diversity factor helps
to improve the load factor and economic
operation of the power plant.
d. Load Factor: It is defined as the ratio of
the average load to the peak load during a certain specifed period of time. It is
always less than unity.
e. Reserve Factor: Reserve factor is
the ratio of load factor to the capacity factor.
f. Demand Factor: It is the ratio of the actual

maximum demand to the total

connected demand.

methods of controlling the voltage at the consumer terminal used in

power supply system- A.Voltage Control by Generator Excitation : 1.In
several cases, especially in short lines, the voltage at the receiving end is kept
within very narrow limits by automatic or hand operated voltage regulators,
which act in the field circuit of the alternator excited. 2.The effect of varying the
excitation depends upon the system into which the generator is feeding but in all
cases the power output is unaffected as this depends on the fuel supply to the
prime mover. B.Tap Changing Transformers : 1.In this case the variation of
voltage is achieved by having a number of tappings on the secondary winding so
that turn ratio can be changed as per requirement. 2.It can be done either
manually or automatically depending upon the specific application and
requirements. C.Booster Transformers: 1.Booster transformers are installed
immediately before the load where regulation is required. 2.This booster system
has the following advantages: i.It is independent of the main transformer so that
a failure in the former will not throw the later out of service for any length of
time. ii. It is much cheaper method when there is no main transformer at the F
point where regulaticn is desired.

Pollution due to power generation- A. Air Pollution: High particulate matter

emission levels due to burning of inferior grade coal which leads to generation of
large quantity of fly ash. 2.Emissions of SO,, NO, and Green house gas (CO,) are
also matter of concern. B. Water Pollution : Mainly caused by the effluent
discharge from ash ponds, condenser cooling / cooling tower, DM plant and
boiler blow down. C. Noise Pollution: High noise levels due to release of high
pressure steam and running of fans and motors. D. Thermal pollution:
1.Discharge of thermal energy into rivers commonly produces thermal pollution.
2.Thermal power stations invariably will have to discharge enormous amounts of
energy into water since water is one medium largely used to condense steam.

1.Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that

changes ambient water temperature. 2.A common cause of thermal pollution is
the use of water as a coolant by power plants. 3.When water used asa coolant is
returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the sudden change
in temperature decreases Oxygen supply and affects ecosystemn composition.
4.Warm coolant water can also have long term effects on water temperature,
increasing the overall temperature of water bodies, including deep water.
5.To compare power generating systems with respect to the amount of thermal
energy discharged to the environ ment we use Thermal Discharge Index (TDI).
6.A Thermal Discharge Index (TDI) estimates the thermal efficiency of any power
plant. 7.TDI should be as low as possible.
Control of Thermal Pollution-
A) Construction of a Separate Lake: 1.A
sufficiently large water storage in the form of a lake can be built and once-
through cooling the condenser can be adopted. 2.If the natural cooling of water
from the lakes is not sufficient, floating spray pumps can be employed.
B) Cooling Pond : 1.A cooling pond with continuously operating fountains can be
adopted for small power plants. 2.This will also serve as a beautifying feature of
the power plant site. C) Cooling Towers : 1.In order to throw heat into the
atmosphere most power stations adopt the cooling towers.
m
M

M
M
M

Reactor Control- Reactor control refers to the methods and systems used to
regulate the fission process in a nuclear reactor to maintain safe and stable
operations. The primary objectives include controlling reactor power,
maintaining desired temperatures, and ensuring safety during load changes or
shutdowns. This is achieved through: 1.Control Rods: Absorb neutrons to
decrease or increase the fission rate. 2.Coolant Flow: Adjusts heat removal to
influence reactor temperature. 3.Moderator: Regulates neutron speed for
sustained fission. 4.Reactivity Control Systems: Automatically respond to
changes in reactor conditions to maintain stability.
M
M

M
 m

m
sss