MISR University for Science and Technology

College of Management and Economics

Information System Department

Introduction to Mathematical Analysis

Chapter 1
Sets of Numbers

Assistant Professor
Dr. Tarek Abd El Fattah Mohamed
Introduction
• In this Chapter, we review some very basic ideas and terminology of the
Number System.
1. The Set of Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is represented using the symbol N. The natural
numbers are the counting numbers. For example used to count everything from the
number of books on the shelf to the number of elements in a set.
Addition Properties
Closure : is a unique elements in N
Associative :
Commutative :
Identity : 0 is additive identity
Multiplication Properties
Closure : is a unique elements in N
Associative :
Commutative :
Identity : 1 is multiplicative identity
2. The Set of Integer Numbers
The integer numbers are the combination of the natural numbers and the
negative of the non-zero natural numbers. The set of integers is represented using
the symbol Z Z = {. . . , − 4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . .}

Properties of Integer numbers

Addition Properties
Closure : is a unique elements in Z
Associative :
Commutative :
Identity : 0 is additive identity
Multiplication Properties
Closure : is a unique elements in Z
Associative :
Commutative :
Identity : 1 is multiplicative identity
3. The Set of Rational Numbers

4. The Set of Irrational Numbers

A real number that is not rational is called

an irrational number. Characteristic of
irrational numbers is their decimal
expansions are infinite and non-repeating.
One famous example is π
 Example
Classify all the following numbers as natural, whole, integer, rational, or

irrational. List all that apply.

5. The Set of Real Number

1. A real number is a value on continuous scales all the numbers on the
number line. So positive numbers, negative numbers, integers, rational
numbers etc. are all real numbers.
2. The set of real is represented using the symbol R.
Example
Which real number property justifies the indicated statement?
SETS AND OPERATIONS ON SETS
• Basic definitions

• A set may be considered as a collection of distinct objects which are

called the elements of the set.
• If A = { a , c , d , f , g }

a ∈ A : a is an element of set A
b ∉A : b is not an element of set A

• Notation of Sets
▫ Roster notation
▫ Semantic definition
▫ Set-builder notation
Roster notation

Roster or enumeration notation defines a set by listing its elements

between curly brackets, separated by commas

A = {4, 2, 1, 3}
B = {blue, white, red}.
Semantic definition
Another way to define a set is to use a rule to determine what the elements are:

Let A be the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
Let B be the set of colors of the French flag.

Set-builder notation

Set-builder notation specifies a set as a selection from a larger set

 Types of sets
Finite set - Infinite set – Singleton - Null or Empty set - Disjoint Sets -
Universal set - Power set Subsets
1. Finite and Infinite Sets

A set that has a finite number of elements is known as a finite set, whereas the
set whose elements can't be estimated, but has some figure or number, which
is large to precise in a set, is known as infinite set.

For example, set A = {3,4,5,6,7} is a finite set, as it has a finite number of

elements.

Set C = {number of cows in India} is an infinite set, there is an approximate

number of cows in India, but the actual number of cows cannot be expressed,
as the numbers could be very large and counting all cows is not possible.

2. Singleton Sets

The set which has just one element is named a singleton set.
For example Set A = { 8 } is a singleton set.
Null or Empty set
The set, which has no elements, is also called a null set or void set. It is denoted
by { }
B = {a: 1 < a < 2, a is a natural number}
Disjoint Sets
If two sets X and Y do not have any common elements, and their intersection
results in zero (0), then set X and Y are called disjoint sets. It can be represented
as;, X ∩ Y = 0.

Universal set

A set that contains all the elements of other sets is called a universal set.
Generally, it is represented as ‘U.’
For example, set A = {1,2,3}, set B = {3,4,5,6}, and C = {5,6,7,8,9}.
Then,
we will write the universal set as, U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,}.
Power set
The set of all subsets is known as power sets. We know the empty set is a subset of
all sets, and each set is a subset of itself. Taking an example of set X = {1, 2 ,3}.
From the above-given statements, we can write,
{} is a subset of {1,2,3}
{1} is a subset of {1,2,3}
{2} is a subset of {1,2,3}
{3} is a subset of {1,2,3}
{1,2} is also a subset of {1,2,3}
{1,3} is also a subset of {1,2,3}
{2,3} is also a subset of {1,2,3}
{1,2,3} is also a subset of {1,2,3}
Therefore, power set of X = {1,2,3},
P(X) = {{}, {1}{2},{3},{1,2} {1,3},{2,3}, {1,2,3}}
Subsets
A set S is said to be a subset of set T if the elements of set S belong to set T, or
you can say each element of set S is present in set T. Subset of a set is denoted
by the symbol (⊂) and written as S ⊂ T.

We can also write the subset notation as:

T
S ⊂ T if p ∊ S ⇒ p ∊ T
S
Equal Sets

If every element of set A is also the elements of set B and if every element of set B
is also the elements of set A, then sets A and B are called equal sets. It means set A
and set B have equivalent elements and that we can denote it as:
A=B
For example, let A = {3,4,5,6} and B = {6,5,4,3}, then A = B
Union, Intersection, Difference, and Complement of Sets

1. Union of Sets
The union of two sets consists of all their elements. It is denoted by (⋃).
For example, set A = {2,3,7} and set B = { 4,5,8}.
Then the union of set A and set B will be: A ⋃ B = {2,3,7,4,5,8}

A B

2. Intersection of Sets
The set of all elements, which are common to all the given sets, gives an
intersection of sets. It is denoted by ⋂. For example, set A = {2,3,7} and set B =
{2,4,9}. So, A ⋂ B = {2}
3. Difference of Sets
The difference between set S and set T is such that it has only those elements
which are in the set S and not in the set T. S – T = {p : p ∊ S and p ∉ T}

Similarly, T – S = {p: p ∊ T and p ∉ S}.

4. Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set and let A ⊂ U. Then, the complement of A, denoted by
A’ or (U - A), is defined as

Question 1. If set A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, c, e, f} then, find A-B.

Answer: Let’s find the difference of the two sets,

A – B = {a, d} and B – A = {e, f}

Cartesian product

• Cartesian product: If A and B be any two sets, then the set of all ordered
pairs whose first element belongs to set A and second element belongs to
set B is called the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A × B.
i.e.
• A × B = {(x, y): x × A, y × B} N.B: An ordered pair of objects consists
of two elements a and b written in parentheses (a, b). The ordered pair (a,
b) and (b, a) are not same, i.e., (a, b) ≠ (b, a). Two ordered pairs (a, b) and
(c, d) will be equal if a = c and b = d.
• Example: Let A = {1, 2} , B = {a, b}
A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)} And B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b,
2)} So, A × B ≠ B × A
• Definition : A set B is called a subset of a set A (in symbols: B ⊆ A) if every

element of B is also an element of A.

• Two sets A and B are said to be equal (in symbols: A = B) if both inclusions A

⊆ B and B ⊆ A hold.

• A set A is called an empty set (in symbols: A = ∅) if A contains no element.

• Definition The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of set A and is

denoted by P(A). The limiting cases ∅ and A itself belong to set P(A).

• Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} The subsets of A are Ø, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3},

{2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}

• Then power set of A is

P(A) = {Ø, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}
Venn Diagram

• 40 people were asked if they play volley ball or football

25-football
15—volley ball
5—both
5—neither
Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram

• Work in class
In the class of 29
19 study German
14 study French
5 both
• Work out the no. of students that study neither language.
 10 p
Demand function of a product D = and supply function S = 𝑝2 ; where p
𝑝−3
means the price in dollar of the product per unit. Using set theory determine
equilibrium price and quantity.
Solution:
10 p
Substituting p by 1, 2, 3, . . . etc. in D = and S = 𝑝2 we get the following
𝑝−3
sets of ordered pairs:

p 1 2 3 4 5 6
D -5 -20 ∞ 40 25 20

p 1 2 3 4 5 6
S 1 4 9 16 25 36

A∩B = {(5, 25)} Therefore, equilibrium price, p = $5 and quantity = 25 units.

6. Absolute Value

Absolute value: The distance to zero on the number line.

We use two short, vertical lines so that |x| means “the absolute value of x”

Absolute Value Example

|a| = a
|3| = 3

|-3| = 3
 Example Evaluate |5-x2| for x = -3
|5-x2| Given

|5-(-3)2| Substitute using x = -3

|5-9| Simplify the exponent

|-4| Subtraction
4 Definition of Absolute Value
Evaluate |x2-4x-6| for x = -1

|x2-4x-6|
|(-1)2-4(-1)-6| Substitute using x = -1
|1-4(-1)-6| Simplify the exponent
|1+4-6| Multiplication
|5-6| = 1 Addition
Properties of Absolute Value

Solving Absolute Value Equations

Your biggest concern with solving is that there are typically 2 cases to solve!
Solve: |x -1| = 5
For (x -1) being positive, we can just throw the ||’s into the trash and continue.
But what about the case where x -1 is negative?
Solve: |x -1| = 5
Case 1: Case 2:
x -1 = 5 x -1 = -5
x=6 x = -4 There’s more than one answer. That
means there is a set of answers. So
x = {-4, 6} we need to use { }’s around our set.
 Solving the impossible?
Solve: |2x -3| +5 = 0 |2x -3| = -5
|something| is trying to be negative ???
Solving the impossible?
Solve: |2x -3| +5 = 0 So, no, this problem doesn’t have a solution.
x={} This means the solution set is empty.
x=∅ Same thing, except fancier.
Why Should I Check It?

Solve: |2x +8| = 4x -2 Case 2:

Case 1: 2x +8 = -(4x - 2)

2x +8 = 4x - 2 2x +8 = -4x +2
10 = 2x 6x = -6
5=x x = {-1,5} x = -1
Check: |2x +8| = 4x -2 ; x = {-1,5}

Check 5: Check -1:

|2(5) +8| = 4(5) -2 |2(-1) +8| = 4(-1) -2

|10 +8| = 20 -2 |-2 +8| = -4 -2
|18| = 18 |6| = -6
18 = 18 6 = -6

Good answer. That’s a bad answer!

We’ll keep you.
7. Exponents & Radicals
8. Dividing & Factoring Polynomials
We can only divide a ratio of polynomials when the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator. In symbols
Divide each of the following:
4𝑥 4 +2𝑥 2 +𝑥+1
a.
𝑥 2 +1

𝑥 3 +1
b.
𝑥+1

2𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2 +6𝑥−4
c.
𝑥−1