MATHEMATICS

Textbook for Class X

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1062 – MATHEMATICS
ISBN 81-7450-634-9
Textbook for Class X

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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December 2006 Pausa 1928 q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
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 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a
gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed
on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also
attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in
the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy
on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than
a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem
of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages
with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and
activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this
book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Science and
Mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisors for this book, Professor
P. Sinclair of IGNOU, New Delhi and Professor G.P. Dikshit (Retd.) of Lucknow
University, Lucknow for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers

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 iv

contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals

for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel.
We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee,
appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
15 November 2006 Research and Training

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 Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content
load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In
this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks
across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across
classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same
class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from
teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes
given above.

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2024-25
 Preface
Through the years, from the time of the Kothari Commission, there have been
several committees looking at ways of making the school curriculum meaningful
and enjoyable for the learners. Based on the understanding developed over the
years, a National Curriculum Framework (NCF) was finalised in 2005. As part of
this exercise, a National Focus Group on Teaching of Mathematics was formed. Its
report, which came in 2005, highlighted a constructivist approach to the teaching
and learning of mathematics.
The essence of this approach is that children already know, and do some
mathematics very naturally in their surroundings, before they even join school. The
syllabus, teaching approach, textbooks etc., should build on this knowledge in a way
that allows children to enjoy mathematics, and to realise that mathematics is more
about a way of reasoning than about mechanically applying formulae and algorithms.
The students and teachers need to perceive mathematics as something natural and
linked to the world around us. While teaching mathematics, the focus should be on
helping children to develop the ability to particularise and generalise, to solve and
pose meaningful problems, to look for patterns and relationships, and to apply the
logical thinking behind mathematical proof. And, all this in an environment that the
children relate to, without overloading them.
This is the philosophy with which the mathematics syllabus from Class I to
Class XII was developed, and which the textbook development committee has tried
to realise in the present textbook. More specifically, while creating the textbook, the
following broad guidelines have been kept in mind.
l The matter needs to be linked to what the child has studied before, and to
her experiences.
l The language used in the book, including that for ‘word problems’, must be
clear, simple and unambiguous.
l Concepts/processes should be introduced through situations from the
children’s environment.
l For each concept/process give several examples and exercises, but not of
the same kind. This ensures that the children use the concept/process again
and again, but in varying contexts. Here ‘several’ should be within reason,
not overloading the child.
l Encourage the children to see, and come out with, diverse solutions to
problems.

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 viii

l As far as possible, give the children motivation for results used.

l All proofs need to be given in a non-didactic manner, allowing the learner to
see the flow of reason. The focus should be on proofs where a short and
clear argument reinforces mathematical thinking and reasoning.
l Whenever possible, more than one proof is to be given.
l Proofs and solutions need to be used as vehicles for helping the learner
develop a clear and logical way of expressing her arguments.
l All geometric constructions should be accompanied by an analysis of the
construction and a proof for the steps taken to do the required construction.
Accordingly, the children would be trained to do the same while doing
constructions.
l Add such small anecdotes, pictures, cartoons and historical remarks at
several places which the children would find interesting.
l Include optional exercises for the more interested learners. These would
not be tested in the examinations.
l Give answers to all exercises, and solutions/hints for those that the children
may require.
l Whenever possible, propagate constitutional values.
As you will see while studying this textbook, these points have been kept in mind
by the Textbook Development Committee. The book has particularly been created
with the view to giving children space to explore mathematics and develop the abilities
to reason mathematically. Further, two special appendices have been given — Proofs
in Mathematics, and Mathematical Modelling. These are placed in the book for
interested students to study, and are only optional reading at present. These topics
may be considered for inclusion in the main syllabi in due course of time.
As in the past, this textbook is also a team effort. However, what is unusual
about the team this time is that teachers from different kinds of schools have been
an integral part at each stage of the development. We are also assuming that teachers
will contribute continuously to the process in the classroom by formulating examples
and exercises contextually suited to the children in their particular classrooms. Finally,
we hope that teachers and learners would send comments for improving the textbook
to the NCERT.

PARVIN SINCLAIR
G.P. DIKSHIT
Chief Advisors
Textbook Development Committee

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 Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics
(IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISORS
P. Sinclair, Professor of Mathematics, IGNOU, New Delhi
G.P. Dikshit, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Anjali Lal, PGT, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
A.K. Wazalwar, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT
B.S. Upadhyaya, Professor, RIE, Mysore
Jayanti Datta, PGT, Salwan Public School, Gurgaon
Mahendra Shanker, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.), NCERT
Manica Aggarwal, Green Park, New Delhi
N.D. Shukla, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.) & Consultant, DESM, NCERT
Rama Balaji, TGT, K.V., MEG & Centre, St. John’s Road, Bangalore
S. Jagdeeshan, Teacher and Member, Governing Council, Centre for Learning, Bangalore
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Vikaspuri District Centre, Delhi
V.A. Sujatha, TGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 1, Vasco, Goa
V. Madhavi, TGT, Sanskriti School, Chankyapuri, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R.P. Maurya, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi

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 Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop:
Mala Mani, TGT, Amity International School, Sector-44, Noida; Meera
Mahadevan, TGT, Atomic Energy Central School, No. 4, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai;
Rashmi Rana, TGT, D.A.V. Public School, Pushpanjali Enclave, Pitampura, Delhi;
Mohammad Qasim, TGT, Anglo Arabic Senior Secondary School, Ajmeri Gate, Delhi;
S.C. Rauto, TGT, Central School for Tibetans, Happy Valley, Mussoorie; Rakesh
Kaushik, TGT, Sainik School, Kunjpura, Karnal; Ashok Kumar Gupta, TGT, Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, Dudhnoi, Distt. Goalpara; Sankar Misra, TGT, Demonstration
Multipurpose School, RIE, Bhubaneswar; Uaday Singh, Lecturer, Department of
Mathematics, B.H.U., Varanasi; B.R. Handa, Emeritus Professor, IIT, New Delhi;
Monika Singh, Lecturer, Sri Ram College (University of Delhi), Lajpat Nagar,
New Delhi; G. Sri Hari Babu, TGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sirpur, Kagaz
Nagar, Adilabad; Ajay Kumar Singh, TGT, Ramjas Sr. Secondary School No. 3,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi; Mukesh Kumar Agrawal, TGT, S.S.A.P.G.B.S.S. School,
Sector-V, Dr Ambedkar Nagar, New Delhi.
Special thanks are due to Professor Hukum Singh, Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
for his support during the development of this book.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer
Station; Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor; Naresh Kumar and Nargis Islam,
D.T.P. Operators; Yogita Sharma, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also duly acknowledged.

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 Contents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Contents in the Textbooks v
Preface vii
1. Real Numbers 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 2
1.3 Revisiting Irrational Numbers 6
1.4 Summary 9
2. Polynomials 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial 11
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial 18
2.4 Summary 23
3. Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables 24
3.1 Introduction 24
3.2 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations 25
3.3 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations 30
3.3.1 Substitution Method 30
3.3.2 Elimination Method 34
3.4 Summary 37
4. Quadratic Equations 38
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Quadratic Equations 39
4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation 42
4.4 Nature of Roots 44
4.5 Summary 47
5. Arithmetic Progressions 49
5.1 Introduction 49

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 xii

5.2 Arithmetic Progressions 51

5.3 nth Term of an AP 56
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP 63
5.5 Summary 72
6. Triangles 73
6.1 Introduction 73
6.2 Similar Figures 74
6.3 Similarity of Triangles 79
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles 85
6.5 Summary 97
7. Coordinate Geometry 99
7.1 Introduction 99
7.2 Distance Formula 100
7.3 Section Formula 106
7.4 Summary 112
8. Introduction to Trigonometry 113
8.1 Introduction 113
8.2 Trigonometric Ratios 114
8.3 Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles 121
8.4 Trigonometric Identities 128
8.5 Summary 132
9. Some Applications of Trigonometry 133
9.1 Heights and Distances 133
9.2 Summary 143
10. Circles 144
10.1 Introduction 144
10.2 Tangent to a Circle 145
10.3 Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle 147
10.4 Summary 153
11. Areas Related to Circles 154
11.1 Areas of Sector and Segment of a Circle 154
11.2 Summary 160

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 xiii

12. Surface Areas and Volumes 161

12.1 Introduction 161
12.2 Surface Area of a Combination of Solids 162
12.3 Volume of a Combination of Solids 167
12.4 Summary 170
13. Statistics 171
13.1 Introduction 171
13.2 Mean of Grouped Data 171
13.3 Mode of Grouped Data 183
13.4 Median of Grouped Data 188
13.5 Summary 200
14. Probability 202
14.1 Probability — A Theoretical Approach 202
14.2 Summary 217
Appendix A1 : Proofs in Mathematics 218
A1.1 Introduction 218
A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited 218
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning 221
A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning 223
A1.5 Negation of a Statement 228
A1.6 Converse of a Statement 231
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction 234
A1.8 Summary 238
Appendix A2 : Mathematical Modelling 239
A2.1 Introduction 239
A2.2 Stages in Mathematical Modelling 240
A2.3 Some Illustrations 244
A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important? 248
A2.5 Summary 249
Answers/Hints 250

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 xii

Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

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REAL NUMBERS 1

REAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you began your exploration of the world of real numbers and encountered
irrational numbers. We continue our discussion on real numbers in this chapter. We
begin with two very important properties of positive integers in Sections 1.2 and 1.3,
namely the Euclid’s division algorithm and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Euclid’s division algorithm, as the name suggests, has to do with divisibility of
integers. Stated simply, it says any positive integer a can be divided by another positive
integer b in such a way that it leaves a remainder r that is smaller than b. Many of you
probably recognise this as the usual long division process. Although this result is quite
easy to state and understand, it has many applications related to the divisibility properties
of integers. We touch upon a few of them, and use it mainly to compute the HCF of
two positive integers.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, on the other hand, has to do something
with multiplication of positive integers. You already know that every composite number
can be expressed as a product of primes in a unique way — this important fact is the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Again, while it is a result that is easy to state and
understand, it has some very deep and significant applications in the field of mathematics.
We use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for two main applications. First, we
use it to prove the irrationality of many of the numbers you studied in Class IX, such as
2 , 3 and 5 . Second, we apply this theorem to explore when exactly the decimal
p
expansion of a rational number, say (q  0) , is terminating and when it is non-
q
terminating repeating. We do so by looking at the prime factorisation of the denominator
p
q of . You will see that the prime factorisation of q will completely reveal the nature
q
of the decimal expansion of p .
q
So let us begin our exploration.

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2 MATHEMATICS

1.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

In your earlier classes, you have seen that any natural number can be written as a
product of its prime factors. For instance, 2 = 2, 4 = 2 × 2, 253 = 11 × 23, and so on.
Now, let us try and look at natural numbers from the other direction. That is, can any
natural number be obtained by multiplying prime numbers? Let us see.
Take any collection of prime numbers, say 2, 3, 7, 11 and 23. If we multiply
some or all of these numbers, allowing them to repeat as many times as we wish,
we can produce a large collection of positive integers (In fact, infinitely many).
Let us list a few :
7 × 11 × 23 = 1771 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 5313
2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 23 × 3 × 73 = 8232
22 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252
and so on.
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes.
What is your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite
number of integers, or infinitely many? Infact, there are infinitely many primes. So,
if we combine all these primes in all possible ways, we will get an infinite
collection of numbers, all
the primes and all possible
products of primes. The
question is – can we
produce all the composite
numbers this way? What
do you think? Do you
think that there may be a
composite number which
is not the product of
powers of primes?
Before we answer this,
let us factorise positive
integers, that is, do the
opposite of what we have
done so far.
We are going to use
the factor tree with which
you are all familiar. Let us
take some large number,
say, 32760, and factorise
it as shown.
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REAL NUMBERS 3

So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of

primes, i.e., 32760 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of powers of primes. Let us try
another number, say, 123456789. This can be written as 32 × 3803 × 3607. Of course,
you have to check that 3803 and 3607 are primes! (Try it out for several other natural
numbers yourself.) This leads us to a conjecture that every composite number can be
written as the product of powers of primes. In fact, this statement is true, and is called
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic because of its basic crucial importance
to the study of integers. Let us now formally state this theorem.
Theorem 1.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite
number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this factorisation
is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.

An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably

first recorded as Proposition 14 of Book IX in Euclid’s
Elements, before it came to be known as the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. However, the
first correct proof was given by Carl Friedrich Gauss
in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae.
Carl Friedrich Gauss is often referred to as the ‘Prince
of Mathematicians’ and is considered one of the three
greatest mathematicians of all time, along with
Archimedes and Newton. He has made fundamental Carl Friedrich Gauss
contributions to both mathematics and science. (1777 – 1855)

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number can
be factorised as a product of primes. Actually it says more. It says that given any
composite number it can be factorised as a product of prime numbers in a ‘unique’
way, except for the order in which the primes occur. That is, given any composite
number there is one and only one way to write it as a product of primes, as long as we
are not particular about the order in which the primes occur. So, for example, we
regard 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 as the same as 3 × 5 × 7 × 2, or any other possible order in which
these primes are written. This fact is also stated in the following form:
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order
of its factors.

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4 MATHEMATICS

In general, given a composite number x, we factorise it as x = p1 p2 ... pn, where

p 1 , p 2 ,..., p n are primes and written in ascending order, i.e., p 1  p 2
 . . .  pn. If we combine the same primes, we will get powers of primes. For example,
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13
Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number
is factorised, is unique.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has many applications, both within
mathematics and in other fields. Let us look at some examples.

Example 1 : Consider the numbers 4n, where n is a natural number. Check whether
there is any value of n for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
Solution : If the number 4n, for any n, were to end with the digit zero, then it would be
divisible by 5. That is, the prime factorisation of 4n would contain the prime 5. This is
not possible because 4n = (2)2n; so the only prime in the factorisation of 4n is 2. So, the
uniqueness of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic guarantees that there are no
other primes in the factorisation of 4n. So, there is no natural number n for which 4n
ends with the digit zero.
You have already learnt how to find the HCF and LCM of two positive integers
using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic in earlier classes, without realising it!
This method is also called the prime factorisation method. Let us recall this method
through an example.

Example 2 : Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.
Solution : We have : 6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
You can find HCF(6, 20) = 2 and LCM(6, 20) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60, as done in your
earlier classes.
Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 = Product of the smallest power of each common
prime factor in the numbers.
LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 31 × 51 = Product of the greatest power of each prime factor,
involved in the numbers.

From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20)
= 6 × 20. In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b,
HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) = a × b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two
positive integers, if we have already found the HCF of the two positive integers.

Example 3: Find the HCF of 96 and 404 by the prime factorisation method. Hence,
find their LCM.

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REAL NUMBERS 5

Solution : The prime factorisation of 96 and 404 gives :

96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 22 × 101
Therefore, the HCF of these two integers is 22 = 4.

96  404 96  404
Also, LCM (96, 404) =   9696
HCF(96, 404) 4

Example 4 : Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorisation
method.
Solution : We have :
6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 23 × 32, 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
Here, 21 and 31 are the smallest powers of the common factors 2 and 3, respectively.
So, HCF (6, 72, 120) = 21 × 31 = 2 × 3 = 6
23, 32 and 51 are the greatest powers of the prime factors 2, 3 and 5 respectively
involved in the three numbers.
So, LCM (6, 72, 120) = 23 × 32 × 51 = 360

Remark : Notice, 6 × 72 × 120  HCF (6, 72, 120) × LCM (6, 72, 120). So, the
product of three numbers is not equal to the product of their HCF and LCM.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Express each number as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following pairs of integers and verify that LCM × HCF =
product of the two numbers.
(i) 26 and 91 (ii) 510 and 92 (iii) 336 and 54
3. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorisation
method.
(i) 12, 15 and 21 (ii) 17, 23 and 29 (iii) 8, 9 and 25
4. Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9, find LCM (306, 657).
5. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
6. Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.
7. There is a circular path around a sports field. Sonia takes 18 minutes to drive one round
of the field, while Ravi takes 12 minutes for the same. Suppose they both start at the

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6 MATHEMATICS

same point and at the same time, and go in the same direction. After how many minutes
will they meet again at the starting point?

1.3 Revisiting Irrational Numbers

In Class IX, you were introduced to irrational numbers and many of their properties.
You studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together
made up the real numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number
line. However, we did not prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will
prove that 2 , 3 , 5 and, in general, p is irrational, where p is a prime. One of
the theorems, we use in our proof, is the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
p
Recall, a number ‘s’ is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with
which you are already familiar, are :
2,
2, 3 , 15 ,  ,  0.10110111011110 . . . , etc.
3
Before we prove that 2 is irrational, we need the following theorem, whose
proof is based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Theorem 1.2 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where
a is a positive integer.
*Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
a = p1p2 . . . pn, where p1,p2, . . ., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore, a2 = ( p1 p2 . . . pn)( p1 p2 . . . pn) = p21 p22 . . . p2n.
Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, it follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the
uniqueness part of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only
prime factors of a2 are p1, p2, . . ., pn. So p is one of p1, p2, . . ., pn.
Now, since a = p1 p2 . . . pn , p divides a.
We are now ready to give a proof that 2 is irrational.
The proof is based on a technique called ‘proof by contradiction’. (This technique is
discussed in some detail in Appendix 1).

Theorem 1.3 : 2 is irrational.

Proof : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 2 is rational.
* Not from the examination point of view.

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REAL NUMBERS 7

r
So, we can find integers r and s (¹ 0) such that2 = s.
Suppose r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the common

factor to get a , where a and b are coprime.

2
b
So, b 2 = a.
Squaring on both sides and rearranging, we get 2b2 = a2. Therefore, 2 divides a2.
Now, by Theorem 1.3, it follows that 2 divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.
This means that 2 divides b2, and so 2 divides b (again using Theorem 1.3 with p = 2).
Therefore, a and b have at least 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 2 is rational.
So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.

Example 5 : Prove that 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find integers a and b (¹ 0) such that  3 =
b
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the
common factor, and assume that a and b are coprime.
So, b 3  a 
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
Therefore, a2 is divisible by 3, and by Theorem 1.3, it follows that a is also divisible
by 3.
So, we can write a = 3c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 3b2 = 9c2, that is, b2 = 3c2.
This means that b2 is divisible by 3, and so b is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1.3
with p = 3).

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8 MATHEMATICS

Therefore, a and b have at least 3 as a common factor.

But this contradicts the fact that a and b are coprime.

This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 is rational.
So, we conclude that 3 is irrational.
In Class IX, we mentioned that :

 the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and

 the product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is

irrational.
We prove some particular cases here.

Example 6 : Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 5 – 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b  0) such that 5  3  
b
a
Therefore, 5   3 
b
Rearranging this equation, we get 3  5 – 
a 5b  a

b b
a
Since a and b are integers, we get 5 – is rational, and so 3 is rational.
b
But this contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 5 – 3 is
rational.

So, we conclude that 5  3 is irrational.

Example 7 : Show that 3 2 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 2 is rational.
a
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b  0) such that 3 2  
b
Rearranging, we get 2  
a
3b
a
Since 3, a and b are integers, is rational, and so 2 is rational.
3b

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REAL NUMBERS 9

But this contradicts the fact that 2 is irrational.

So, we conclude that 3 2 is irrational.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Prove that 5 is irrational.
2. Prove that 3  2 5 is irrational.

3. Prove that the following are irrationals :

1
(i) (ii) 7 5 (iii) 6  2
2

1.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic :
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this
factorisation is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.
2. If p is a prime and p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.

3. To prove that 2, 3 are irrationals.

A NOTE TO THE READER

You have seen that :
HCF ( p, q, r) × LCM (p, q, r)  p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers
(see Example 8). However, the following results hold good for three numbers
p, q and r :

p  q  r  HCF(p, q, r )
LCM (p, q, r) =
HCF( p, q )  HCF(q, r )  HCF( p, r )

p  q  r  LCM(p, q, r )
HCF (p, q, r) =
LCM( p, q)  LCM(q, r )  LCM( p, r )

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10 MATHEMATICS

POLYNOMIALS 2
2.1 Introduction

In Class IX, you have studied polynomials in one variable and their degrees. Recall
that if p(x) is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of
the polynomial p(x). For example, 4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of
degree 1, 2y2 – 3y + 4 is a polynomial in the variable y of degree 2, 5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2
3 4
is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 3 and 7u6 – u  4u 2  u  8 is a polynomial
2
1 1
in the variable u of degree 6. Expressions like , x  2, 2
etc., are
x 1 x  2x  3
not polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. For example, 2x – 3,
2 2
3 x  5, y  2 , x  , 3z + 4, u  1 , etc., are all linear polynomials. Polynomials
11 3
such as 2x + 5 – x , x + 1, etc., are not linear polynomials.
2 3

A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial. The name ‘quadratic’

2,
has been derived from the word ‘quadrate’, which means ‘square’. 2 x 2  3x 
5
u 2 1
y 2 – 2, 2  x 2  3 x,  2u 2  5, 5v 2  v, 4 z 2  are some examples of
3 3 7
quadratic polynomials (whose coefficients are real numbers). More generally, any
quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers
and a  0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial. Some examples of

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POLYNOMIALS 11

a cubic polynomial are 2 – x3, x3, 2 x3 , 3 – x2 + x3, 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 1. In fact, the most
general form of a cubic polynomial is
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a  0.
Now consider the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 3x – 4. Then, putting x = 2 in the
polynomial, we get p(2) = 22 – 3 × 2 – 4 = – 6. The value ‘– 6’, obtained by replacing
x by 2 in x2 – 3x – 4, is the value of x2 – 3x – 4 at x = 2. Similarly, p(0) is the value of
p(x) at x = 0, which is – 4.
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained by
replacing x by k in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by p(k).
What is the value of p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 at x = –1? We have :
p(–1) = (–1)2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
Also, note that p(4) = 42 – (3  4) – 4 = 0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. More generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a
polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
You have already studied in Class IX, how to find the zeroes of a linear
polynomial. For example, if k is a zero of p(x) = 2x + 3, then p(k) = 0 gives us
3
2k + 3 = 0, i.e., k =  
2
b
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax + b, then p(k) = ak + b = 0, i.e., k  
a
b  (Constant term)
So, the zero of the linear polynomial ax + b is  .
a Coefficient of x
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this
happen in the case of other polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial also related to its coefficients?
In this chapter, we will try to answer these questions. We will also study the
division algorithm for polynomials.

2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial

You know that a real number k is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(k) = 0. But why
are the zeroes of a polynomial so important? To answer this, first we will see the
geometrical representations of linear and quadratic polynomials and the geometrical
meaning of their zeroes.

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12 MATHEMATICS

Consider first a linear polynomial ax + b, a  0. You have studied in Class IX that the
graph of y = ax + b is a straight line. For example, the graph of y = 2x + 3 is a straight
line passing through the points (– 2, –1) and (2, 7).

x –2 2

y = 2x + 3 –1 7

From Fig. 2.1, you can see

that the graph of y = 2x + 3
intersects the x - axis mid-way
between x = –1 and x = – 2,

that is, at the point   , 0  .

3
 2 
You also know that the zero of
3
2x + 3 is  . Thus, the zero of
2
the polynomial 2x + 3 is the
x-coordinate of the point where the
graph of y = 2x + 3 intersects the Fig. 2.1
x-axis.
In general, for a linear polynomial ax + b, a  0, the graph of y = ax + b is a
 b 
straight line which intersects the x-axis at exactly one point, namely,  , 0  .
 a 
Therefore, the linear polynomial ax + b, a  0, has exactly one zero, namely, the
x-coordinate of the point where the graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis.
Now, let us look for the geometrical meaning of a zero of a quadratic polynomial.
Consider the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. Let us see what the graph* of
y = x2 – 3x – 4 looks like. Let us list a few values of y = x2 – 3x – 4 corresponding to
a few values for x as given in Table 2.1.

* Plotting of graphs of quadratic or cubic polynomials is not meant to be done by the students,
nor is to be evaluated.

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POLYNOMIALS 13

Table 2.1

x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6

If we locate the points listed

above on a graph paper and draw
the graph, it will actually look like
the one given in Fig. 2.2.
In fact, for any quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a  0, the
graph of the corresponding
equation y = ax2 + bx + c has one
of the two shapes either open
upwards like or open
downwards like depending on
whether a > 0 or a < 0. (These
curves are called parabolas.)
You can see from Table 2.1
that –1 and 4 are zeroes of the
quadratic polynomial. Also
note from Fig. 2.2 that –1 and 4
are the x-coordinates of the points
where the graph of y = x2 – 3x – 4
intersects the x- axis. Thus, the
zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
x2 – 3x – 4 are x-coordinates of
the points where the graph of
Fig. 2.2
y = x 2 – 3x – 4 intersects the
x-axis.
This fact is true for any quadratic polynomial, i.e., the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c, a  0, are precisely the x-coordinates of the points where the
parabola representing y = ax2 + bx + c intersects the x-axis.
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, the
following three cases can happen:

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14 MATHEMATICS

Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A.
The x-coordinates of A and A are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
ax + bx + c in this case (see Fig. 2.3).
2

Fig. 2.3
Case (ii) : Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident
points. So, the two points A and A of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A
(see Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.4
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c
in this case.

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POLYNOMIALS 15

Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below
the x-axis. So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point (see Fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2.5
So, the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has no zero in this case.
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two
distinct zeroes or two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a
polynomial of degree 2 has atmost two zeroes.
Now, what do you expect the geometrical meaning of the zeroes of a cubic
polynomial to be? Let us find out. Consider the cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. To see what
the graph of y = x3 – 4x looks like, let us list a few values of y corresponding to a few
values for x as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2

x –2 –1 0 1 2

y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0

Locating the points of the table on a graph paper and drawing the graph, we see
that the graph of y = x3 – 4x actually looks like the one given in Fig. 2.6.

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16 MATHEMATICS

We see from the table above

that – 2, 0 and 2 are zeroes of the
cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. Observe
that – 2, 0 and 2 are, in fact, the
x-coordinates of the only points
where the graph of y = x 3 – 4x
intersects the x-axis. Since the curve
meets the x - axis in only these 3
points, their x - coordinates are the
only zeroes of the polynomial.
Let us take a few more
examples. Consider the cubic
polynomials x3 and x3 – x2. We draw
the graphs of y = x3 and y = x3 – x2
in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 respectively.
Fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

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POLYNOMIALS 17

Note that 0 is the only zero of the polynomial x3. Also, from Fig. 2.7, you can see
that 0 is the x-coordinate of the only point where the graph of y = x3 intersects the
x-axis. Similarly, since x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes of the polynomial
x3 – x2. Also, from Fig. 2.8, these values are the x - coordinates of the only points
where the graph of y = x3 – x2 intersects the x-axis.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic
polynomial. In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.
Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x)
intersects the x-axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has
at most n zeroes.

Example 1 : Look at the graphs in Fig. 2.9 given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x),
where p(x) is a polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).

Fig. 2.9

Solution :
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3. (Why?)

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18 MATHEMATICS

(iv) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)

(v) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)
(vi) The number of zeroes is 4. (Why?)

EXERCISE 2.1
1. The graphs of y = p(x) are given in Fig. 2.10 below, for some polynomials p(x). Find the
number of zeroes of p(x), in each case.

Fig. 2.10

2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial

You have already seen that zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is  b . We will now try
a
to answer the question raised in Section 2.1 regarding the relationship between zeroes
and coefficients of a quadratic polynomial. For this, let us take a quadratic polynomial,
say p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6. In Class IX, you have learnt how to factorise quadratic
polynomials by splitting the middle term. So, here we need to split the middle term
‘– 8x’ as a sum of two terms, whose product is 6 × 2x2 = 12x2. So, we write
2x2 – 8x + 6 = 2x2 – 6x – 2x + 6 = 2x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3)
= (2x – 2)(x – 3) = 2(x – 1)(x – 3)

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POLYNOMIALS 19

So, the value of p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6 is zero when x – 1 = 0 or x – 3 = 0, i.e., when

x = 1 or x = 3. So, the zeroes of 2x2 – 8x + 6 are 1 and 3. Observe that :

(8) (Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = 1 3  4  
2 Coefficient of x 2
6 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = 1  3  3  
2 Coefficient of x 2
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial, say, p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2. By the
method of splitting the middle term,
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) –1(x + 2)
= (3x – 1)(x + 2)
Hence, the value of 3x2 + 5x – 2 is zero when either 3x – 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, i.e.,
1 1
when x = or x = –2. So, the zeroes of 3x2 + 5x – 2 are and – 2. Observe that :
3 3
1  5  (Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes =  ( 2)  
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
1 2 Constant term
Product of its zeroes =  (  2)  
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
In general, if * and * are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
a  0, then you know that x –  and x –  are the factors of p(x). Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = k(x – ) (x – ), where k is a constant
= k[x2 – ( + )x + ]
= kx2 – k( + )x + k 
Comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get
a = k, b = – k( + ) and c = k
–b
This gives += ,
a
c
 =
a

* , are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will use later one
more letter ‘’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.

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20 MATHEMATICS

b  (Coefficient of x)
i.e., sum of zeroes =  +  =   ,
a Coefficient of x2

c Constant term
product of zeroes =  =  .
a Coefficient of x 2
Let us consider some examples.

Example 2 : Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the
relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5)
So, the value of x2 + 7x + 10 is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x = – 2 or
x = –5. Therefore, the zeroes of x2 + 7x + 10 are – 2 and – 5. Now,

(7) – (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = – 2  (– 5)  – (7)  
1 Coefficient of x 2

10 Constant term
product of zeroes = ( 2)  ( 5)  10   
1 Coefficient of x 2

Example 3 : Find the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 3 and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : Recall the identity a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b). Using it, we can write:

 
x2 – 3 = x  3 x  3 
So, the value of x2 – 3 is zero when x = 3 or x = – 3

Therefore, the zeroes of x2 – 3 are 3 and  3 

Now,

 (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = 3 3 0 
Coefficient of x2

product of zeroes =  3   3   – 3  13  Coefficient

Constant term
of x 2


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POLYNOMIALS 21

Example 4 : Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are
– 3 and 2, respectively.
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and its zeroes be  and .
We have

b ,
+= –3=
a

c.
and  = 2 =
a
If a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2.
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 + 3x + 2.
You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions will
be of the form k(x2 + 3x + 2), where k is real.
Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds
between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients?
Let us consider p(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8.
1
You can check that p(x) = 0 for x = 4, – 2,  Since p(x) can have atmost three
2
zeroes, these are the zeores of 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8. Now,
1 5  (5)  (Coefficient of x 2 )
sum of the zeroes = 4  ( 2)     ,
2 2 2 Coefficient of x 3

1 8 – Constant term
product of the zeroes = 4  ( 2)   4   .
2 2 Coefficient of x 3
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products
of the zeroes taken two at a time. We have

4  ( 2)  ( 2) 
1  1 
    4
 2 2 

14 Coefficient of x
= – 8 1 2  7  = .
2 Coefficient of x3
In general, it can be proved that if , ,  are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then

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22 MATHEMATICS

–b
++= ,
a
c
 +  +  = ,
a
–d
   = .
a
Let us consider an example.

1
Example 5* : Verify that 3, –1,  are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
3
p(x) = 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and the
coefficients.
Solution : Comparing the given polynomial with ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, we get
a = 3, b = – 5, c = –11, d = – 3. Further
p(3) = 3 × 33 – (5 × 32) – (11 × 3) – 3 = 81 – 45 – 33 – 3 = 0,
p(–1) = 3 × (–1)3 – 5 × (–1)2 – 11 × (–1) – 3 = –3 – 5 + 11 – 3 = 0,
3 2
 1  1  1  1
p     3      5      11      3 ,
 3  3  3  3
1 5 11 2 2
= –   3–  0
9 9 3 3 3
1
Therefore, 3, –1 and  are the zeroes of 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3.
3
1
So, we take  = 3,  = –1 and  =  
3
Now,
 1 1 5 (5) b ,
      3  (1)      2    
 3 3 3 3 a
 1  1 1 11 c ,
        3  (1)  (1)          3   3   1  
 3  3 3 3 a

 1  ( 3)  d .
  3  ( 1)      1  
 3 3 a

* Not from the examination point of view.

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POLYNOMIALS 23

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x2 – 3 – 7x
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x2 – x – 4
2. Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product of its
zeroes respectively.
1, 1
(i) 1 (ii) 2, (iii) 0, 5
4 3
1, 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v)  (vi) 4, 1
4 4

2.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials
respectively.
2. A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c
are real numbers with a  0.
3. The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points, where the
graph of y = p(x) intersects the x -axis.
4. A quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial can have
at most 3 zeroes.
5. If  and  are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then

b c
    ,   .
a a
6. If , ,  are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then

b ,
    
a

c,
      
a

d .
and  
a

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24 MATHEMATICS

PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

IN TWO VARIABLES 3
3.1 Introduction
You must have come across situations like the one given below :
Akhila went to a fair in her village. She wanted to enjoy rides on the Giant Wheel
and play Hoopla (a game in which you throw a ring on the items kept in a stall, and if
the ring covers any object completely, you get it). The number of times she played
Hoopla is half the number of rides she had on the Giant Wheel. If each ride costs
` 3, and a game of Hoopla costs ` 4, how would you find out the number of rides she
had and how many times she played Hoopla, provided she spent ` 20.
May be you will try it by considering different cases. If she has one ride, is it
possible? Is it possible to have two rides? And so on. Or you may use the knowledge
of Class IX, to represent such situations as linear equations in two variables.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 25

Let us try this approach.

Denote the number of rides that Akhila had by x, and the number of times she
played Hoopla by y. Now the situation can be represented by the two equations:
1
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Can we find the solutions of this pair of equations? There are several ways of
finding these, which we will study in this chapter.

3.2 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations

A pair of linear equations which has no solution, is called an inconsistent pair of linear
equations. A pair of linear equations in two variables, which has a solution, is called a
consistent pair of linear equations. A pair of linear equations which are equivalent has
infinitely many distinct common solutions. Such a pair is called a dependent pair of
linear equations in two variables. Note that a dependent pair of linear equations is
always consistent.
We can now summarise the behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations
in two variables and the existence of solutions as follows:
(i) the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations
has a unique solution (consistent pair of equations).
(ii) the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution
(inconsistent pair of equations).
(iii) the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many
solutions [dependent (consistent) pair of equations].
Consider the following three pairs of equations.
(i) x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (The lines intersect)
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 and 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 (The lines coincide)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (The lines are parallel)
a1 , b1 c
Let us now write down, and compare, the values of and 1 in all the
a2 b2 c2
three examples. Here, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 denote the coefficents of equations
given in the general form in Section 3.2.

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26 MATHEMATICS

Table 3.1
a1 b1 c1
Sl Pair of lines Compare the Graphical Algebraic
a2 b2 c2
No. ratios representation interpretation

1 −2 0 a1 b1
1. x – 2y = 0 ≠ Intersecting Exactly one
3 4 −20 a2 b2
3x + 4y – 20 = 0 lines solution
(unique)

2 3 −9 a1 b c
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 = 1 = 1 Coincident Infinitely
4 6 −18 a2 b2 c2
lines many solutions
4x + 6y – 18 = 0

1 2 −4 a1 b1 c
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0 = ≠ 1 Parallel lines No solution
2 4 −12 a2 b2 c2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0

From the table above, you can observe that if the lines represented by the equation
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
are (i) intersecting, then ≠ ⋅
a2 b2
a b c
(ii) coincident, then 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) parallel, then = ≠ ⋅
a2 b2 c2
In fact, the converse is also true for any pair of lines. You can verify them by
considering some more examples by yourself.
Let us now consider some more examples to illustrate it.

Example 1 : Check graphically whether the pair of equations

x + 3y = 6 (1)
and 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
is consistent. If so, solve them graphically.
Solution : Let us draw the graphs of the Equations (1) and (2). For this, we find two
solutions of each of the equations, which are given in Table 3.2

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 27

Table 3.2

x 0 6 x 0 3

6−x 2 x − 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
3 3

Plot the points A(0, 2), B(6, 0),

P(0, – 4) and Q(3, – 2) on graph
paper, and join the points to form the
lines AB and PQ as shown in
Fig. 3.1.
We observe that there is a point
B (6, 0) common to both the lines
AB and PQ. So, the solution of the
pair of linear equations is x = 6 and
y = 0, i.e., the given pair of equations
is consistent.
Fig. 3.1
Example 2 : Graphically, find whether the following pair of equations has no solution,
unique solution or infinitely many solutions:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
3x – y + = 0 (2)
5 5
5
Solution : Multiplying Equation (2) by , we get
3
5x – 8y + 1 = 0
But, this is the same as Equation (1). Hence the lines represented by Equations (1)
and (2) are coincident. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions.
Plot few points on the graph and verify it yourself.

Example 3 : Champa went to a ‘Sale’ to purchase some pants and skirts. When her
friends asked her how many of each she had bought, she answered, “The number of
skirts is two less than twice the number of pants purchased. Also, the number of skirts
is four less than four times the number of pants purchased”. Help her friends to find
how many pants and skirts Champa bought.

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28 MATHEMATICS

Solution : Let us denote the number of pants by x and the number of skirts by y. Then
the equations formed are :
y = 2x – 2 (1)
and y = 4x – 4 (2)

Let us draw the graphs of

Equations (1) and (2) by finding two
solutions for each of the equations.
They are given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3

x 2 0

y = 2x – 2 2 –2

x 0 1

y = 4x – 4 –4 0

Fig. 3.2

Plot the points and draw the lines passing through them to represent the equations,
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
The two lines intersect at the point (1, 0). So, x = 1, y = 0 is the required solution
of the pair of linear equations, i.e., the number of pants she purchased is 1 and she did
not buy any skirt.

Verify the answer by checking whether it satisfies the conditions of the given
problem.

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
graphically.
(i) 10 students of Class X took part in a Mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4
more than the number of boys, find the number of boys and girls who took part in
the quiz.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 29

(ii) 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost ` 50, whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together
cost ` 46. Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
a1 , b1 c
2. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the lines representing the
a2 b2 c2
following pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or coincident:
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
a1 , b1 c
3. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the following pair of linear
a2 b 2 c2
equations are consistent, or inconsistent.
(i) 3x + 2y = 5 ; 2x – 3y = 7 (ii) 2x – 3y = 8 ; 4x – 6y = 9
3 5
(iii) x  y  7 ; 9x – 10y = 14 (iv) 5x – 3y = 11 ; – 10x + 6y = –22
2 3

4
(v) x  2 y  8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. Which of the following pairs of linear equations are consistent/inconsistent? If
consistent, obtain the solution graphically:
(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0

5. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width, is
36 m. Find the dimensions of the garden.
6. Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines (ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
7. Draw the graphs of the equations x – y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. Determine the
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the x-axis, and
shade the triangular region.

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30 MATHEMATICS

3.3 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, we discussed how to solve a pair of linear equations graphically.
The graphical method is not convenient in cases when the point representing the
solution of the linear equations has non-integral coordinates like ( )
3, 2 7 ,

 4, 1 
(–1.75, 3.3),   , etc. There is every possibility of making mistakes while reading
 13 19 
such coordinates. Is there any alternative method of finding the solution? There are
several algebraic methods, which we shall now discuss.

3.3.1 Substitution Method : We shall explain the method of substitution by taking

some examples.

Example 4 : Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:

7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other.
Let us consider the Equation (2) :
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y (3)
Step 2 : Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get
7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
Therefore, y=
29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get

 19  49
x = 3 – 2  =
 29  29
49 19
Therefore, the solution is x = ,y= .
29 29

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 31

49 19
Verification : Substituting x = and y = , you can verify that both the Equations
29 29
(1) and (2) are satisfied.
To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise:
Step 1 : Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from
either equation, whichever is convenient.
Step 2 : Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in
one variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and
10 below, you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can
conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement
is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in
Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable.

Remark : We have substituted the value of one variable by expressing it in terms of

the other variable to solve the pair of linear equations. That is why the method is
known as the substitution method.

Example 5 : Solve the following question—Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years
ago, I was seven times as old as you were then. Also, three years from now, I shall be
three times as old as you will be.” (Isn’t this interesting?) Represent this situation
algebraically and graphically by the method of substitution.
Solution : Let s and t be the ages (in years) of Aftab and his daughter, respectively.
Then, the pair of linear equations that represent the situation is
s – 7 = 7 (t – 7), i.e., s – 7t + 42 = 0 (1)
and s + 3 = 3 (t + 3), i.e., s – 3t = 6 (2)
Using Equation (2), we get s = 3t + 6.
Putting this value of s in Equation (1), we get
(3t + 6) – 7t + 42 = 0,
i.e., 4t = 48, which gives t = 12.
Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42

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32 MATHEMATICS

So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively.
Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems.

Example 6 : In a shop the cost of 2 pencils and 3 erasers is `9 and the cost of 4
pencils and 6 erasers is `18. Find the cost of each pencil and each eraser.
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x + 3y = 9, to get
9 − 3y
x= (3)
2
Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get

4(9 − 3 y )
+ 6y = 18
2
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18

This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific
value of y as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This
situation has arisen because both the given equations are the same. Therefore,
Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions. We cannot find a unique
cost of a pencil and an eraser, because there are many common solutions, to the
given situation.
Example 7 : Two rails are represented by the equations
x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0. Will the rails cross each other?
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
We express x in terms of y from Equation (1) to get
x = 4 – 2y
Now, we substitute this value of x in Equation (2) to get
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 33

i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4= 0
which is a false statement.
Therefore, the equations do not have a common solution. So, the two rails will not
cross each other.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution method.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
s t
x–y=4  6
3 2
(iii) 3x – y = 3 (iv) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
9x – 3y = 9 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3

3x 5 y
(v) 2 x 3 y 0 (vi)   2
2 3
x y 13
3x  8y  0  
3 2 6
2. Solve 2x + 3y = 11 and 2x – 4y = – 24 and hence find the value of ‘m’ for which
y = mx + 3.
3. Form the pair of linear equations for the following problems and find their solution by
substitution method.
(i) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one number is three times the other.
Find them.
(ii) The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18 degrees. Find
them.
(iii) The coach of a cricket team buys 7 bats and 6 balls for ` 3800. Later, she buys 3
bats and 5 balls for ` 1750. Find the cost of each bat and each ball.
(iv) The taxi charges in a city consist of a fixed charge together with the charge for the
distance covered. For a distance of 10 km, the charge paid is ` 105 and for a
journey of 15 km, the charge paid is ` 155. What are the fixed charges and the
charge per km? How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of
25 km?
9
(v) A fraction becomes , if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator.
11 5
If, 3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator it becomes . Find the
6
fraction.

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34 MATHEMATICS

(vi) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times that of his son. Five years
ago, Jacob’s age was seven times that of his son. What are their present ages?

3.3.2 Elimination Method

Now let us consider another method of eliminating (i.e., removing) one variable. This
is sometimes more convenient than the substitution method. Let us see how this method
works.

Example 8 : The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their
expenditures is 4 : 3. If each of them manages to save ` 2000 per month, find their
monthly incomes.
Solution : Let us denote the incomes of the two person by ` 9x and ` 7x and their
expenditures by ` 4y and ` 3y respectively. Then the equations formed in the situation
is given by :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
and 7x – 3y = 2000 (2)
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 3 and Equation (2) by 4 to make the coefficients of
y equal. Then we get the equations:
27x – 12y = 6000 (3)
28x – 12y = 8000 (4)
Step 2 : Subtract Equation (3) from Equation (4) to eliminate y, because the coefficients
of y are the same. So, we get
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
i.e., x = 2000
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
i.e., y = 4000
So, the solution of the equations is x = 2000, y = 4000. Therefore, the monthly incomes
of the persons are ` 18,000 and ` 14,000, respectively.

Verification : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. Also, the ratio of their expenditures =

18000 – 2000 : 14000 – 2000 = 16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3

Remarks :
1. The method used in solving the example above is called the elimination method,
because we eliminate one variable first, to get a linear equation in one variable.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 35

In the example above, we eliminated y. We could also have eliminated x. Try

doing it that way.
2. You could also have used the substitution, or graphical method, to solve this
problem. Try doing so, and see which method is more convenient.
Let us now note down these steps in the elimination method :
Step 1 : First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make
the coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
Step 2 : Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets
eliminated. If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has infinitely many solutions.
If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original
pair of equations has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
Step 4 : Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the
value of the other variable.
Now to illustrate it, we shall solve few more examples.

Example 9 : Use elimination method to find all possible solutions of the following pair
of linear equations :
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
4x + 6y = 7 (2)
Solution :

Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 2 and Equation (2) by 1 to make the

coefficients of x equal. Then we get the equations as :
4x + 6y = 16 (3)
4x + 6y = 7 (4)
Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3),
(4x – 4x) + (6y – 6y) = 16 – 7
i.e., 0 = 9, which is a false statement.
Therefore, the pair of equations has no solution.

Example 10 : The sum of a two-digit number and the number obtained by reversing
the digits is 66. If the digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such
numbers are there?

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36 MATHEMATICS

Solution : Let the ten’s and the unit’s digits in the first number be x and y, respectively.
So, the first number may be written as 10 x + y in the expanded form (for example,
56 = 10(5) + 6).
When the digits are reversed, x becomes the unit’s digit and y becomes the ten’s
digit. This number, in the expanded notation is 10y + x (for example, when 56 is
reversed, we get 65 = 10(6) + 5).
According to the given condition.
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
i.e., x+y= 6 (1)
We are also given that the digits differ by 2, therefore,
either x–y= 2 (2)
or y–x= 2 (3)
If x – y = 2, then solving (1) and (2) by elimination, we get x = 4 and y = 2.
In this case, we get the number 42.
If y – x = 2, then solving (1) and (3) by elimination, we get x = 2 and y = 4.
In this case, we get the number 24.
Thus, there are two such numbers 42 and 24.
Verification : Here 42 + 24 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2. Also 24 + 42 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2.

EXERCISE 3.3
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the elimination method and the substitution
method :
(i) x + y = 5 and 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 and 9x = 2y + 7 (iv)    1 and x   3
2 3 3
2. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
(if they exist) by the elimination method :
(i) If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, a fraction reduces
1
to 1. It becomes if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
(ii) Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as
old as Sonu. How old are Nuri and Sonu?
(iii) The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. Also, nine times this number is
twice the number obtained by reversing the order of the digits. Find the number.

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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 37

(iv) Meena went to a bank to withdraw ` 2000. She asked the cashier to give her
` 50 and ` 100 notes only. Meena got 25 notes in all. Find how many notes of
` 50 and ` 100 she received.
(v) A lending library has a fixed charge for the first three days and an additional charge
for each day thereafter. Saritha paid ` 27 for a book kept for seven days, while Susy
paid ` 21 for the book she kept for five days. Find the fixed charge and the charge
for each extra day.

3.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
(ii) algebraic method
2. Graphical Method :
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on
the line being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent
(consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the
pair of equations is inconsistent.
3. Algebraic Methods : We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s)
of a pair of linear equations :
(i) Substitution Method
(ii) Elimination Method
4. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, then the
following situations can arise :
a1 b1
(i)  : In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii)   : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii)   : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
5. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of
linear equations.

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