MOLES AND EQUATIONS
Introduction:
In chemistry, the mole serves as a fundamental unit for quantifying the amount of
substance. Grasping the concept of the mole is vital for understanding chemical
equations, as it enables scientists to predict how substances will react in specific
proportions.
Chemical equation illustrates a chemical reaction through symbols and formulas,
ensuring that the number of atoms for each element remains consistent on both
sides. By utilizing the mole concept, chemists can accurately determine the precise
amounts of reactants required and the products generated,
Comprehending moles and chemical equations is crucial across various fields,
including industrial chemistry, pharmaceuticals, and environmental science. This
understanding facilitates accurate chemical measurements and promotes efficient
resource utilization.
Sub topic 1.1 Masses of Atoms and Molecules, Accurate Relative Atomic
Masses
Atoms and molecules serve as the essential building blocks of matter, and
understanding their masses is vital for grasping chemical reactions and properties.
1. Atomic Mass (Mass of an Atom)
Atom is the smallest electrically neutral particle of an element that takes part in
chemical reaction. The fundamental particles of an atom include protons, neutrons
and electrons. Protons are positively charged; electrons are negatively charged and
neutrons have no charge
Particle Charge Mass
Proton + 1
Neutron No charge 1
Electron ‒ 1
1836
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist in a
free and separate state.
The atomic mass of an element refers to the mass of a single atom, primarily
determined by the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Electrons,
having a negligible mass, contribute very little to the overall atomic mass.
Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (amu) or unified atomic mass units
1
(u). Specifically, 1 amu is defined as th the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is
12
equivalent to 1.66054 × 10⁻²⁷ kg.
Therefore, when we state that an oxygen atom has an atomic mass of 16 amu, it
indicates that it is roughly 16 times heavier than 1/12th of a carbon-12 atom.
Examples of Atomic Masses from the Periodic Table
• Hydrogen (H) has an atomic mass of 1, consisting of 1 proton and no
neutrons.
• Carbon (C) has an atomic mass of 12, with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
• Oxygen (O) has an atomic mass of 16, made up of 8 protons and 8 neutrons.
• Sodium (Na) has an atomic mass of 23, which includes 11 protons and 12
neutrons.
It's important to note that elements exist as mixtures of isotopes. As a result, the
mass number listed on the periodic table typically represents a weighted average of
all isotopes, leading us to the concept of relative atomic mass.
2. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
This variation changes the atomic mass but does not significantly affect chemical
properties, as chemical behavior depends primarily on the number of electrons,
which remain the same in isotopes of an element.
Notation for Isotopes
Isotopes are written in the form:
For example, the three naturally occurring isotopes of hydrogen and carbon
are:
• Protium: 11𝐻 • Carbon 12: 126𝐶
• Deuterium: 21𝐻 • Carbon 13: 136𝐶
• Tritium: 31𝐻 • Carbon 14: 146𝐶
3. Relative Atomic Mass
There are at present 118 different elements known. The atoms of these elements
differ in mass because of the different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons
they contain. The actual mass of one atom is very small.
Such small quantities are not easy to work with, a scale called the relative atomic
mass scale is used. In this scale, an atom of carbon is given a relative atomic mass,
of 12. All other atoms of the other elements are given a relative atomic mass
compared to that of carbon.
Relative atomic mass, is the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared
𝟏
to 𝐭𝐡 of the mass of an atom of 12C.
𝟏𝟐
𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑨𝑵 𝑨𝑻𝑶𝑴 𝑶𝑭 𝑨𝑵 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑴𝑬𝑵𝑻
R.A.M = 𝟏
𝒙𝑴𝑨𝑺𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑨𝑵 𝑨𝑻𝑶𝑴 𝑶𝑭 𝑪𝑨𝑹𝑩𝑶𝑵 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐
Since elements can exist as mixtures of isotopes, their atomic mass is not a whole
number. The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of
all naturally occurring isotopes, taking into account their abundances.
(𝑚1×%𝐴1)+(𝑚2×%𝐴2)+(𝑚3×%𝐴3)
Relative atomic mass =
100
Where:
• m1,m2,m3 = mass of each isotope
• A1,A2,A3 = percentage abundance of each isotope
Examples
1. Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes:
• Chlorine-35 (³⁵Cl): Mass = 35 amu, Abundance = 75%
• Chlorine-37 (³⁷Cl): Mass = 37 amu, Abundance = 25%
(35×75)+(37×25)
Relative atomic mass of chlorine =
100
2625 + 925
100
= 35.5
Thus, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 amu, which is why the periodic
table lists Cl = 35.5.
2. Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes as
Magnesium-24 (²⁴Mg): Mass = 24 amu, Abundance = 79%
Magnesium-25 (²⁵Mg): Mass = 25 amu, Abundance = 10%
Magnesium-26 (²⁶Mg): Mass = 26 amu, Abundance = 11%
Calculate the relative atomic mass of magnesium
(24×79)+(25×10)+(26×11)
Relative atomic mass of magnesium =
100
1896+250+286
=
100
= 24.32 amu
Thus, the relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24.32 amu. which is why the
periodic table lists Mg = 24.
Determine Accurate Relative Atomic Mass Using Given Isotopic Data.
Determining the accurate relative atomic mass of an element is fundamental in
understanding its chemical behavior and properties. This process involves
calculating a weighted average of the masses of the element's naturally occurring
isotopes, each contributing according to its fractional abundance. One of the key
techniques employed in obtaining the precise isotopic data necessary for these
calculations is mass spectrometry. A mass spectrometer ionizes a sample and
separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratios, allowing scientists to
measure both the masses and the relative abundances of the isotopes with
exceptional accuracy.
Mass spectrometry
Is a technique used to identify the compounds present in the sample by vapourising
the sample into mixture of gaseous ions (with or without fragmentation),
sorting/separating the deflecting gaseous ions in the presence of magnetic field
based on their mass to charge ratio (m/z) and recording the relative abundance of
each ion.
The earliest experiments of mass spectroscopy by J. J. Thomson used a stream of
positive ions from a discharge tube, which were deflected by parallel electric and
magnetic fields at right angles to the beam. Each type of ion formed a parabolic
trace on a photographic plate (a mass spectrograph). In modern instruments, the
ions are produced by ionizing the gas with electrons.
The essential parts and operation of a modern mass spectrometer
A mass spectrometer is usually used during mass spectroscopy. It is an instrument
for producing ions in a gas and analyzing them according to their charge/mass
ratio.
It mainly consists of the vapourisation chamber, ionisation chamber, acceleration
chamber, deflection chamber, the detector, amplifier and recorder.
Diagram showing the essential parts of a modern mass spectrometer
Operation of a modern mass spectrometer
The whole apparatus is evacuated of air particles that may produce unnecessary
ions.
1. Vapourisation chamber
The sample is heated by a tungsten filament to vapourise it. The vapourised sample
is then introduced in the ionisation chamber.
2. The ionization chamber. In this chamber, the vapourised sample is subjected to
a beam of fast-moving electrons emitted by a hot filament. These electrons
bombard the atoms of the vapourised sample from which 1 or 2 electrons are
removed to form positive ions.
X(g) X+(g) + e for 1 electron
X(g) X2+(g) + e for 2 electrons
3. The acceleration chamber.
The positive ions produced from the ionisation chamber are accelerated by a strong
electric field of varying potentials such that only positive ions with the same
velocity/kinetic energy but with different mass-charge ratio will pass through to the
magnetic field.
4. The deflection chamber. The magnetic field then deflects the ions according to
their mass-charge ratio. The strength of the magnetic field is varied such that ions
of the same mass-charge ratio are focused onto the detector.
5. The detector, amplifier and recorder
The ions are changed into sizeable electric currents which are sent to the amplifier
for fine tuning and then to the recorder where they are recorded into peaks that
show relative intensities of ions of a particular mass falling at the detector at that
instant. A mass spectrum is thus obtained consisting of a series of peaks of variable
intensity to which mass/charge ratio (m/e) values can be assigned.
If the sample introduced was that of an element, its relative atomic mass (R.A.M)
can be obtained by the formula;
R.A.M = Ʃ Relative isotopic mass x proportion of isotope
Follow the link: video on operation of mass spectrometer
[Link]
APPLICATIONS OF MASS SPECTROMETER IN OUR DAILY LIFE
The mass spectrometer is a powerful analytical tool used in various fields of daily
life, from healthcare to environmental monitoring. Here are some key applications:
1. Environmental Monitoring
In environmental analysis, mass spectrometry plays a pivotal role in detecting and
quantifying pollutants. It's employed to analyses air, water, and soil samples for
traces of organic and inorganic compounds. The sensitivity of mass spectrometry
allows for the identification of contaminants at very low concentration levels,
making it an essential tool for environmental protection and compliance with
regulatory standards.
2. Medical and Healthcare Applications
Mass spectrometry has become an indispensable tool in medical research and
diagnostics. It's used for a broad range of applications from identifying biomarkers
for diseases to drug discovery and development. One of its significant
contributions is in proteomics, where mass spectrometry analyses the structure and
function of proteins involved in various diseases. Moreover, it's increasingly used
in clinical laboratories for toxicology tests, therapeutic drug monitoring, and
metabolic screening. The ability to rapidly and accurately measure drug levels in a
patient's blood can be critical for personalised medicine, ensuring drugs are both
effective and safe.
3. Personalized Nutrition and Agriculture
Ensuring the safety and quality of food is a major concern worldwide. Mass
spectrometry assists in this area by detecting contaminants, such as pesticides,
toxins, and allergens, in food products. It's also employed to authenticate food by
verifying its origin and composition, which is paramount in preventing food fraud.
The mass spectrum
A mass spectrum is a plot of percentage abundance or relative intensity against
mass to charge ratio of the ions separated in a mass spectrometer.
The mass to charge ratio is however numerically equal to the mass of the ion since
most of the ions formed in a mass spectrometer have a single charge.
Interpreting a mass spectrum
The mass spectrum is usually has vertical lines and each vertical line represents an
ion having a specific mass-to-charge ratio ⁄ and the length of the line indicates the
relative abundance of the ion.
Relative abundance refers to the relative intensity of each isotope of an element
represented as a ratio or percentage.
The tallest line is assigned an abundance of 100 and is referred to as the base peak.
The intensities of the other ions are measured relative to this line.
Consider the mass spectrum for neon below
According to this spectrum, there are three stable isotopes of neon. These include
neon- 20(20Ne), neon-21(21Ne) and neon-22 (22Ne). The peaks at 20, 21 and 22 are
due to the ions 20Ne+, 21Ne+ and 22Ne+ respectively. These ions are formed by
bombardment of the gaseous atoms by electrons as shown below;
20 20
Ne(g) + e Ne+(g)
21 21
Ne(g) + e Ne+(g)
22 22
Ne(g) + e Ne+(g)
The height of each peak is related to the relative abundance of each isotope of
neon. 20Ne+has the highest peak so 20Ne is the most abundant isotope. 21Ne+has the
lowest peak so 21Ne is the least abundant isotope. The relative atomic mass of neon
can be obtained using the mass spectrum. The percentage abundances (proportion
of isotope) should be obtained first.
Total height = 114 + 0.2 + 11.2 = 125.4
114
Percentage abundance of Neon – 20 = 𝑥100 = 90.91
125.4
0.2
Percentage abundance of Neon – 21 = 𝑥100 = 0.16
125.4
11.2
Percentage abundance of Neon – 22 = 𝑥100 = 8.93
125.4
R.A.M = Ʃ Relative isotopic mass x proportion of isotope
90.91 0.16 8.93
R.A.M = (20x +21x +22x )
100 100 100
R.A.M = 20.18
Consider mass spectrum for magnesium below
The spectrum has three peaks at mass to charge ratios, 24, 25, and 26. The peaks
correspond to the ions of magnesium, 24Mg+, 25Mg+ and 26Mg+ with 24Mg+ having
the highest peak.
To determine the relative atomic mass of magnesium, the peaks are used as below
R.A.M of magnesium = Ʃ Relative isotopic mass x proportion of isotope
79 10 11
R.A.M = (24x +25x +26x )
100 100 100
R.A.M = 24.32
1. The figure below shows a mass spectrum for chlorine.
Task
Determine the relative atomic mass of chlorine
2. The figure below shows the mass spectrum of lead. The heights of the peaks and
the mass numbers of the isotopes are shown on the figure.
Task
(a) Calculate the relative atomic mass of lead.
(b) Explain why the peaks have different heights.
3. The relative atomic mass of neon is 20.18. Naturally occurring neon has two
isotopes; Neon-20 and Neon-22.
Task
(a) Calculate the percentage abundance of the isotopes.
(b) Calculate the number of neon-22 atoms in a 13.2g sample of naturally
occurring neon.
4. A battery recycling plant in Uganda collects scrap lead from old batteries.
Scientists suspect that some of the lead samples are not pure and may contain
unusual isotopic compositions. A mass spectrometer is used to analyze the lead
sample, producing the following mass spectrum:
Mass Number Relative Abundance (%)
204 1.5
206 23.6
207 22.6
208 52.3
Task
a) Calculate the relative atomic mass (RAM) of lead in the recycled sample.
b) Compare your calculated RAM with the standard atomic mass of lead (207.2).
Does the sample appear to be pure?
c)Explain why different isotopes have different peak heights in the mass spectrum.
5. A water treatment plant in Uganda relies on chlorine gas (Cl₂) for purifying
drinking water. Recently, concerns have arisen about the quality of the chlorine
being used, which might affect the efficiency of disinfection. To investigate,
scientists collect a sample of chlorine gas and analyze it using a mass spectrometer,
producing the following data:
Isotope Mass Number (m/z) Relative Abundance (%)
Chlorine-35 35 75
Chlorine-37 37 25
Tasks:
a) Calculate the relative atomic mass (RAM) of chlorine
b) Explain why chlorine has two peaks in the mass spectrum instead of one.
c) How does mass spectrometry help ensure safe drinking water?
Sub topic 1.2: Amount of Substance, Mole Calculations
A mole is the AMOUNT of a substance which contain as many elementary units
(particles, i.e., molecules, atoms, ions etc.) as there are in 12 g of carbon-12 isotope
( 126𝐶 ). A mole of any substance contains 6.02 X 1023 particles.
The number of particles in any mole of a substance (6.022 x 1023) is called
Avogadro's Number,
Molar Mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. It is numerically equal
to its relative atomic mass or its relative formula mass. e.g., One mole of carbon
weighs 12 g, 1 mole of oxygen molecule weighs 32 g, and 1 mole of ammonium
sulphate weighs 132 g.
