Theories of Combustion

A. Fire Triangle Theory

-The graphical representation of the elements of fire.

1. Heat

A source of heat is required in order for ignition to occur, and different materials have different ‘flash points’ e.g. the
lowest temperature at which they ignite.

Unfortunately, combustion reactions also produce heat as they burn, further increasing the temperature of the fuel.
For some types of fire, the heat can be cooled with the application of water.

2. Fuel

A fire cannot begin if there is no material to burn. Homes and businesses are full of flammable materials, such as
paper, oil, wood and fabrics. Any of these can serve as a fuel for a fire.

Some materials burn more easily than others. Fuels are probably the most difficult ‘side’ of the fire triangle to remove,
so it’s wise to store them appropriately to prevent them becoming a fire hazard.

3. Oxygen

To sustain the combustion reaction, oxygen (or an oxidizing agent) is needed, as it reacts with the burning fuel to
release heat and CO2. Earth’s atmosphere consists of 21% oxygen, so there is plenty available to trigger a fire if the
other two components are present.

Fire blankets and certain fire extinguishers remove the oxygen ‘side’ of the triangle by removing it or displacing it,
causing suffocation and thereby ceasing the combustion reaction.

B. Fire Tetrahedron- the fourth element of the tetrahedron explanation is known as chemical reactivity,
or chemical reaction

- this theory added one element of combustion which is known as CHEMICAL REACTION. According to
this theory not only heat, oxygen and fuel are needed chemical reaction should present in order to
create combustion.
Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron

1. Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent)- Oxidizing agent are those materials that yield oxygen or other
oxidizing gases during the process of chemical reaction.

Oxygen Requirements:

 12% oxygen: No fire.

 14% oxygen: Flashpoint.
 21% oxygen: Fire point (more than enough to support combustion).

Samples of Oxidizing Agents:

Oxidizing agents are substances that provide oxygen or help the combustion process but are not
combustible themselves. These substances help support combustion by supplying oxygen when
mixed with fuel.

Common oxidizing agents include:

1. Bromates
2. Fluorine
3. Nitrites
4. Bromine
5. Iodine
6. Perchlorates
7. Chlorates
8. Nitrates
9. Permanganates
10. Chlorine
11. Nitric Acid
12. Peroxides

2. Fuel (reducing agent)- fuel is the material or substance being burned in the combustion process.
3. Heat (temperature)- heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes in
contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion process
4. Chemical Reaction- fourth element. It means the interaction of the Three Elements.

Common Types of Fuel:

 Solids: Wood, coal, plastic, wax, cork, sawdust, paper, leather, etc.
 Liquids: Gasoline, alcohol, varnish, kerosene, paint, olive oil, etc.

 Gases: Natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane, acetylene, carbon monoxide, etc.
WHAT IS COMBUSTION?

- Is a chemical reaction between substances, usually including oxygen and usually accompanied
by the generation of heat and light in the form of flame.
- -in simpler terms, it is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and
gives off heat.

COMBUSTION (equivalent to BURNING)

- -is ta complex reaction that requires a fuel (in the gaseous or vapor state), an oxidizer and heat
energy to come together in a very specific way. Once flaming combustion or fire occurs, it can
only continue when enough heat energy is produced to cause the continued development of
fuel vapors or gases. Scientist call this type of reaction a “chain reaction”
- -it is the self-sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or products that cause more
reaction of the same kind.

Types of combustion

1. Complete combustion- in complete combustion, the flame is typically blue. For this to happen,
there needs to be enough oxygen to combine completely with the fuel gas.
2. Incomplete combustion –occurs when the supply of air or oxygen is poor. The burning flame is
typically yellow or orange /orange-red and there is smoke.
3. Rapid combustion- when a combustible substance burns at a rapid rate, producing a very large
amount of heat and light in a short period of time, it is called rapid combustion.
4. Spontaneous combustion- the combustion in which no external heat is given is known as
spontaneous combustion. It requires no external energy for the combustion. It happens due to
self-heating. A substance with low-ignition temperature gets heated and this heat is unable to
escape. The temperature rises above ignition point and in the presence of sufficient oxygen
combustion will happen.
5. Explosive combustion- it happens when the reaction occurs very rapidly. The reaction occurs
when something ignites to produce heat, light and sound energy.
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

1. FIRE GASES- are those gases produced during combustion like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
methane and hydrogen.

2. FLAME- is a visible, luminous body of hot gases that occurs when a material undergoes
combustion. It is a product of the combustion process, and the gases within the flame are
heated to a point where they emit light and heat.
- incandescent gases (incandescent- emit light)

The fire tetrahedron also explains the Flaming Mode of Combustion.

Modes of Combustion

1. Flaming mode- it means the liquid or solid fuels are already vaporize in order to produce
burning.
Sub-Types of Flaming Mode
a. Pre-mixed flame -the oxygen and fuel are already mixed prior to ignition.
b. Diffusion Flame- the 3 elements are separated to each other unlike the pre-mixed flame
2. Flameless Surface Mode- also referred to as GLOWING
Note:
 A condensed phased combustion is called GLOWING COMBUSTION
 A gas-phased combustion is known as FLAME
 If the process is confined with pressure it is called EXPLOSION

TYPE OF FLAMES

A. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel

1. Luminous Flame- is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to
incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame- is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and has relatively high
temperature.

B. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

Sub-modes of FLAMING MODE-
1. Premixed Flame- is exemplified by a Bunsen-Type Laboratory burner where
hydrocarbon (any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly
mixed with air before reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame- is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced through a nozzle into the
atmosphere which diffuse in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable
mixture. The candle flame is an example of diffusion flame.
C. Based on Smoothness
1. Laminar Flame- when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame- are those having unsteady, irregular flows. As physical sized, gas
density or velocity in increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

NOTE: turbulent flame can become laminar flame, depending on the gas density and velocity of the
area.

3. Heat- is a form of energy measured in degree of temperature, it is the product of combustion

that spread fire.
4. Smoke – it is the visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, finely divided particles of soot and carbon.
WHAT IS FIRE?

-according to RA 9514 or the Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008, fire is the active principle of burning,
characterized by the heat and light of the combustion. The ancient Greeks believed that fire was one of
the four basic elements that composed all things in the universe. In the mythology of virtually every
culture, fire is a sacred substance that gives a life or power. Fire is not, a substance. When you gaze at
the leaping flames of a campfire, you’re observing not an object, but a process- a chemical reaction
called oxidation.

Oxidation- a chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and oxidizing agent react.

Forms of Oxidation

1. Slow oxidation
 Decaying- rotting or decomposing through the action of bacteria and fungi.
 Aging- is accompanied by accumulation of damaged DNA, misfolded proteins and
oxidized proteins. The accumulation of oxidized proteins is limited in prolifering cells
due to the fact that permanent cell divisions lead to dilution of damaged molecules.
 Rusting- process of rusting is a combustion reaction, similar to fire. Left in contact with
oxygen, iron will react with oxygen to form rust.
2. Rapid Oxidation
 Fire
 Explosion

Classification of Fire- fire can be classified depending on the fuel

used in combustion. They are as follows:
 Class A- ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.
They burn with an ember and leave an ash. Extinguish by cooling the fuel to a temperature that
is below the ignition temp. Water and other extinguishing agents are effective.
EX:
 Water type fire extinguisher
 De-ionized water mist fire extinguisher/Water Mist fire Extinguisher
 Foam type fire extinguisher (has a cooling effect)
 Wet chemical fire extinguisher
 Dry powder fire extinguisher
 Class B- flammable liquids (burn at room temperature) and combustible liquids (require heat to
ignite). Petroleum greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints, solvents, lacquers, alcohols and flammable
gases. High fire hazard: water may not extinguish. Extinguish by creating a barrier between the
fuel and the oxygen, such as a layer of foam.
EX:

 De-ionized water mist fire extinguisher/Water Mist fire Extinguisher

 Foam type fire extinguisher
  CO2 fire extinguisher
 Dry powder fire extinguisher
 Class C- fuels that would be A or B except that they involve energized electrical equipment.
Special techniques and agents required to extinguish, most commonly carbon dioxide or dry
chemical agents. Use of water is very dangerous because water conducts electricity.
EX:

 De-ionized water mist fire extinguisher/Water Mist fire Extinguisher

 CO2 fire extinguisher (very cold, may cause fingers to freeze)
 Dry powder fire extinguisher
 Class D- combustible metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium and
potassium. These metals burn at extremely high temperatures, and using water can cause
dangerous chemical reactions, such as explosions or the release of toxic gases. Extinguish with
special powders based on sodium chloride or other salts; also clean dry sand.
 Class K- fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible cooking media (vegetable or animal
oils)
EX:

 Wet chemical fire extinguisher

Different causes of fire

A. Natural causes- involves fire without direct human intervention

a. Spontaneous heating
-the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous combustion due to
auto ignition or organic material, the gradual rising of heat in confined space
until ignition temperature is reached.
b. Lightning
-a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are
better electrical conductors than air.
2 types of lightning
a. Hot bolt- longer in duration. Ignites combustible materials.
b. Cold bolt-shorter in duration. Blows apart a structure.
c. Radiation of sunlight
-when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a combustible
material thereby igniting it

2. Accidental causes
- fire caused by human error, neglect or imprudence
A. electrical accidents in the forms of:
 I. short circuit
II. Arcing- electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical conductors
III. Sparking
IV. Induced current
V. Overheating of electrical appliances

3. Intentional causes
- It is the fire caused by deliberate act of man or incendiarism
- If preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers are evident in the fire scene,
the cause of fire is intentional
 Accelerant- highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame
propagation.
 Plant- the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start
a fire.
 Trailer- the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.

plants Trailer accelerant

Combustible materials Use to Scatter the fire Use to Speed up combustion

Qand A

A tool employed by an arsonist to delay the start of fire and allow him to establish an alibi.

a. Accelerants b. timing device (a.k.a. PLANTS) c. delaying tactic d. charring

Properties of Fire

A. The Physical Properties

1. Specific Gravity- also known as relative density
-the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of
water.
EX: Specific gravity doesn’t have units because it is a ratio. If a material’s specific gravity is
less than 1, it is less dense than water and will float (like Styrofoam). If the specific gravity is
greater than 1, it is denser than water and will sink (like a ceramic cup). It helps us
understand whether a substance will float or sink in water.
2. Vapor density- the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the
same temperature and pressure.
 EX:Vapor density tells us how heavy or light a gas is in comparison to air. If the vapor density
is less than 1, the gas will rise and disperse in the air (like hydrogen and methane). If the
vapor density is greater than 1, the gas is heavier than air and will tend to settle near the
ground.

Chart list for some common flammable materials

Materials Vapor
density
Hydrogen 0.1 Generally not toxic, burns cleanly to form water vapor (H₂O)
Acetylene 0.9 Can produce carbon monoxide (CO) & soot if combustion is
incomplete
Propane 1.6 Can produce CO & other hydrocarbons in low-oxygen fires
Butane 2.0 Produces CO, unburned hydrocarbons, and soot if not fully
combusted
kerosene 3.0 Releases CO, carbon dioxide (CO₂), and possibly toxic
aldehydes & hydrocarbons.

3. Vapor Pressure- the force exerted by the molecules on the surface.

EX: Ethanol evaporates much more easily than water at room temperature due to its higher
vapor pressure.
EX: Acetone has a high vapor pressure compared to water, which is why it evaporates
quickly at room temperature. This is why acetone is often used as a solvent in labs and in
products like nail polish remover.
4. Temperature – Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy (motion) of the
molecules in a substance.
EX: The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move. This thermal agitation
(random motion of particle in a substance) increases the energy of the substance, which is
why substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. In gases, temperature
influences the speed at which molecules move, which in turn affects the pressure and
volume of the gas.
5. Boiling point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
to the atmospheric pressure.

Note: BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion)

A BLEVE occurs when a pressurized liquid in a container rapidly boils and expands, leading
to an explosive rupture of the container. This is extremely dangerous and can happen in
scenarios involving flammable liquids, liquefied gases, and even water in sealed tanks.

6. Ignition point/kindling temperature- It is the minimum temperature wherein a particular

substance will ignite and will start burning in the presence of an external ignition source
such as spark or probably a flame.
 7. Fire point- the lowest temperature of a fuel which gives off sufficient vapor to support
combustion once ignited.. It is the minimum temperature that a material will continue
burning after the ignition source/external source is remove at least within 5 seconds.

8. Flash point- the lowest temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture
that ignites .

-It means there is ignition but the ocygen is not sufficient. Unlike Fire point, the oxygen is
sufficient to sustain the combustion
B. The Chemical Properties
a. Endothermic reactions- changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the
reaction takes place.
b. Exothermic Reaction- those that release or give off energy (heat), thus they produce
substances with less energy than reactants.
c. Oxidation- a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material
(fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air) react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the
same as actual burning (rapid oxidation).
d. Flames- flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas phased combustion.

Fire development

-when the four components of the fire tetrahedron come together, ignition occurs. For a fire to grow
beyond the first material ignited, heat must be transmitted beyond the first material to additional fuel
packages.

Q and A:

What stage in fire development is characterized by the production of smoke?

a. Explosion b. overheating c. flaming d. smoldering (a.k.a decaying)

Progressive stages of fire

1. Incipient phase- -the first stage begins when heat, oxygen and a fuel source combine and have a
chemical reaction resulting in fire.
2. Growth stage -
The growth stage is where the strcutures fire load and oxygen are used as fuel for the fire.
(flashover possibly can occur)
3. Free burning phase/fully developed stage-
-growth stage has reached its max and all combustible materials have been ignited
-hottest phase
4. Smoldering/decay stage-
-characterized a significant decrease in oxygen or fuel, putting an end to the fire.
-production of smoke
 Some behavior of fire

 FLASH OVER
- A term used to describe a transition which occur in the development of a fire, when, for
example, most of all the combustible surfaces within a room are heated above their ignition
temperature at the same time.
- A transition phase in the development of a contained fire in which surface exposed to thermal
radiation reach ignition temperature more or less simultaneously and fire spread rapidly
throughout the space.
 Thermal balance - normal pattern of fire
-refers to the rising movement or pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the pattern is
undisturbed.
 Thermal imbalance
- Refers to the abnormal movement of fire due to the interface of foreign matter
 Backdrafts or smoke explosions
- An explosion resulting from the sudden introduction of air into a confined space containing
oxygen-deficient superheated products of incomplete combustion.
Conditions that indicate the danger of backdrafts
a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
b. Black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heat
d. Little or no visible flame
e. Smoke stained windows
 rollover -it occurs when fire gases in a confined space ignite, causing a fire front to
develop across the ceiling. It's also known as flameover.

WHAT IS HEAT?

-it is an energy that is transferred from one body to another as a result of a difference in temperature.

TYPES OF HEAT TRANSMISSION

1. Conduction(direct contact)- transmission of heat through an object/medium or conductor,

such as pipe, metal or even wall. (in conduction, the transmission/transfer of heat is through
the use of a conductor. Conductor can be a medium or object, like metal, pipe or even a
wall)
2. Radiation- the transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or
burning source. This radiation takes place through the air or through space that cause
another flammable object to ignite.
-is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without needing a medium (it can
occur in space).
 3. Convection- it is the transmission of heat by the moving current of liquid gas.

-is heat transfer by movement of fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is caused
to move away from the source of heat carrying the energy with it. It occurs due to density.
-the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). Warm fluid rises
while cooler fluid sinks, creating a circulation pattern.
- the movement of particles through a substance, transporting their heat energy from hotter areas to
cooler areas.
EX: Hot soup cooling as warm liquid rises and cooler liquid sinks.
EX: Cooking: In an oven, hot air circulates to cook food evenly.
EX: Boiling water: The bottom of the pot heats up, making the hot water rise while cooler
water moves down.
EX: Sea breeze: During the day, land heats up faster than water, making warm air rise and
cool air from the sea move in.

Causes of Fire

1. Natural Fire – Caused by natural events (e.g., lightning, volcanic activity).

2. Accidental Fire – Unintentional fires due to negligence or faulty equipment.
3. Intentional Fire – Deliberate fires (e.g., arson).

Lesson 1.5: HAZARDOUS MATERIAL

IDENTIFICATION
What is a Hazardous Material?
A hazardous material is any substance that can be dangerous to people, animals, property, or
the environment. These materials can be:
✔ Explosive – Can blow up.
✔ Flammable – Can easily catch fire.
✔ Toxic – Can poison people if touched, swallowed, or inhaled.
✔ Corrosive – Can damage skin or dissolve metals.
✔ Radioactive – Gives off dangerous energy that can cause illness.

Proper identification of these materials is important so people can handle them safely and know
what to do in an emergency.

Hazard Classification System

To keep people safe, experts created a system to classify (group) hazardous materials.

In 1976, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) made a classification system for dangerous
substances. Later, this system was adopted by the United Nations Organization (UNO) and is
now used around the world.

This system groups hazardous materials into 9 classes, based on their dangers.

UNO Classes of Dangerous

Materials
1. Explosives

➡ Definition: These are materials that can explode when exposed to heat, shock, or friction
(rubbing).

🔹 Examples:
✔ TNT – Used in bombs.
 Full name: Trinitrotoluene
 Type: A powerful explosive
 Uses: Military weapons, mining, and construction
 Appearance: A yellow solid that looks like a powder
✔ Dynamite – Used in mining and construction.
✔ Fireworks – Can explode when lit.

Types of Explosives
 1. Mass Detonating Explosives (1.1) – Explode all at once if triggered.
o Example: Dynamite, large bombs.

2. Fragment-Producing Explosives (1.2) – Explode and send out sharp pieces.

o Example: Grenades, landmines.

3. Fire Hazard Explosives (1.3) – Catch fire but don’t explode violently.
o Example: Rocket propellants, flares.

2. Gases (Compressed, Liquefied, or Dissolved)

➡ Definition: Gases that are stored under high pressure in special containers.

🔹 Types of Dangerous Gases

1. Flammable gases – Can catch fire. (Example: Propane, used in cooking.)
2. Toxic gases – Poisonous when inhaled. (Example: Chlorine gas, used in water treatment.)

EX:

✔ Ammonia (NH₃) – Used in fertilizers and cleaning products, causes breathing

problems.
✔ Carbon monoxide (CO) – A deadly gas from car exhaust that has no smell or color.
✔ Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) – Released from burning coal, can irritate the lungs and cause
acid rain.

3. Non-flammable but dangerous gases – Can still cause harm. (Example: Oxygen in large
amounts can cause fires.)

EX:

✔ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – Used in fire extinguishers but can cause suffocation in
closed spaces.
✔ Nitrogen (N₂) – Used in food packaging and laboratories but can displace oxygen and
cause breathing problems.
✔ Helium (He) – Used in balloons but can replace oxygen in the air, making it hard to
breathe.

3. Flammable Liquids

➡ Definition: Liquids that catch fire easily when exposed to a spark or flame.
🔹 Examples:
✔ Gasoline – Used in cars, very flammable.
✔ Alcohol – Found in perfumes and sanitizers, burns easily.
✔ Acetone – Found in nail polish remover, flammable.

4. Flammable Solids

➡ Definition: Solids that ignite (catch fire) easily and burn very fast.

🔹 Examples:
✔ Phosphorus – Can catch fire without a spark.
✔ Sulfur – Used in matches, burns quickly.
✔ Magnesium powder – Burns with a bright white flame.

Sample usage of magnesium powder:

✔ Fireworks & Sparklers – Produces bright white sparks.

✔ Military Flares – Used for emergency signals at night.
✔ Photography Flash Powder – Used in old cameras to create bright flashes.
✔ Metal Alloys – Mixed with aluminum to make strong, lightweight materials.

⚠ Some flammable solids can ignite on their own, without needing a spark!

5. Oxidizing Substances & Organic Peroxides

➡ Definition: These materials help other things burn faster but are not necessarily flammable
themselves.

🔹 Examples:
✔ Hydrogen peroxide – Used as a disinfectant but can be dangerous in high concentrations.
✔ Ammonium nitrate – Used in fertilizers but can cause explosions.

6. Poisonous (Toxic) & Infectious Substances

➡ Definition: Materials that can cause serious harm or death if swallowed, inhaled, or
touched.

🔹 Types:
✔ Toxic substances (6.1) – Poisonous chemicals. (Example: Cyanide, pesticides.)
✔ Infectious substances (6.2) – Can spread diseases. (Example: Blood samples with viruses like
COVID-19.)

7. Radioactive Substances

➡ Definition: Materials that release radiation, which is invisible energy that can harm living
things.

🔹 Examples:
✔ Uranium – Used in nuclear power plants.
✔ Plutonium – Used in nuclear weapons.

⚠ Exposure to too much radiation can cause cancer and other health problems.

8. Corrosives

➡ Definition: Substances that can burn skin, damage eyes, and dissolve metals.

🔹 Examples:
✔ Sulfuric acid – Found in car batteries, very dangerous.
✔ Hydrochloric acid – Used for cleaning, can cause burns.

⚠ Corrosive substances can eat through clothes, skin, and even metal!

9. Miscellaneous Hazardous Materials

➡ Definition: Dangerous materials that don’t fit into the other classes but are still hazardous.