Topic 1 more nuanced and sophisticated ways of

What is ethics all about understanding the world around us.

Learning Objectives In this way, philosophy can serve as a

valuable tool for self-reflection, intellectual
●​ Define philosophy and its growth, and social critique.
connection with ethics.
●​ Recognize the difference between Its relation to Ethics / Branches of
ethics and morality Philosophy
●​ Various approach to studying the
☐ Metaphysics (assumptions about the
nature of morality ..
nature of reality)​
●​ Various interpretation if “Good”
○ Ontology (inquires about the nature of
●​ Morality and its aspects and
existence, its categories, and form)
application.
☐ Epistemology (inquiry into the nature
of knowledge)
Morality?
☐ Axiology (study of value and value
“The privillehe to pracrtice law is systems; concerned with questions about
bestowed only upon individuals who are what is valuable, good, what is morally
competent intellectually. Academically right or wrong; a study of values and how
and, equally important, morally. There is they shape our lives and society)​
no room in this noble profession for ○ Ethics (inquiry into the nature of
misogyny and sexism. The court will never morality, and human values)​
tolerate abuse. In whatever form, ○ Aesthetics (inquiry into the nature of
especially when perpetrated by an officer beauty, what is art, and creative or artistic
of the court.’ creations)

Philosophy
-​ defined as the love of wisdom
-​ a deconstructive practice The Difference
Philosophy can be understood as a Ethics serves as a critical approach that
deconstructive practice in the sense that deals with questions about what is right or
it involves questioning and analyzing wrong, and how we ought to behave and
fundamental concepts and assumptions determine our actions in different
that underlie our beliefs and knowledge situations.​
about the world. It is concerned with developing and
evaluating moral standards and principles
Through this deconstructive approach, and applying these principles to real-life
philosophy seeks to reveal the inherent situations.
contradictions, limitations, and biases that
may be present in our ways of thinking Morality, on the other hand, refers to the
and communicating. By examining these set of values, principles, and norms that
underlying structures, philosophy can help guide our behavior and decision-making. It
us to recognize the contingency of our is a set of beliefs about what is right or
beliefs and knowledge, and to develop wrong, good or bad, and just or unjust.
In other words, ethics is the study of and "wrong" are culture-bound.
morality, while morality is the set of (CR) challenges both our claim to
principles and values that guide ethical the objectivity and universality of
behavior. moral truth.​

-​ System and Agency

-​ Approach and Pre-detemined Highlighted text boxes:
Application
-​ Individual and moral codes 1.​ Different societies have different
moral codes.​
Our conception of "Good" involves...
2.​ The moral code of a society
-​ The notion of "Happiness" and determines what is right within that
"Pleasure" society.​

Short-term view vs. Long-term view​ 3.​ There is no objective standard that
Happiness is understood in terms of can be used to judge one society’s
concrete human experience and relations code as better than another’s.​
rather than in an abstract sense;​
Hence, the notion of "What good is" 4.​ The moral code of our own society
depends on this context. has no special status; it is but one
among many.​
However, the notion of "Happiness" and
"Pleasure" needs to be questioned in
5.​ It is arrogant for us to judge other
certain occasions IF a certain form of
cultures. We should always be
harm emerges from it.
tolerant of them.​
-​ It includes a degree of
"Excellence," i.e., a standard worth
(See pp. 16-17)
pursuing where individuals can
achieve a level of perfection. THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCE
-​ It includes a component of ARGUMENT
"Harmony" and room for
"Creativity" ●​ (CR’s) begin with facts about
cultures and end up drawing a
Characteristics of "Good" conclusion about morality.
I. CULTURAL RELATIVISM
What Follows from (CR)?
Cultural Relativism holds that the norms
of a culture reign supreme within the ●​ We could no longer say that the
bounds of the culture itself. customs of other societies are
morally inferior to our own.​
"When in Rome, do as the Romans do."
●​ BUT … this also suggests that we
●​ IF (x) is socially approved, THEN would also be barred from
(x) is morally good.​ criticizing other practices
embedded in the culture of other
●​ Different societies have different societies that may be viewed as
moral codes. Standards of "right"
 inhumane.​ different values (value system).​
See (p. 21)

(COUNTER-ARGUMENT #1) Case in point...

A Jewish woman being bullied and beaten Consider a culture in which people believe
by kids who conform to the it is wrong to eat cows. This may even be
State-sponsored racism of the Nazis a poor culture, in which there is not
(1941). enough food; still, the cows are not to be
touched. Such a society would appear to
An acid-attack victim.
have values very different from our own.
Tiananmen Square Massacre in Beijing, But does it?
China (1989).
We have not yet asked why these
people won’t eat cows.
We could no longer criticize the
code of our own society. Suppose they believe that after death the
souls of humans inhabit the bodies of
This prevents us from criticizing our own animals, especially cows, so that a cow
society’s code or cultural practices and maybe someone’s grandmother. Shall we
understanding. Thus, it prevents us from say that their values differ from ours? No;
seeing other cultures that are better than the difference lies elsewhere.​
our ways; and it does not enable us to The difference is in our belief systems,
improve our understanding and practices. not in our value systems.​
(p. 21)
We could no longer criticize the
code of our own society. Why do Thoughtful People may
be Reluctant to Criticize other
This prevents us from criticizing our
Cultures?
own society’s code or cultural
practices and understanding. Thus, it 1.​ First, there is an understandable
prevents us from seeing other cultures nervousness about interfering in
that are better than our ways; and it the social customs of other
does not enable us to improve our peoples. Europeans have a history
understanding and practices. of colonialism where atrocities
have been made to
Counter-Argument #3 non-Europeans.​

(CR) use the "Cultural Difference"

2.​ Second, people may feel, rightly
argument
enough, that we should be tolerant
of other cultures.​
QUESTION: Is there really a difference?
In what way are cultures different?
3.​ Finally, people may be reluctant to
RESPONSE: We cannot conclude (with judge because they do not want to
logical necessity) that just because two express contempt for the society
societies differ in their custom (belief being criticized.​
system), it will follow that they have
(p. 26) ○ Just because people disagree doesn’t
mean there is no objective truth.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT #4
○ Example: People once believed the
-​ Some Values are snared by all Earth was flat, but it didn’t make it true.
Cultures
2. It prevents moral progress.
There are some moral rules that all
societies must embrace. Because those ○ If morality is always based on culture,
rules are necessary for society to exist. social reformers (e.g., abolitionists, human
rights activists) are always wrong for
Cultures may differ in what they regard as challenging norms.
legitimate exceptions to the rules, but this
disagreement exist against a broad ○ Example: Was slavery always morally
background of agreement. right just because it was accepted in some
societies?
Therefore, we shouldnt overestimate the
extent to which cultures differ. Not every 3. Some moral rules are universal.
moral rule can vary from society to society.
○ Some values are necessary for any
➡ Definition: Morality is relative to culture; society to function.
no universal moral truths exist. A. Main
Arguments for Cultural Relativism ○ Example: Caring for children,
prohibiting murder. No society can survive
1. The Cultural Differences Argument without these.

○ Different societies have different moral

codes.
II. MORALITY AND RELIGION
○ Therefore, no objective moral truth
exists; morality is determined by culture.
Learning Objectives​
○ Example: In some cultures, eating dogs
is acceptable; in others, it is taboo. -Explain the limits & and role of religion in
the ethical formation of people.​
2. The Tolerance Argument ○ Since no
moral truth is universal, we should respect -Understand the concept of the “Divine
all cultural practices. Command Theory” and “Natural Law” and
their relation to the moral precepts of
○ Example: Foot-binding in China, religion.​
arranged marriages in India—outsiders
should not judge. -Obtain a deeper insight into the nature of
Religious scripture and tradition.​
B. Criticisms of Cultural Relativism
(James & Stuart Rachels)

1. The Cultural Differences Argument is

flawed.
GOD AND MORALITY saying that he had placed himself above
the law.​
Basic Freatures of Religion and Morals
BETWEEN SCIENCE AND RELIGION–A
-​ Religion (latin “RELIGARE” LOOK INTO AUTHORITY
meaning to bind or to gather)
-​ Polutheism and Monotheism In America, as in the Philippines,
-​ The Divine Comman Theoru (DCT) members of the Christian clergy are often
implies that God is the source of treated as moral experts. Priests and
moral value and explains how faith ministers are assumed to be wise
is related to morality counselors who will give sound moral
advice. In popular thinking, morality and
CASE #1 : THE 10 COMMANDMENT religion are inseparable: People commonly
JUDGE believe that morality can be understood
only in the context of religion.​
-In 1995 the American Civil Liberties
Union (ACLU) sued Judge Roy Moore of It is not hard to see why people think this.
Gadsden, Alabama, for displaying the Ten When viewed from a nonreligious
Commandments in his courtroom. Such a perspective, the universe seems to be a
display, the ACLU said, violates the cold, meaningless place, devoid of value
separation of church and state, which is and purpose. ​
guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. ​
In his essay “A Free Man’s Worship,”
written in 1902, Bertrand Russell
- The ACLU might not have liked Moore,
expressed what he called the “scientific”
but Alabama voters did. In 2000, Moore
view of the world:​
successfully campaigned to become chief
justice of the Alabama Supreme Court, SCIENCE
running on a promise to “restore the moral
foundation of law.” Thus, the “Ten Man is the product of causes which had
Commandments judge” became the most no prevision of the end they were
powerful jurist in the state of Alabama.​ achieving: his origin, his growth, his hopes
and fears, his loves and beliefs, but the
-Moore was not through making his point, outcome of accidental collocations of
however. In the wee hours of July 31, atoms: no fire, no heroism, no intensity of
2001, he had a granite monument to the though and feeling, can preserve an
Ten Commandments installed in the individual life beyond the grave
Alabama state judicial building. This
monument weighed over 5,000 pounds, -BERTRAND RUSSELL
and anyone entering the building could not
miss it. ​ Faith is belief without evidence and
reason; coincidentally thats also the
-Moore was sued again, but the people definition of delusion.
were behind him: 77% of Americans
thought that he should be allowed to -RICHARD DAWKINGS
display his monument. Yet the law did not
agree. When Moore disobeyed a court
order to remove the monument, the
Alabama Court of the Judiciary fired him,
RELIGION

Yet my study of the history of religion has

revealed that human beings are spiritual
animals. Indeed, there is a case for
arguing that homo sapiens is also Homo
religiosus. Judaism and christianity teach
that the world was created by a loving, all
powerful God to provide a home for us.
We, in turn, were created in his image, to
be his children. Thus, the world is not
devoid of meaning and purpose. The Divine Command Theory (DCT)

TO WHAT EXTENT DO WE SHAPE OUR The Divine Command Theory says that
UNDERSTANDING OF GOD? God decides what is right and wrong. ​

Did God “made man” according to Actions that God commands are morally
hisnown image? required and actions that God forbids are
morally wrong. ​
Did Man “made God’ according to his own
image? Ethics is not merely a matter of personal
feeling or social custom. It is right if God
GOD AND MORALITY commands it and wrong if God forbids it. ​

Atheists would not accept it because they

Is it the case that something is right only do not believe that God exists.​
because God commanded it?​
COUNTER-ARGUMENTS
OR​
The idea of DCT encounters several
Is it the case that something is right in difficulties such as: ​
itself and that is why God commanded it?​
This conception of morality is mysterious.
To see the problem, consider some
wretched cases of child abuse. God could
make this instance of child abuse right by
commanding that it is right.​

This conception of morality makes God’s

commands arbitrary. God could have
commanded us to be liars, and then lying,
and not truthfulness, would be right. After
all, God is the one who creates the
reasons.​

This conception of morality provides the

wrong reasons for moral principles. The
theory cannot recognize important
reasons as to why it is wrong. In the end, it 1.​ A sense of Community. It provides
runs counter to God’s commands. First, if a space for people to gather,
God didn’t exist child abuse wouldn’t be regardless of their social,
wrong. Second, even a religious person economic, and personal
might be doubtful as to what God has backgrounds. It fosters a sense of
commanded because of inconsistencies belongingness in a modern world
with the texts. ​ that has grown too individualistic
where developing meaningful and
We may say instead that God commands genuine relationships can be
us to do certain things because they are challenging.​
right. His commands are not arbitrary as 2.​ Moral Guidance. Aside from
they are the results of his wisdom in supernatural stories, religion
knowing what is best.​ provides moral teachings and
frameworks that help people
Many religious people believe that they navigate complex moral situations.
must accept a theological conception of In the backdrop of the changing
right and wrong because it would be times, it provides notions of shared
sacrilegious not to do so. They feel, common values and a commitment
somehow, that if they believe in God, then to preserve the dignity of humanity. ​
right and wrong must be understood in 3.​ Practical Rituals and Sense of
terms of God’s wishes.​ Structure. The ritual practices of
religion provide a sense of
Our arguments, however, suggest that the
structure to life, such as important
Divine Command Theory is not only
life events like births, marriages,
untenable but impious. And, in fact, some
and deaths, providing a sense of
of the greatest theologians have rejected
meaning and support from the
the theory for just this reason.
community. These rituals provide a
THE VALUE OF RELIGION way to manage the transitions in
life and its precarious nature.
In his book “Religion for Atheists: A 4.​ Aesthetic Inspiration. Religion has
Non-Believer’s Guide to the Use of contributed immensely to art,
Religion, Alain de Botton stresses that architecture, and music. Secular
while religion and its notions of the societies can benefit greatly from
supernatural may not be true, it still offers the artistic and aesthetic
valuable insights and practices that can achievements of religious
benefit even secular societies. ​ traditions, which elevate life into
meaningful ways where the
The inner life. How do we cope with the unspeakable and mysterious can
fracturing of society present in secular be explained and experienced in
life?​ concrete ways. Architectural
structures create a space for
The secular has deified science. It does belongingness designed for
not provide consolation and meaning contemplation and gathering
about the choices we have to make in life. fostering community relations.​
Science for humanistic ends​ 5.​ ​Education. Religious texts and
traditions are rich resources of
Religion provides moments of silence,
wisdom about human nature,
away from the noise of the city.​
relationships, and personal growth.
 Secular education could learn from If God commands it because it is already
religious teachings, especially on good, then morality exists independently
how they foster the holistic of God.
development of the human person,
such as value formation.​ 2. Atheists and morality
6.​ ​Mindfulness and Reflection.
Religion provides an avenue for ○ If morality requires God, does that
cultivating reflection and mean atheists cannot be moral?
introspection, providing individuals
to deal with the pressures of ○ Example: Many atheists follow moral
modern life.​ codes (helping the poor, honesty,
7.​ ​. Teaching Altruism and kindness).
Compassion. Religious teachings
provide a space for the C. Alternative to Divine Command Theory:
significance of charity, altruism, Natural Law Theory
and compassion. It teaches
individuals to learn how to go ● Morality is based on human reason and
beyond themselves. nature, not divine commands.

From a religious perspective, however, ● Aristotle & Aquinas: Good is based on

things look very different. human flourishing.
➡ Main Question: Is morality dependent
on religion? A. The Divine Command ● Example: "Murder is wrong because it
Theory (DCT) violates human nature and reason."

● Moral actions are right because God III. ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM

commands them.
The Basic Idea of Ethical Subjectivism
● Without God, no moral values exist.
Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our
● Example: "Murder is wrong because moral opinions are based on our feelings
God forbids it." and nothing more. On this view, there is
no such thing as “objective” right or wrong.​
B. Problems with Divine Command
Theory When someone says that something is
wrong, one is not stating a fact about that
1. The Euthyphro Dilemma (Plato): something. Instead, one is merely saying
something about one’s feelings.
○ Is something good because God
commands it, or does God command it The Evolution of the Theory
because it is good?
The First Stage: Simple Subjectivism​

○ Problem 1: When a person says that something is

If morality is based only on God’s morally good or bad, this means that he or
command, it’s arbitrary (God could have she approves of that thing, or disapproves
commanded murder). of it, and nothing more.​
○ Problem 2:
Problems:​ Thus, his utterance is more like a
command than a statement of fact; “You
Simple Subjectivism cannot account for shouldn’t do that” is like saying “Don’t do
disagreement.​ that!”​

Simple Subjectivism implies that we’re PROBLEMS

always right.​
Although Emotivism is an improvement on
The Second Stage: Emotivism​ Simple Subjectivism, both theories imply
that our moral judgments are, in a sense,
Language, Stevenson said, is used in beyond reproach. ​
many ways. ​
For Simple Subjectivism, our judgments
One way is to make statements—that is, cannot be criticized because they will
to state facts.​ always be true. For Emotivism, our moral
judgments cannot be criticized because
“Gas prices are rising.”​
they are not judgments at all; they are
“Lance Armstrong beat cancer and then mere expressions of attitude, which
won the Tour de France bike race seven cannot be false. That is one problem for
times.”​ Emotivism.​

“Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.” ​ Another problem is that Emotivism cannot

explain the role reason plays in ethics.​
Language is also used for other purposes.
Its purpose is to get the listener to do ​THE ROLE OF REASON IN ETHICS
something. ​
A moral judgment—or for that matter, any
“Aaargh!”​ kind of value judgment—must be
supported by good reasons. Any adequate
“Way to go, Lance!”​ theory of ethics should be able to explain
how reasons can support moral
“Damn Hamlet!”​ judgments.​

​Comparison ​MOAL LANGUAGE AS PERFORMATIVE

According to the first theory, Simple ●​ Performative language refers to

Subjectivism, moral language is about language that performs a specific
stating facts about what they feel -- ethical action and intended function. ​
statements report the speaker’s attitudes ●​ In the case of ethical norms, the
or feelings of approval or disapproval.​ language used to describe and
communicate these norms can
According to Emotivism, however, moral serve as a performative utterance
language is not fact-stating language; it is that reinforces their existence and
not used to convey information or to make importance.​
reports. It is used, first, as a means of ●​ For example, when someone says,
influencing people’s behavior. ​ "lying is wrong," they are not just
stating a fact, but also performing
If someone says, “You shouldn’t do that,”
an action by reinforcing the norm
he is trying to persuade you not to do it.
against lying. Similarly, when a
 group or society collectively agrees cannot occur. Stevenson calls this
on certain ethical norms and disagreement in attitude.
values, they can use language and
communication to perform and EMOTIVISM
reinforce those norms, shaping the
behavior and actions of individuals ​(Emo)
within the group.​
●​ “X is good” is an emotional
ETHICS EGOISM exclamation (not a truth claim), &
means “Hurrah for X!”​
A normative ethical theory that asserts
individuals should act in their own ●​ Pick your moral principle by
self-interest. ​ following your feelings.​

According to Ethical Egoism, an ●​ Moral judgment is an expression of

individual's moral duty is to maximize their feeling, not a statement that is
own well-being, regardless of the impact literally true or false.​
on others.​

AJ Ayer & Logical Positivism

●​ Empirical Proposition (Testable by

sense experience) “It’s snowing
​ motivism emphasizes that
E outside.”​
disagreement comes in different forms.
●​ Analytic Proposition (True by
●​ I believe that Lee Harvey Oswald Definition) “All bachelors are
acted alone in the assassination of single.”​
President John F. Kennedy, and
you believe there was a
conspiracy. This is a disagreement Logical Positivist’s Claim
about the facts—I believe
something to be true which you ●​ If a statement is neither empirical
believe to be false.​ or analytic, then it is meaningless.​
●​ I am rooting for the Atlanta Braves
to win, and you want them to lose. ●​ If a statement is neither empirical
Our beliefs are not in conflict, but or analytic, then one is not stating
our desires are—I want something a truth claim (true or false); one is
to happen that you want not to perhaps merely expressing
happen. feelings.
●​ ​In the first case, we believe
different things, both of which The First Stage: Simple Subjectivism​
cannot be true. Stevenson calls
this disagreement in belief. ​ When a person says that something is
●​ In the second case, we want morally good or bad, this means that he or
different outcomes, both of which she approves of that thing, or disapproves
of it, and nothing more.​
 1. Simple Subjectivism (David Hume)

Problems:​ ○ Moral statements are expressions of

personal approval or disapproval.
Simple Subjectivism cannot account for
disagreement.​ ○ Example: “Lying is wrong” = “I dislike
lying.” 2. Emotivism (A.J. Ayer & C.L.
Simple Subjectivism implies that we’re
Stevenson)
always right.​

.​CAPITAL AND THE SELF ○ Moral statements are expressions of

emotions and attempts to influence others.
​ yperreality of the Self
H
(Hyper-Individualism)​ ○ Example: “Lying is wrong” = “Boo, lying!”
(trying to make others feel the same way).
Hypersensitization​ B. Problems with Ethical Subjectivism 1.
No real moral disagreement
Culture Industry​
○ If "Stealing is wrong" means "I
​Culture of ‘Crisis’ Industry (CoCi)​
disapprove of stealing," and someone else
says "Stealing is okay" = they are just
CAPITALISM
expressing opinions, not truly disagreeing.
●​ A Socio-Economic System
grounded on the principles of ○ Example: Two people arguing over
‘Liberalism’ (Life, Liberty, Property) chocolate ice cream.
that emphasizes the free-market
system and private ownership of 2. No room for moral progress ○ If morality
the means of production in pursuit is just feelings, then society cannot
of economic interest; capitalism improve.
also evolved into the 20th-century
system of Neoliberalism (Highlights ○ Example: Was slavery only wrong
deregulation of the free-market because people felt bad about it?
system as it expands the
framework of Globalization)​ FINAL REVIEW STRATEGY
●​ It underlines the value of individual
choice & effort.​ 1. Memorize Key Definitions:
○ Cultural Relativism: Morality depends
​ on culture.
○ Divine Command Theory: Morality
depends on God.
○ Ethical Subjectivism: Morality depends
on personal feelings.
2. Understand the Arguments and
➡ Main Claim: Morality is based on Criticisms:
individual feelings; no objective moral truth ○ Cultural Relativism: The Cultural
exists. Differences Argument is flawed.
○ Morality and Religion: The Euthyphro
A. Two Forms of Ethical Subjectivism Dilemma challenges Divine Command
Theory.
○ Ethical Subjectivism: No true moral graduate on time as her father who works
disagreement. abroad already bought a ticket to attend
3. Use Examples for Each Concept: her expected graduation. As per the
○ Cultural Relativism: Foot-binding, eating student handbook, a student who commits
dogs. a second case of plagiarism on a major
○ Morality & Religion: Euthyphro Dilemma, school requirement will be penalized with
atheists being moral. expulsion.
○ Ethical Subjectivism: "Lying is wrong"
as opinion vs. persuasion. Dilemmas

(Person Involved/People Affected)

[Consent (if applicable)]​
<SITUATION>

Building A Moral System ACTION (Means) → [INTENTION] →

RESULT (Ends)

Context Human-Agent​
- NON-Consequentialism​
The previous discussions on metaethics - Consequentialism
analyzed the claims of Cultural Relativism,
Religious Morality, and Subjectivism. This framework serves as a starting point
for analyzing the crucial factors and
This provided a springboard to develop a relevant issues to be considered in
critical view that moral claims and critically evaluating an ethical situation
judgments are not simply grounded on and identifying the appropriate moral
culture, religious tradition, and feelings. principles/theories.

Plagiarism of a Graduating Student Creative and Critical Thinking

Karen, a college student in her graduating Creative Thinking

year, was reprimanded by her school after
her thesis panelists discovered that Is the thinking we do when we generate
several parts of her manuscript were ideas.
plagiarized. As it is a significant case of
●​ Pose questions
academic dishonesty, Karen failed her
●​ Imagine possibilities
thesis in the first semester and was asked
●​ ‘Brainstorm’ solution
to start again the next semester. Come her
●​ Elaborate
second try, one thesis panelist again
●​ Improvise
discovered a plagiarized section in her
●​ Chase inspiration
thesis. When asked about it, Karen
●​ Speculate
tearfully confessed that she was struggling
●​ Use intuition
to balance her schedule as she works
●​ Defer judgments
part-time after school and that plagiarizing
a section of her work was the only way for
Critical Thinking
her to submit it on time.
Is the thinking we do when we judge
Moreover, she begs to be given a chance
ideas.
to revise her thesis again as she needs to
 ●​ Pose questions position for solving a
●​ Consider perspectives problem.
●​ Identify pros and cons
●​ Determine causes
●​ Predict effects
●​ Consider alternatives 3.​ Arguments
●​ Avoid assumptions ●​ Arguments are the special
●​ Look for proof tools you will need to
●​ Draw conclusion defend your claim.​
●​ Develop a list of arguments
that address the issue
(creative thinking).
●​ Select your best choice
(here you will use critical
Topic 6 thinking).​
ICARE Framework ●​ Be prepared for
counter-arguments or
ICARE counter-claim/s.

●​ What is the ISSUE?

●​ What is your CLAIM?
●​ What are your 4.​ Reasons
ARGUMENTS? ●​ Reasons are the
●​ What are your REASONS? explanations for your
●​ How will you END? arguments. ​
●​ Your arguments should
clearly state what is the
case and explain why it
1.​ ISSUE should be the case.​
●​ Refers to the identified ●​ Ensure that your arguments
problem/issue you are are supported by evidence
going to address. In supporting your claim.
normative discussions such
as ethics, this refers to the
ethical dilemma.​
●​ The issue is usually stated 5.​ End
in the form of a question.​ ●​ Establish a conclusion that
●​ Be specific in your will synthesize the list of
description of the identified arguments you presented.​
problem. ●​ To end your argument,
highlight your point by
restating the issue briefly
that summarizes your
2.​ Claim arguments and conclusion.​
●​ Refers to the statement that ●​ Check the inferences in
indicates the position you your arguments whether
have taken.​ they truly support the
●​ The claim is what you conclusion you presented.
think is the most effective
 Consequentialism There are problems associated with an
(Teleological Ethics) entirely self-interested basis for morality.

An ethical principle that argues that: Therefore, It is agreeable to adopt a

utilitarian approach of doing what is in the
●​ An act is right or wrong depending best interest of everyone.
on the results/outcome of that
action.​ 03 | Act vs. Rule

●​ It follows that the worth of an In a moral system, we require freedom

action and its result relies on what (act) and yet also stability and order (rule).
good it produces (commonly
determined if the result avoids 04 | Emotion vs. Reason
doing harm or less harm), and if it
maximizes the general happiness A moral system should be based upon
of those affected by the action.​ reason without excluding emotion.

This duality implies the following:

●​ e.g., Utilitarianism, ethical egoism,
hedonism​
●​ The problem between objectivity
and subjectivity​
●​ Teleology, “Telos” means
“end/purpose”
●​ Impartiality contra partiality​

Non-Consequentialism ●​ Resolving dilemmas that require

(Deontology) decision-making​

●​ An action is judged to be right ●​ Long-term vs. short-term pursuits​

based on the intrinsic value and
motive behind the action (often ●​ Character development​
understood as duties or
obligations) and not the results that
are deemed to provide benefits.​ What’s the key?
●​ Hence, unlike consequentialism ●​ What we can draw from our
which is results-based, the reading of the chapter of Titioux’s
framework holds that actions are Setting Up a Moral System is to
morally right/wrong regardless of maintain a continuous practice of
the outcomes.​ questioning the extremities of both
opposing issues that arise from our
●​ Rooted in Duty Ethics (the moral imagination.​
Categorical Imperative)​
●​ Maintaining the balance in thinking
●​ Deontology, “Deon” means “Duty” about “what is the right thing to
or obligations.​ do?” requires that our moral sense
do not become fossilized notions of
right and wrong devoid of any
02 | Self vs. Others livable meaning of morality, nor
 does it endorse an untrammeled Basic Principles of Morality​
spirit of freedom that leads to
chaos that does not recognize the 01 | The Value of Life Principle​
value of harmony within certain
rules and obligations.​ The primary principle of morality stresses
the inherent value of life which should be
●​ It endorses both flexibility and protected, respected, and preserved.
stability in our standards of Furthermore, this states that human
morality where we continue to beings should revere life and accept its
practice rethinking these codes mortality. ​
that provide room for the Morality should prioritize how human life
expression of our freedom and can flourish and preserved in meaningful
knowing how to determine its coexistence (i.e., with others and the
limits. environment).​

“What constitutes a workable & livable

Moral System?” ​ 03 | The Principle of Justice or Fairness​

(Basic assumptions) ​ 1.​ Distributive justice means that

human beings should treat other
●​ It should be rational (yet not devoid human beings justly and fairly
of emotion)​ providing space for inclusiveness
●​ It should be logically consistent and opportunities for both
(but not rigid/inflexible)​ empowerment and recognition.
●​ It must have universality or general Fairness implies that everyone has
application to all humanity (yet be an equal opportunity to access
applicable in a practical way to resources, resources, and benefits. ​
particular individuals and 2.​ Restorative justice, focuses on
situations)​ restoring relationships and
●​ It should be able to be taught and repairing harms towards
promulgated​ reconciliation rather than
●​ It must have the ability to resolve retribution.​
conflicts among human beings
(including duties and obligations)​ Furthermore, this principle encompasses
the following features:​
​
●​ Impartiality and Non-discriminatory
(considering relevant factors
without prejudice)​
The Purpose of these Principles​ ●​ Due Process: involves the
transparency of
●​ How to attain unity and order by procedures/processes, specifically
working with basic principles to in institutional and legal settings.​
avoid the chaos of situationism and ●​ Social Justice: addresses systemic
intuitionism.​ injustices to ensure human dignity
●​ How to allow individual and group and respect.​
freedom to work with such
principles meaningfully. ​
●​ Basic Principles of Morality​
04 | The Principle of Truth-Telling or
Honesty​

This principle is fundamental to ethical

behavior and is essential for fostering
trust, integrity, and positive relationships in
personal, professional, and societal
contexts.​

●​ Provides for meaningful

communication and human
relations.​
●​ Building “Trust” in relations
(avoiding deceit).​
●​ Strengthening commitment and
accountability to obligations/duties
(extends to respect to autonomy).​
●​ Integrity/Building a reputation of
dependability.​

05 | The Principle of Individual Freedom​

States that people, being individuals with

differences and features of uniqueness,
must have the autonomy to seek their
pursuits and means of being moral within
the framework of the 4 previous principles.​

This highlights the importance of

‘autonomy’ (self-determination) against the
forces of ‘heteronomy’ (control,
exploitation, and manipulation).​

This also involves the feature of

‘self-sufficiency’, the opportunity to be
empowered and acquire capacities.​