decision of majority or authoritative
bodies.
Module 1 ● Moral standards are to be preferred
to other values, including
There are different definitions of ethics self-interest.
because there are numerous questions ● Moral standards are based on
entailed in our views regarding rightness impartial considerations.
and wrongness; as well as the diverse ● Moral standards are expressed in
responses to these questions universalizable view point from an
ideal observer.
THE STUDY ON MORALITY ● Moral standards are associated with
Moral standards as opposed to non-moral special emotions such as ‘guilt’,
and amoral standards ‘shame’, ‘remorse’, ‘praise’, ‘pity’,
‘indignation’.
Etiquette: standards by which manners are
judged to be good or bad normally dictated non-moral standard refers to guidelines or
by a socio economic elite. norms that are not related to moral
principles but still provide a basis for
Athletic: standards by which we judge how decision-making or behavior.
good or bad a game is played, usually
formulated by governing bodies. amoral standard refers to a principle or
guideline that completely disregards moral
Legal: standards by which legal right or considerations, neither addressing right or
wrong is judged in a democracy; formulated wrong nor requiring moral judgment.
by representatives of people.
So what is common to all these
Language: standards by which characteristics?
grammatically right or wrong language is • No other than society taken in the
judged, evolving through its usage. broadest sense....society is interpreted
philosophically as the “other”.
Aesthetics: standards by which good or • Non compliance with moral standards
bad art is judged dictated by a small circle would seriously injure us as human beings.
of art specialists.
Ethics
Moral standards ● refers to the rules of conduct
● set of principles or rules that dictate recognized in respect to a particular
what is right or wrong, good or bad, class of human actions or a
based on ethical theories or societal particular group or culture.
values. ● Ethics comes from the Greek word
● deal with matters that can seriously "ethos" meaning”character”.
injure or benefit human beings. ● Ethics comes from the social
● The validity of moral standards rests system (external source). We do it
on the adequacy of reasons to because society says it is the right
support and justify them, not on the thing to do.
● Ethics is dependent on others for Morals
definition. They tend to be consistent ● are the principles or habits with
within a certain context, but can vary respect to right or wrong conduct.
between contexts. While morals also prescribe dos
● Ethics is governed by professional and don'ts, morality is ultimately a
and legal guidelines within a personal compass of right and
particular time and place. wrong.
● Moral comes from the Latin word
● Ethics is codes of conduct that "mores" meaning “custom".
pertain to a community, family, ● Morality comes from individual
company or a nation. themselves (internal source). We
do it (or we do not do it) because we
● Morality refers to personal sets of believe in something being right or
beliefs about what is right and wrong.
wrong. ● Moral is usually consistent, although
● Ethics is accepted by the entity of can change if an individual’s beliefs
the community but morals are not. change.
● Moral transcends cultural norms.
Study of ethics Module 2
● entails a reflective distance to
critically examine standards.
WHAT IS A MORAL DILEMMA?
● looks at values beneath the moral
standards (answers the questions of
● It is a complex situation that often
WHAT and WHY we do the act) involves an apparent mental
● looks into the agent who makes the conflict between moral
moral decision (level of maturity and imperatives, in which to obey one
moral development). would result in transgressing
● It is about the moral decision another
process (HOW we arrive at the ● Sometimes called ethical
moral decision). paradoxes, these dilemmas
● Ethics is not solely about theoretical invoke an attempt to refute an
knowledge but the application of that
ethical system or moral code, or
knowledge... how to transform such
to improve it so as to resolve the
knowledge into action in our
everyday life.
paradox.
TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMAS
Epistemic conflicts
● conflicts between two (or more)
moral requirements and the
agent does not know which of the
conflicting requirements takes
precedence in the situation.
● Not Aware 2. Organizational Dilemmas
● A dilemma that exists within an
Ontological conflicts organization or a particular
● conflicts between two (or more) sector. It refers to a problem of
moral requirements, and neither reconciling inconsistencies
is overridden. This is not simply between individual needs and
because the agent does not know aspirations on the one hand, and
which requirement is stronger; the collective purpose of the
neither is. Genuine moral organization on the other.
dilemmas, if there are any, are ● This occurs when an entire
ontological. organization faces a tough choice
● Aware but not sure what in the
choices are right 3. Systematic/Structural Dilemma
● about different beliefs on what ● This dilemma refers to the
truly exists. ongoing search for a satisfactory
system. Managers rarely face
Self-imposed moral dilemmas arise well defined problems with clear
because of the agent's own wrongdoing cut solutions, instead, they
Example: An agent made two promises confront enduring dilemmas like
that he knew conflicted, then through his trade offs, without easy answers.
own actions he created a situation in ● Problems comes from how an
which it is not possible for him to organization or system is set up.
discharge both of his requirements.
MORALITY DEFINED
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL Moral Philosophy is an attempt to
DILEMMAS achieve a systematic understanding of
1. Individual Dilemmas the nature of morality and what it
● Students identify dilemmas in requires of us, “how we ought to live
cases submitted or shared by ...and why”.
classmates (assignment form)
● This happens when a person Role of reason
faces a difficult decision or Reason is a faculty that is used by man
challenge. It's when someone in dealing with issues.
has to choose between two or Moral judgements are not a matter of
more options, and each option personal preferences or tastes.
has its own benefits and
drawbacks. MORAL REASONING...
● is a process by which one thinks
about the moral dilemma in ways
that
○ identify the morally them to make sure they are
relevant aspects of the sound;
situation; (as
comprehensively as The nature of morality implies two
possible) main points:
○ weigh the significance of ● moral judgments must be
te morally relevant backed up by good reasons;
aspects, giving due ● morality requires the impartial
importance to the views of consideration of each individual’s
the persons’ concerned of interest
what constitutes benefit
and harm; Module 3
○ the process of thinking
about what is right and MAN AS LIBERTY
wrong in a particular Liberty refers to the quality or state of being
situation. It's how we figure free:
out the best way to act ● a: the power to do as one pleases
based on our values, ● b: freedom from physical restraint
beliefs, and principles. ● c: freedom from arbitrary or
tyrannical control
● d: the positive enjoyment of various
On Impartiality:
social, political, or economic rights
● Each individual’s interests are and privileges
equally important. ● e: the power of choice
● Therefore, each must
acknowledge that other person’s HUMAN FREEDOM
welfare is equally important as Isaiah Berlin
our own. ● Two Concepts of Liberty explains
● Impartiality entails a proscription the distinction between positive and
against arbitrariness in dealing negative liberty.
with people. ● negative liberty (“freedom from”)
● A conscientious moral agent is ○ This is the freedom from
someone who is concerned interference. In simple
impartially with the interest of terms, it's about freedom
everyone affected by what he or from restrictions.
● positive liberty both as “freedom to”
she does;
○ It's about freedom to do
● Someone who carefully sifts facts
what you want with
and examines their implications;
support and opportunity.
● Someone who accepts principles
of conduct only after scrutinising
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s creating their own meaning and
● notion of "true liberty" essence.
emphasizes the idea that
individuals should strive to reach Notion of Choice
their full human potential and live
Sartre believed that humans are
virtuously.
fundamentally free, with no external
● True liberty is achieved when
forces (like God or nature) determining
people move beyond
our actions or choices. We are not born
amour-propre
with a set purpose but are free to create
(self-centeredness) and embrace
our own path. Through our choices, we
amour de soi (a healthy desire
shape who we are and what we
for self-preservation and
become. Each person is responsible for
self-mastery)
giving their life meaning, and they have
● In this view, positive freedom is
the power to become whatever they
not about restrictions on what
choose.
people can do, but rather about
empowering individuals to Defining Ourselves
develop and fulfill their true
potential. In life, a person defines themselves
through their choices and actions, which
collectively create their identity. This
Absolute Freedom process of self-definition is not just
Jean-Paul Sartre about describing who we are as human
beings, but about shaping ourselves into
● "Existence Precedes Essence" the kind of person we choose to
● a leading existentialist become. It is the essence of human
philosopher, argued that existence—the freedom and
existence precedes essence. responsibility to determine our own path.
● This means that individuals are
not born with a predetermined Responsible Freedom
nature or purpose; instead, they
Freedom, for Sartre, comes with
exist first and then define their
immense responsibility. By making
own identity through their choices
choices, we not only define ourselves
and actions. For Sartre, freedom
but also set a model for what we believe
is absolute—there is no inherent
human life should be. This means that
human nature or divine design
freedom is not just about personal
shaping a person’s life. Human
choice but about considering how our
beings simply find themselves
actions affect others. Without external
existing and are responsible for
principles or rules to justify our
decisions, we are fully accountable for
the choices we make. In Sartre’s view, Situated Freedom
we are "condemned to be free," as
freedom is intrinsic to the human Maurice Merleau-Ponty
condition and cannot be avoided.
● Freedom and Context:
Sartre’s Concept of Freedom: Merleau-Ponty argues that
Critiques freedom cannot be separated
from the individual’s place in the
● Sartre’s theory ignores the impact world. It is inherently connected
of external factors (society, to the environment and context in
culture, environment) on human which a person exists.
behavior, suggesting individuals ● Influence of Situation: Human
are entirely free to create their freedom is always influenced by
own values and meaning. the situation we find ourselves in.
● Leads to Nihilism: If humans are We are free to choose, but our
free to create their own meaning, options and actions are shaped
it undermines objective morality, by the world we live in and the
leading to nihilism, where nothing circumstances we face.
inherently has meaning or value. ● Freedom Within Meaningful
● Moral Relativism: Sartre’s Situations: Merleau-Ponty
emphasis on personal freedom emphasizes that human freedom
could result in moral relativism, is always exercised within a “field
where actions are judged solely of meaning.” Our choices are
by individual choice, regardless based on the situations we
of their consequences or impact belong to, and we find freedom
on others. by making choices that align with
● Neglects Unconscious Factors: the meanings that emerge from
Sartre’s idea of freedom does not those situations.
account for the unconscious
influences—such as desires, Creative & Dynamic Freedom –
biases, and emotions—that Gabriel Marcel
shape human behavior,
● Freedom as Creation: For
oversimplifying the complexity of
Gabriel Marcel, freedom is more
decision-making.
than the absence of constraints.
● Absolute Freedom Paradox: If
It is the positive capacity to
freedom is truly absolute and
shape our lives, realize our
unrestricted, it could render
potential, and create something
freedom meaningless or
new in the world.
impossible, as no boundaries or
● Relational Freedom: Freedom is
constraints would exist to define
not an individual possession, but
it.
emerges in our relationships true or false, raising questions
with others and the world. It is a about how choices can be free.
dynamic, creative process that ● Physical Determinism: This
involves constantly negotiating asserts that every event in the
between personal desires and universe is determined by
the external demands of the physical laws and forces. If we
world. had complete knowledge of the
● Ongoing Process: Freedom, physical state of the universe at a
according to Marcel, is not static. particular time, we could predict
It evolves through our future events with certainty.
interactions and the ongoing ● Psychological Determinism:
creative tension between our This theory suggests that all
inner desires and the external human behavior is the result of
world. psychological processes, either
conscious or unconscious.
Positions of Freedom Therefore, human actions are not
freely chosen but determined by
● Man is absolutely free. (Jean
one’s psychological makeup.
Paul Sartre)
● Theological Determinism: This
● Man is absolutely determined.
belief holds that a divine being
(B.F. Skinner)
(God) determines all human
● The middle position: Man is
actions, either through
situated (Maurice Merleau-Ponty)
omniscience (knowing actions in
Types of Determinism advance) or through decreeing
those actions.
● Causal Determinism: This belief
states that future events are Objections on Absolute
necessitated by past and present Determinism:
events, combined with the laws of
nature. Every event has a cause, ● Rejection of Freedom Leads to
and the precise combination of Skepticism:
events at a given time leads to a ○ Denying the feeling of
specific outcome. freedom would undermine
● Logical Determinism: According all basic experiences,
to this view, all propositions leading to total skepticism
(statements about the past, and inaction.
present, or future) are either true ● Self-Refuting Argument:
or false. The challenge to free will ○ If the statement "man is
arises from the idea that future absolutely determined"
events are already determined as is true, it’s also
determined, meaning the
opposite statement "man 3. They acted out of their
is absolutely free" is own free will.
equally determined. This
undermines the truth value Response-ability
of both claims.
● Definition: Response-ability
● Manipulability and Justice:
refers to the ability to justify and
○ If humans are purely
account for actions that respond
manipulable like
appropriately to the objective
machines, then creating a
demands of a situation.
just society would be easy,
● Objective Demands of Justice:
but this contradicts the
A response is just if it meets the
complexities of human
demands of the situation, aligned
nature and morality,
with what justice requires.
making it unlikely that
● Greater Freedom: True freedom
absolute determinism
is not simply doing what I want,
leads to fairness or justice.
but also being able to will and act
in accordance with what the
Understanding Freedom &
situation objectively demands.
Responsibility
Freedom & Justice
Accountability
● Relationship of Concepts:
● Definition: Accountability is
Freedom and justice are
equated with answerability,
connected through relationships
culpability, liability, and the
with fellow human beings and the
expectation of giving an account
goods that freedom seeks to
for one’s actions.
achieve.
● Freedom & Accountability: I am
● Justice: Justice involves giving
accountable for actions that are
each person what they deserve
free, where the source is my own
or are due.
will (the “I”). I acted on my own
● Freedom and Responsibility:
decision, free from external
To preserve freedom, individuals
constraints.
must assess their needs in
● Moral Responsibility: A person
relation to the needs of others.
is morally responsible for an
What is due to others is what
injury if:
helps maintain their dignity.
1. They caused or failed to
● Human Dignity: A person’s
prevent it when they could
dignity is tied to their freedom to
have.
be and become.
2. They did so knowingly.
● Freedom Conditions Justice:
Freedom and justice are
intertwined; one cannot exist Layers of Culture: A Reviewer
without the other. Our obligations
are determined by what we can 1. Surface Culture: Visible & Explicit
give within the limits of Elements
possibilities.
● Visible Behavior: The Window
● Freedom in Society: Freedom is
to the Soul
not absolute and is shaped by the
Surface culture refers to the
world and interactions with
observable actions, verbal and
others. Freedom is a "dialogue"
nonverbal communication, and
with the world, where the limits of
interactions that individuals
freedom are defined by the world
display. These visible behaviors
outside of the individual.
are the external expressions of
Module 4 deeper cultural values, beliefs,
and attitudes. Surface culture can
Features and Characteristic of Culture be easily identified but only
represents a fraction of a
● Dynamic person’s cultural identity.
● Consistent/Integrated
● Learned 2. Shallow Culture: Unspoken Rules
● Shared and Social Norms
● Symbolic
● Adaptive ● Core Values: The Compass of
● Transmitted Our Lives
Shallow culture encompasses the
unwritten rules and social norms
that govern our behavior. These
Culture is a complex whole that are the core beliefs and values
encompasses: that shape our decisions and
actions. They act as an internal
● Knowledge
compass, guiding individuals
● Belief
through life's challenges and
● Art
interactions, even when
● Morals
situations are ambiguous or
● Law
unclear. Core values are
● Custom
fundamental, influencing how we
● Other capabilities and habits
approach life and others.
These elements are acquired by
individuals as members of 3. Deep Culture: Implicit Beliefs and
society. Worldviews
● Edward Burnett Taylor.
● Driving Forces: The Engine of classification, helping to define
Human Behavior roles, expectations, and social
Deep culture refers to the implicit structures.
beliefs, worldviews, and driving 3. Marriage and Descent
forces behind our actions. This Relationships
includes underlying motivations, Across cultures, marriage and
emotions, and cultural influences family ties are essential for social
that shape core values. These organization, and relationships of
driving forces include descent are used to classify
psychological and social needs, family roles, especially in relation
personal values, and goals, to child-rearing.
which propel individual behavior 4. Sexual Division of Labor
and decision-making. Many societies have established
Understanding deep culture gender-specific roles and
reveals the true essence of what expectations, particularly in work
drives human action beyond the and social responsibilities, though
surface. the specifics vary.
5. Concept of Privacy
Cultural universals refer to learned Privacy is an essential concept in
behavior patterns shared across all all cultures, albeit understood and
human cultures. These behaviors are expressed in different ways, often
fundamental aspects of human defining personal boundaries and
societies, making them common to all social interactions.
people worldwide. Though different 6. Regulation of Sexual Behavior
cultures express these patterns in Societies universally establish
unique ways, the underlying behaviors norms surrounding sexual
are universally present. conduct, ensuring that behaviors
align with cultural values and
Key Cultural Universals:
social rules.
1. Communication through Verbal 7. Good vs. Bad Behavior
Language All cultures have moral codes,
All cultures have developed determining what is deemed
systems of communication, acceptable or unacceptable
typically through language, that behavior within that society.
allow individuals to convey 8. Body Ornamentation
thoughts, emotions, and ideas. Practices such as tattoos,
2. Classifying People by Age and piercings, or other forms of body
Gender decoration are found in cultures
Human societies universally use across the world, though the
age and gender as means of meanings and methods can differ.
9. Jokes, Games, and Art
All societies use humor, games,
and art forms as ways to
communicate, express emotions,
and bond with others.
10.Religious Beliefs
Most cultures hold religious
beliefs, which shape values,
rituals, and social norms. These
beliefs can vary widely but are
universally present in human
societies.
11.Leadership Roles for
Community Decisions
Every culture has systems of
leadership to guide community
decisions, whether formal or
informal, to organize social and
political life.
Dennis O'Neil’s Perspective:
O'Neil emphasizes that languages, art,
norms, and values are essential
elements of culture, but they lose
meaning if not shared and transmitted
within a community. Culture, in this
sense, requires people to pass down
knowledge, beliefs, and practices,
making it a shared and collective
experience.
Cultural relativism is the ethical
perspective that suggests that ethics,
morals, values, norms, beliefs, and
behaviors must be understood within the
context of the culture from which they
arise. It argues that each culture has its
own set of beliefs and practices, and
therefore, there is no universal or
absolute standard to judge these
cultural norms.
Key Concepts:
● Cultural Diversity: Cultural
relativism emphasizes the
diversity of cultures and holds
that all cultures' values, beliefs,
and practices should be
understood within their own
specific context.
● No Universal Standard: There is
no single, overarching standard
to assess or compare cultural
practices. What is considered
"right" or "wrong" in one culture
may not be the same in another.
● Opposition to Ethnocentrism:
Ethnocentrism is the belief that
one’s own culture is superior to
others. Cultural relativism is the
opposite, advocating for the idea
that one culture's norms should
not be judged from the
perspective of another culture's
values.
● Objective Observation: Cultural
relativism encourages observers
and researchers to describe and
understand cultural practices as
they are, without imposing
personal biases or judgments.
