1- Human Reproduction

Introduction:
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous
Reproductive events - (Occur after puberty)
>Gametogenesis (Formation of gametes)
>Insemination (Transfer of sperms into the female genital tract)
>Fertilisation (Fusion of male and female gametes)
>Formation and development of blastocyst
>Implantation (Attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall)
>Gestation (Embryonic development)
>Parturition (Delivery of the baby)
> Sperm formation continues in old men but ovumn formation stops in women
around 50 years

Male Reproductive System:

Located in the pelis region
> Includes testes, accessory ducts, accessory glands, and external genitalia
> Testes -

>Situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum

>Scrotum helps maintaining temperature 2 - 2.5° C lower than body (Necessary for
spermatogenesis)
>Oval shaped, 4-5 cm length, 2- 3 cm width, covered by a dense covering
>Each has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules
>Each lobule contains 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules (Produce sperm)
>Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells (Male germ cells /
spermatogonia and Sertoli cells)
>Spermatogonia = Undergo meiotic divisions leading tosperm formation
Sertoli cells = Provide nutrition to the germ cells
>Interstitial spaces - Regions outside the seminiferous tubules (contain small blood
vessels, interstitial / Leydig cells, and other immunologically
competent cells)
>Interstitial cells synthesise and secrete testicular hormones (Androgens)
 > Accessory ducts -(Include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis, and vas deferens)
>Functions are maintained by the Ureter
testicular hormones (androgens) Sembal vesicle

>Seminiferous tubules open into the Urinary bladder

Vas deercns
vasa efferentia through rete testis IProstate E<aculatory duct
Penis
>Vasa efferentia leave the testis and RectuI
Uretl1ra
Anus
open into epididymis (Located at Glans penis
posterior surface of each testis) Foreskin Testis
Bulbourethral gland
Serotum
>Epididymis leads to vas deferens
(Ascends to the abdomen and loops over the bladder)
>Vas deferens receives a duct fromn seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct
>These ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra
>Sperms released from the seminiferous tubules are transported by the accessory ducts
>Epididymisand vas deferens also give essential secretions (Needed for maturation and
motility of sperm) Urcter Urinary
bladder
>Urethra originates from the urinary Vas deferens
Seminal
bladder and extends through the penis to vesiclc
Prostate
its external opening (Urethral meatus) -Bulbouretl1ral
gland
Epididynmis
> Extermal genitalia - Vasa eflerentia -Urethra
Rele teslis
>Penis is the male external genitalia (Made Testicular lobules Testis
up of special tissue that helps in erection)
-Foreskin
>Erection facilitates insemination Glans penis

>Glans Enlarged end of penis (Covered by a loose fold of skin called foreskin)
> Accessory glands - (Include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate and paired bulbourethral
glands)
>Their secretions constitute the seminal plasma
interstitiat

(Rich in fructose, calcium, and certain enzymes) lls

>Functions are maintained by the testicular Spermalogoni

hormones (androgens) Speruatoza

>Secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in

the lubrication of the penis Setoll cells

Figure 2.2 Dlagraunatic srvloul iW of smiferous tutunk

>Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicle and prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms
>Seminal plasma +sperm =semen

3)
Female Reproductive System:
> Located in the pelvis region
> Includes pair of ovaries, accessory ducts, cervix, and external genitalia

> It is integrated structurally and functionally with a pair of the mammary glands to support
the processes of ovulation, fertilisation, pregnancy, birth, and child care
> Ovaries -

>Primary female sex organs

>Produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones)
>Located on each side of the
Cerix
lower abdomen
Ulen1s
>Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm Urinarv Blalder:
Kerltin

in length Pubie supiysis

-Vagina
>Connected to the pelvic wall Uretlr

and uterus by ligaments Clitorts

Lablum minora -Anus

>Each is covered by a thin Labiun mafora

Vadina)l orile

epithelium which encloses

the ovarian stroma

>Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the stroma

>Stroma is divided into 2 zones (Peripheral cortex and inner medulla)
> Accessory ducts

>Include pair of oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus (womb), and vagina ( evi)
>Oviducts -

»Each oviduct is about 10-12 cm long

»Oviducts extend from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus (Part closer to the
ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum)
»Edges of infundibulum have finger-like projections called fimbriae (Help in
collection of the ovum after ovulation)
>The infundibulum leads toa wider part of theoviduct called ampulla or* occutS here)
»Last part of the oviduct is the isthmus (Has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus)
>Uterus -

»lnverted pear shape

»Supported by ligaments atached to the pelvic wall
»Uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix

4
 »Uterus wall has 3 layers of tissue (Perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium)
Perimetrium External, thin, membranous

Myomtrium - Middle, thick layer, smooth muscle (in volntory)

Endometrium Inner, glandular (Lines uterine cavity)
»Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle
»Myometrium exhibits strong contractions during delivery of the baby
>Cavity of cervix is called cervicalcanal (Cervix is not an accessory duct)
yCervical canal along with vagina form the birth canal
> External genitalia -

>Include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris
>Mons pubis - Cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
>Labia majora - Fleshy folds of tissue (Extend down from the mons pubis and surround
the vaginal opening)
>Labia minora - Paired folds of tissue under the labia majora
>Hymen - Membrane that often Ulerine cavity
Ulerine lundus
-Isthmus
partially covers opening of vagina
Anpulla Fallopian
ube
>Clitoris -Tiny finger-like structure Infndibulun
which lies at the upper junction of the Endonetrium
Myonietriun
Ovars
Fimbriac
two labia minora above the urethral P'erimetrium
Cervis

opening -Cervical canal

-Vavina
>Hymen is often torn during the first
coitus / first intercourse (Sign of virginity but not reliable)
>Hymen is also torn bysudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon, active
participation in some sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc.
>In somne women the hymen persists even after coitus

> Mammary glands -

>Accessory organs of female reproductive system
>Functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals
>They are are one of the female secondary sexual characteristics
>They are paired structures(breasts) that have glandular tissue and varying amounts of fat
>Glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes (contain clusters of
cells called alveoli)
 tubulesoaary
Aveol? - Mammasty Larlilevous duet pula
>Cells ofalveoli secrete milk (Stored in the Mannnury obe
Fat

cavities / lumens of alveoli) Mannury alveulus

M:mnary duct
>Alveoliopen into mammary tubules Ampull:a Rih

Lactilerous dut
>Tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary Muskes
xtwecn rils
duct
Nipple
>Several mammary ducts join to form a wider Arcola
lectoralis
najor muscle

mammary ampulla (connected to lactiferous duct

through which milk is sucked out)

Gametogenesis:
The primary sex organs (Testis in males, ovaries in females) produce gametes (sperms and
ovum) by process called gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis -
>In testis the immature. male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperms by
spermatogenesis (Starts at puberty)
>Spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the inside wall of seminiferous tubules
multiply by mitosis and increase in numbers
>Each spermatogonium is diploid (Contains 46 chromosomes)

>Some of the spermatogonia (Primary spermatocytes) periodically undergo meiosis

>Primary spermatocyte completes meiosisI(reduction division) leading to formation of two
equal haploid cells (Secondary spermatocytes.- have 23 chromosomes each)
Spermatoz0:a
>Secondary spermatocytes undergomeiosis II to
Sperwatid
produce 4 equal haploid spermatids which have 23
chromosomes each -Secondury
spermatocyte
Primary
>Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa selocyte

(Sperm) by the process spermiogenesis Sertoli cell

>After spermiogenesis sperm heads become embedded

Spermalogonium
in the Sertoli cells and then released from the
Figure 2.5 Diagrammatic sectional vieN of a
seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation seniniferous tubule (enlarged)

>Spermatogenesis starts at puberty due to increase in secretion of gonadotropin releasing

hormone (GnRH) frona
>Increased levels of GnRH acts at the anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion of 2
gonadotropins - luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
>LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens
(Androgens stimulate process of spermatogenesis)
>FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in
spermiogenesis
 >Differentiation of gametes occur after completion of meiosis
Plasma
Structure of sperm - membrane

AcrosoINC

>Microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, Head

Nucleus COntalning
chronSoDal o)aterial
middle piece, and tail
Neck
>Plasma membrane envelops the whole body MIddle piece
>Head contains an elongated haploid nucleus (anterior Milochondria
(energy source for swin1oning)
part of head is covered by a cap-like acrosome) Tall

>Acrosome is filled with enzymes that help fertilisation

of the ovum

>Middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria

(Produce energy for the movement of tail that faclitate sperm motility essential for
fertilisation)
>Per ejaculation 200to 300 million sperms during a coitus (Intercourse)
>For normal fertility at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size and at least 40%
must show vigorous motility Primary Tertiary follicle
Blood follicle Showig antrum
Vessels Graafian
Oogenesis - follicle

>Process of formation of a mature female gamete is

called oogenesis
>Markedly different from spermatogenesis Ovum

>Initiated during the embryonic development (Not Corpus

luteum
puberty) stage when a couple of million gamete Figure 2.7 Diagrammatic Section vicW of ovary
mother cells (Oogonia) are formed within each fetal
ovary (No more oogonia are formed and added after birth)
>Oogonia start division and enter prophase-I of meiosis and get temporarily arrested at that
stage (Now called primary oocytes)
>Each primary oocyte is then surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called the
primary follicle
>Large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty (At
puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles remain in each ovary)
>They are surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca (Now called
secondary follicles)
>They are then transformed into tertiary follicles (Characterised by fluid filled cavity called
antrum)
>Theca layer is organised into an inner theca interna"' and an outer 'theca externa'
>At this stage that the primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows insize and
and
completes meiosis I (An unequaldivision resulting in alarge haploid secondary oocyte
asmall first polar body)
 >First polar body doesn't divide further but rather degenerates (Notvery certainto us)
>Secondary oocyte retains bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte
(Because the secondary oocyte becomes the ovum which fertilises and forms zygote)
>Tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle
SSecondary oocyte forms new membrane - "zona pellucida' surrounding mature follicle
>Graafian follicle then ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (Ovum) from the ovary by
the process called ovulation
>Differentiation of gametes occur before completion of meiosis
>Meiosis of secondary oocyte is completed at the time of fusion of sperm with ovum (upon
fertilisation)
>Extrusion of second polar body from egg nucleus (meiosis II) occurs after sperm entry but
before fertilisation
CHROM0SOME
NUMBER Oogonia
At Puberty PERCELI.
Spermatogonia 16
Mitosis
Mitosis differentiation
differentiation Fetal life
Primary 0ocyte
Primary spermatoytes
lst neiotie
Ist meiotic division
division Birth (eompleted
Childhood prior to
Secondary spermatocytes Puberiy.. & Ovulation)
2xd neiolic First Secondary oocyte
division polar boiy
Spernatids Adult
23 reproduCtive O Ovum
life Second
Diterentiatin
polar body
Spermatozoa

Menstrual Cycle:
Menstrual cycle - The reproductive cycle in female primates (Monkeys, apes, humans, etc.)
Oestrous cycle - The reproductive cycle in non-primate female mammals
First menstruation begins at puberty (Menarche)
Menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days in humans

Cycle ofevents starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle
One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle

Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is not fertilised

Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy (May also be caused due to some
other underlying causes like stress, poor health etc.)
The cycle starts with the menstrual phase -
 > Menstrual flow results due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus
vessels (Forms liquid that comnes out through vagina) -en ses and its blood

>Lasts 3-5 days

The menstrual phase is followed bythe follicular phase -

(Drol;ferative phase)
>Primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature
graafian follicle
>Simultaneously endometrium of uterus regenerates through proliferation
the
>These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by
and ovarian hormones changes in the levels of pituitary
>Secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually (Stimulate
development and secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles) follicular

Ovulation (Ovulatory phase) -

>LHand FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle
(About 14th day)
>LH surge - Rapid secretion of LH leading to its
maximum level during the mid-cycle
>LH surge causes rupture of graafian follicle and thereby the release of
oocyte (ovulation)- high levels of oestrogen alao help in ovum releaseovum/secondary
Ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase - (cecvetory bhase)
>The remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the
corpus luteum
>Corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone (Essential for maintenance of the
endometrium) corpus luteum only secretes progesterone and relaxin hormones only
>Endometrium is necessary for implantation of the fertilised ovum and other events
In the absence of fertilisation the corpus luteumn degenerates (Causes
disintegration of the
endometrium leading to menstruation - marks a new cycle)
In human menstrual cycles ceases around 50years of age (Menopause)

Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends between

menarche and menopause

One must change sanitary napkins or home-made pads every 4-5 hours as per requirement
They must not be disposed through drain pipes or in open areas
 levels
Hormone
Pituitary

FSI

events
Developing
(orpus luteu
Regresslhg
OvarianDeveloping tollcle Matur lollice Corpus lutufn

levels
Ovulation
Hormone
Esrogen
B l o or w
de e a t e dot

Progesterone
Vents

Menss

Days
3 7 9 5 17 19 21 23 25 27 29/1
Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal phasc Next cvcie
(Proliferaiíve phasc) (Secretory phase) begins
Fertilisation:
During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina (insemination)
Motile sperm pass through the cervix and into the uterus and finally reach the ampullary
region of the fallopian tube

Ovum released by the ovary is also transported tothe ampullary region

Fertilisation only occurs if ovum and sperm are transported simultaneously to the ampullary
region (Reason why allcopulation don't result in pregnancy)
Fertilisation - The process of fusion of asperm with an ovum

During fertilisation a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer (Has receptors
for sperm binding) of the ovum (Induces changes in th¿ membrane that block entry of
additional sperm - ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum )
The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into
the cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona pellucida
and the plasma membrane
Secretions from acrosome induce completion of meiosis
of the secondary oocyte (Oum

pelhucil.a

Meiosis II is also unequal and results in the formation of

a second polar body and a haploid ovum (Ootid)

Soon haploid nucleus of the sperms and ovum fuse

together toform a diploid zygote (Has 46 chromosomes)
10
 Sex of baby is decided at this
zyg0e ell -ls
stage(XX-female, XY=male: 50% sperm have Xand 50% Y
Implantation: tomere-eua.blastoryst
Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the
mbto
towards the uterus and forms 2,4, 8, 16 daughteristhmus of the oviduct called cleavage
cells called blastomeres
Morula - Embryo with 8 -16 blastomeres
Morula continues to divide and
transforms into blastocyst as it moves
further into the uterus (b)
(Morul
(e)

Blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged

into - outer layer called trophoblast, inner
group of cells attached to trophoblast Blastoyst
Inuplantation
called the inner cell mass
Trophoblast layer then gets attached to the
endometrium and the inner cell mass gets (Blastocyst)
()
differentiated as the embryo
-> nethe full blastost
After attachment the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the
becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus) -This is blastocyst (Blastocyst
called implantation
Implantation leads to pregnancy

Pregnancy:
After implantation finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast called chorionic villi
(Surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood)
Placenta -

>Chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly fom
placenta
>Placenta - Structural and functional unit between developing embryo (Foetus) and
maternal body
>It facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of carbon
dioxide and excretorylwaste materials produced by the embryo
>It is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord (Helps in the transport of
substances to and from the embryo)
>Also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
 In the later phase of pregnancy a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary
(Corpus luteum)
hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women only during pregnancy
During pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens, cortisol,
prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased several folds in the maternal blood (Essential for
Supporting fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother, and maintenance of pregnancy)
Immediately after implantation the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
layer called ectodem and an inner layer called endoderm (A mesoderm soon appears
between these layers)
These three layers giverise to all tissues (organs) in adults late
Inner cellmass contains certain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give rise to
all the tissues and organs

Human pregnancy lasts 9 months - called gestation period (60-65 days in dogs, 52-65 days
in cats, 607-641days in elephants)

Embryonic Development
After 1" month,of pregnancy the embryo's heart is formed (First sign of growing foetus may
be noticed by listening to the heart sound carefully with stethoscope) Plucental villi

Bythe end of the 2nd month limbs and digits develop

Cavity of

By the end of 12 weeks (First trimester) most of the Ubilical

uten1s

-Yolk sae

major organ systems are formed (ex: the limbs and

cord
wilh its
Enbrvo
vUSsels
external genital organs are well developed)

By 5" month first movenments of the foetus and

appearance of hair on the head are observed Plug of mueus
in cerN

By the end of 24 weeks (Second trimester) the body is

Figure 2.12 The human loetus within the uterus

covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed

By theend of 9 months the foetus is fully developed

and is ready for delivery

Parturition:
pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the
Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of
foetus
birth
the foetus out of the uterus through the
Parturition - Process of delivery/expulsion of
canal (childbirth)

2)
 It is induced by a complex
neuroendocrine mechanism
Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the
induce mild uterine contractionscalled foetal ejection reflex (placenta which
from the maternal pituitary) (Triggers releas of oxytocin

Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contractions which in turn
stimulates further secretion of oxytocin
Stimulatory reflex between the uterine contraction and Oxytocin secretion continues
resulting in stronger and stronger contractions - leads to parturition (So doctors inject
Oxytocin to induce delivery)
tuabilca texd also
Soon after the infant is delivered the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus

Increase in oestrogen andprogesterone ratio and synthesis of prostaglandins play roles here

Lactation:
heraones

Mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and starts
producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by the process called lactation (Helps the
mother in feeding the newborn)

Colostrum - Milk produced during the initial few days of lactation

Colostrum contains several antibodies absolutely essential to develop resistance for the
newborn (So doctors recommend breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth for
bringing up a healthy baby)

Foerto

(3)