PRACTICAL NOTES
2.1 MEASURING A QUANTITY
1. TITRATIONS
Rinse burette and pipette with solution to be added Temperature Use a thermocouple
before carrying out experiment Use burette
Volume
If 25cm3 use pipette
Empty pipette into conical flask under gravity without
Mass Use electronic scale
forcing any drops to fall
Repeat and find the average of values
Remove funnel from burette before titration
WHEN POURING OR ADDING SUBSTANCES
Add only two drops of indicator
Use a deeper or larger container to hold the
Swirl mixture during titration substances
Titrate drop by drop when close to the end-point When to use an intermediate apparatus to
Keep eye-level perpendicular to burette when taking transfer:
measurements If liquid, don’t since some may remain in intermediate
Record burette reading to 2 decimal places If solid, make sure all substance has been transferred
For better observation: Place a white tile under
the conical flask and illuminate the burette 2.2 THERMAL EXPERIMENTS
while taking the reading Insulate container to stop thermal conduction
Accuracy of Burette = 0.05cm3 Use a lid to seal container to stop thermal
Always write burette reading to 2dp convection
A titre will have no error even though readings have When heating a hydrated salt, heat to constant
errors if the errors in reading are identical and in the mass
same direction so they will cancel out. Sources of errors in measuring temperature:
Two best titres must be within 0.1cm3 of each other o Heat loss (to the surroundings)
If first two titres within 0.1cm3 then no need for 3rd o Thermometer graduated at 1°C intervals
titre. o Drying of cup/thermometer
Use of a o Initial temps of both solutions should be taken
Burette 3 ERRORS
Advantage Disadvantage 1
Lower % error Estimated Error = x Smallest Division
Takes longer to 2
More accurately
add the FA 2 Estimated error
calibrated % Uncertainty =
reading
4 TEMPERATURE
Record to nearest 0.5oC when thermometer
calibrated in 1oC intervals
Record to nearest 0.1oC when thermometer
calibrated in 0.2oC intervals
5 GRAPHS AND TABLES
5.1.1 When finding gradient, always use
triangle with hypotenuse greater than half
of the line;
5.1.2 Label axis with quantity and unit;
5.1.3 Plot graph with fine cross or encircle dots;
5.1.4 For each heading in a table, write the
quantity measured with the unit separated
6 CONVERSION
100cm = 10dm = 1m
By Phil Adeyeye (0549787531)
0oC = 273oK Hypothesis is usually a short statement showing
1cm3 of water = 1g the relationship (e.g. proportional) between two
variables.
7 SALT ANALYSIS
Explain your hypothesis using scientific knowledge
If acid added to a salt and produces effervescence,
o Rate of reaction = collision theory
carbonate ion present and write “effervescence
8.2 Methods
produced turns limewater milky”
Describe the methods to be used to vary the
How do repeats improve reliability of errors? independent variable, and the means that you
o Shows consistent results propose to ensure that you have measured its
o Proves/shows values or trend is similar values accurately
o Eliminates anomalous results Describe how you will measure the dependent
How can you make sure a reagent is in excess? variable
o If solid in excess, then solid remains at the bottom Describe how you will control each of the other
o If liquid (e.g. acid in excess), then all of the solid variables
dissolves Explain how you will use any control
experiments to verify that it is the independent
Problem Solution variable that is affecting the dependent variable
CO2 dissolved in solution Heat solution to drive off and now some other factor
CO2 Describe the arrangement of apparatus and the
Heat loss Extra/thicker lagging steps in the procedure to be followed
use a lid Suggest appropriate volumes and conc. of
use a vacuum flask reagents
Measurement of volume Use a burette/pipette Assess the risks of your proposed methods
Identification of color Use of colorimeter Describe precautions that should be taken to
change keep risks to a minimum
Temperature fluctuations Use of thermostatic Draw up tables for data that you might wish to
water bath record
Switch off air Describe how the data might be used in order to
conditioning reach a conclusion
Measurement of Use a thermometer with a 8.3 ANALYSIS, CONCLUSIONS AND EVALUATION
temperature smaller scale division Identify the calculations and means of
Use an electronic presentation of data that are necessary to be able
thermometer to avoid Use calculations to enable simplification or
parallax error explanation of data
Uncertainty in graph Repeat/extra readings Use tables & graphs to draw attention to the key
intersection/ line of best fit points in quantitative data, including the variability
Water present in hydrated Heat to constant mass of data
salt crystals Identify anomalous values in provided data and
If one procedure has a greater temperature change suggest appropriate means of dealing with such
then that is more accurate because percentage error anomalies
decreased Suggest possible explanations for anomalous
8 PLANNING readings
8.1 Defining the Problem Identify the extent to which provided readings
Identify: have been adequately replicated, and describe
o the independent variable in the experiment the adequacy of the range of data provided
o the dependent variable in the experiment Use provided information to assess the extent to
o the quantities to be controlled – kept constant which selected variables have been effectively
Formulate the aim in terms of a prediction or a controlled
hypothesis, and express this in words or in the form Identify anomalous values in provided data and
of a predicted graph suggest appropriate means of dealing with such
By Phil Adeyeye (0549787531)
anomalies
Suggest possible explanations for anomalous
readings
Identify the extent to which provided readings
have been adequately replicated, and describe
the adequacy of the range of data provided
Use provided information to assess the extent to
which selected variables have been effectively
controlled
CONCLUSION
Draw conclusions from an investigation, providing
a detailed description of the key features of the
data and analyses, and considering whether
experimental data supports the conclusion
reached
Make detailed scientific explanations of the
data, analyses and conclusions that they
have described
Make further predictions, ask informed and relevant
questions and suggest improvements
By Phil Adeyeye (0549787531)
