Mr SGs Motion & Forces notes

Scalars and Vectors

-Quantities in physics can be either scalars or vectors

-Scalars can be accurately described using only a magnitude (size) and the
appropriate unit

-Scalar measurements do not have a direction

-Examples of scalars include time, distance, volume, speed, and temperature

-Vectors cannot be accurately described without giving a direction in addition to the

magnitude and the appropriate unit

-Examples of vectors include position, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and

momentum

Vector diagrams (arrows)

-We often use arrows in physics to represent vector

quantities

-The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of

the vector

-Vectors can be drawn to an exact scale (with the

scale provided), or more commonly, approximately to
scale with the numerical value of the vector also
provided

-The arrowhead shows the direction of the vector

-For force vectors, the tail of the arrow is drawn at the

point of application of the force

-For displacement vectors, the tail of the arrow

represents the initial position, and the head of the
arrow is shown at final position

-Various conventions are used to indicate direction in different types of vector

problems

Vectors in one dimension

-Vector problems occur in a single dimension when all vectors

are aligned (e.g. a gravitational acceleration problem where all
forces and motion is occurring directly upwards or directly
downwards)

-The direction convention refers to the names given to the two possible directions
e.g. up/down, backwards/forwards, left/right, east/west etc.

-The direction convention should be presented graphically in all 1D vector problems

-A sign convention can also be used, where one designation is defined as being
positive and the opposite direction as being negative (e.g. in the up/down convention
in the box to the right, a displacement of -100 m would indicate that an object had
moved 100 m downwards)

Vectors in two dimensions

-Many vectors need to be described in a two-dimensional plane (either horizontal or

vertical)

-The horizontal plane is often defined using north/south and east/west axes

-The vertical plane can be defined in various ways, e.g. up/down and left/right or
up/down and backwards/forwards

Horizontal plane

-Direction in the horizontal plane is described using a

quadrant (compass) bearing or a true bearing (preferred
method)

-A quadrant bearing represents direction as an angle

between north or south and east or west (e.g. S20ºE
represents a direction that is from South, 20º towards
East)

-A true bearing represents directions as an angle clockwise

from north (e.g. S20ºE would become 160 ºT)

Vertical plane

-Directions in the vertical 2D plane are provided in relation

to the vertical (up/down) and horizontal (left/right)
dimensions

- Vectors are described as an angle and a direction

(up/down/left/right) from the horizontal or vertical plane

-The angle shown to the right could be described as “30º

down from the vertical to the left” or “60º up from the
horizontal to the left”
Vector addition

-In physics, we often need to add or subtract vectors

-Vector addition is used when calculating the total (resultant) vector from several
individual vectors (e.g. attempting to determine the total force acting on an object
when it is subjected to multiple forces)

-Vector addition and subtraction can be determined using graphical (scale drawing),
algebraic, or geometric methods

-In Year 11 Physics you are expected to perform addition and subtraction of vectors in
one and two dimensions, predominantly using algebraic (1D) and geometric (2D)
methods

1D Vector addition: graphical method

-The vectors are drawn with each vector having its tail starting at the head of the
previous vector

-The resultant vector will be a vector with its tail at the tail of the first vector and its
head at the head of the last vector

-The magnitude of the resultant vector can be determined from the scale of the
diagram if all vectors are drawn to this scale

1D Vector addition: algebraic method (preferred)

-A sign convention is used to represent the direction of the vectors (e.g. up is +, down
is -)

-The sign convention is applied to each vector (e.g. a displacement vector of 25 m up

becomes +25 m, and a displacement vector of 27 m down becomes -27 m)

-When the magnitudes are added together, the resulting sign provides the direction of
the resultant vector (sR = (+25) + (-27) = -2.0 m = 2.0 m down)

2D Vector addition: graphical method

-The vectors are drawn with each vector having its tail starting at the head of the
previous vector

-The resultant vector will be a vector with its tail at the tail of the first vector and its
head at the head of the last vector

-The magnitude of the resultant vector is determined by the scale of the diagram

-The direction of the vector is determined using a protractor, referring to the direction
conventions of the diagram

NOTE: This method gives results that are approximate, due to the limits to the
precision of the ruler and protractor used

2D Vector addition: geometric method (preferred)

-The best way to calculate resultant vectors in two dimensions is by using geometry

-The geometric method relies on constructing a right triangle where the resultant
vector is the hypotenuse, and the other sides are the individual vectors

-This method can only be used when the individual vectors are at right angles to each
other (although as we will later see, vectors can be resolved into components at right
angles)

-To use this method, all vectors are drawn head to tail using an approximate scale

-The resultant vector is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last,
forming the hypotenuse of the triangle

-The magnitude of the resultant vector is calculated using Pythagoras’ theorem (the
square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other two sides)
-The direction of the vector is calculated using trigonometry to calculate the vectors
angle from the known sides of the right triangle (SOH CAH TOA)

EXAMPLE: A hiker walks 3.5 km North in 40 minutes. He then turns East and walks
4.2 km in 55 minutes. With the aid of a diagram, calculate his final displacement

N 4.2 Ɵ = tan-1(4.2/3.5 ) = 50.2°

sR = √(4.22 + 3.52) = 5.47 km

3.5 sR
Ɵ therefore, the final displacement is 5.47 km, at
50.2°T

Vector Subtraction

-Vector subtraction is often used when finding the difference between two vectors
(e.g. finding an object’s change in velocity by subtracting its initial velocity from its
final velocity)

-As an example, we would use vector addition to calculate resultant displacement (s R),
but vector subtraction to calculate change in displacement (Δs)
-It is most often used to calculate the change in a vector quantity by subtracting the
initial vector from the final vector (e.g. change in velocity = final velocity – initial
velocity)

-Methods of vector subtraction work on the principle that adding a negative is

mathematically equivalent to subtracting a positive (e.g. Δv = v f – vi = vf + (-vi))

-Instead of subtracting an initial vector (v i), you can add the opposite of the vector (-
vi), allowing vector addition techniques to be used

1D Vector subtraction: graphical method

-When determining the change in a quantity by subtracting an initial vector (v i) from a

final vector (vf), the opposite of the initial vector is calculated and added to the final
vector

-For the example below, where vi = 9ms-1 east, -vi = 9ms-1 west

1D Vector subtraction: algebraic method (preferred)

-When subtracting vectors algebraically, opposite of the initial vector is calculated by

reversing the sign convention (e.g. multiplying it by -1)

-The procedure is identical to algebraic addition of vectors except the opposite of the
initial vector (e.g. -vi) is added in place of the initial vector

Δv = vf – vi = vf + (-vi)

2D Vector subtraction: graphical and geometric (preferred) methods

-2D Vector subtraction is performed the same way as 2D vector addition, but the
opposite of the initial vector is added (as per the 1D graphical method for vector
subtraction)

-The change in the vector (Δv) will be a vector with its tail at the tail of the final vector
(vf) and its head at the head of the opposite of the initial vector (-v i)

-The magnitude of the change in the vector (Δv) can be calculated graphically from a
scale diagram or by using Pythagoras’ theorem

-The direction of the vector can be calculated with a protractor from a scale diagram
or by using trigonometry (e.g. θ = tan-1(opp/adj))

Vector Components

-When adding or subtracting vectors, geometric methods can only be used when the
vectors are at right angles to each other (perpendicular)

-When adding/subtracting vectors that are not perpendicular, vectors are resolved
into their perpendicular components

-These components describe two vectors in perpendicular planes (normally horizontal

and vertical or east/west and north/south) that would add up to form the initial vector

-This is done using the geometric functions sin, cos, and tan

-In the example to the right:

sin (20) = opp./hyp. = Fv/45, so Fv = 45 sin (20)

cos (20) = adj./hyp. = Fh/45, so Fh = 45 cos (20)

Describing Motion: position, distance

& displacement

Simplifying motion: centre of mass

-The motion of objects is often more complicated than it first appears

-The pinecone on the right is falling from a tree, rotating as it falls

-Because of this rotation, different parts of the pinecone are travelling at

different speeds, relative to the ground

-We can simplify the motion of the object by treating it as a single point,
acting at its centre of mass (the balance point of the object)

Frames of reference

-Whenever we describe the position or displacement of an object, the description will

be relative to a frame of reference

-If you are walking slowly down a moving train carriage, your speed will be different
relative to different reference frames

-You might be travelling at 5 kmh-1 relative to the train, 90 kmh-1 relative to the earth
and 100 000 kmh-1 relative to the sun

-In Yr 11 Physics, we will mostly be looking at the motion of objects relative to the
earth, so we can assume that any motion is described with respect to the earth’s
surface unless you are told otherwise

Position (x)

-Position is the location of an object at a given point in time, relative to

a reference point (often called the origin)
-Position is a vector, so it needs to be given with a direction

-An objects position can be described in one, two or three dimensions (or axes)

-These axes can be designated as x, y and z or named such as north/south, east/west

and up/down

-Direction along axes can be shown with a sign convention (e.g. for 1D motion,
positions to the left of the origin can be designated as positive and positions to the
right can be designated as positive)

-For 1D motion, position is often given the symbol x, as horizontal motion occurs
along the x axis e.g. for an object 10m to the left of the origin, x = -10 m

-For 2D motion, position can be given as a set of (x,y) coordinates e.g. (12 m, -15 m)

-In Yr 11 Physics, we will predominantly be looking at position along a single axis

Distance (d)

-Distance travelled (d) describes the total length of the path covered in an objects
journey

-It is a scalar measurement of length and as such, it has a magnitude but no direction
(distance will always be positive as no sign convention is used)

-As a measurement of length, the unit of distance is the metre (m)

-The total distance travelled by an object is equal to the sum of the distance of all
journeys an object has made
d = d1 + d2 + d3 ………

Displacement (s)

-Displacement is an object’s change in position in a given direction

-It is equal to an objects final position (x f) minus its initial position (xi)

s = Δx = xf – xi (where s is displacement and Δx is change in position,)

-As a vector measurement, it must be given with a direction.

-For one-dimensional motion the direction is shown with a sign convention (e.g.
forwards = +, backwards = -)

-For two-dimensional motion the direction is shown with a bearing (horizontal plane)
or angle up/down from the horizontal/vertical to the left/right (vertical plane)

-An objects total (resultant) displacement is equal to the sum of its individual
displacements
 sR = s1 + s2 + s3 ………

Describing Motion: time, speed & velocity

-Speed and velocity are both measurements of how quickly an object is moving (the
rate of change of position)

-Speed is the rate of change of distance and velocity is the rate of change of
displacement, with both quantities being given the symbol v

-As with all rates, they measure the extent to which a quantity changes in a given
time interval (Δt), where:
Δt = tf - ti (where tf is final time and ti is initial time)

-The SI unit for both speed and velocity is metres per second (m s -1), but they can also
be measured in kilometres per hour (km h-1)

-Both quantities can be given as an instantaneous measurement (e.g. rate of change

of position at a given moment in time) or an average measurement (how fast an
object was travelling over a given time interval)

-An object’s instantaneous speed will be numerically equal to its instantaneous

velocity, but the velocity will have a direction (e.g. a car might have an instantaneous
speed of 90 km h-1 and an instantaneous velocity of 90 km h-1 west)

Speed (v)

-Speed is an objects rate of change of distance

-Speed is a scalar quantity, it has a magnitude, but no direction

Speed vav = d (where d is distance and Δt is time interval)

Δt
Velocity (v)

-Velocity is an objects rate of change of displacement

-Velocity is a vector quantity, it has a magnitude AND a direction

-For one-dimensional motion the direction is shown with a sign convention

-Speed and velocity are often used interchangeably for one-dimensional motion as
their numerical value is identical

-Average velocity can be calculated from an object’s displacement (change in

position) in a given time period
-For an object with a velocity that is changing at a constant rate, it can also be
calculated by taking the average of its initial velocity (v i) and its final velocity (vf)

-Average velocity is calculated using the formulae:

Velocity vav = s = Δx = xf – xi = vf – vi
Δt Δt tf - ti 2
 Converting between m s-1 and km h-1

-To convert from m s-1 to km h-1, multiply by 3.6

1 ms-1 = 1 x 3600 m h-1 = 1 x 3600 km h-1 = 3.6 km h-1

1000

-To convert from km h-1 to m s-1, divide by 3.6

1 km h-1 = 1 x 1000 m h-1 = 1 x 1000 m s-1 = 1 m s-1

3600 3.6

Acceleration (a)

-Acceleration is the rate of change in the velocity of an object

-For 1 D motion, it can also be calculated from an objects rate of change of speed
(e.g. in cases where an objects speed and velocity are identical

-Acceleration is a vector quantity as it is based on displacement, so it is given with a

direction

-For 1 D motion this is done with a sign convention (forwards +, backwards -)

-When the forward direction is defined as positive and an object is travelling forward,
a positive value for acceleration shows speeding up, and a negative value for
acceleration shows slowing down (deceleration)

-As with velocity, acceleration can be measured instantaneously or as average

acceleration

-The units for acceleration are meters per second per second (m s -2) or less
commonly, kilometres per hour per second (km h -1 s-1)

a = Δv = vf – vi
Δt tf - ti

Graphing Motion

-Even one-dimensional can be complicated when an object is undergoing changes to

its position, velocity, and acceleration

-It can often be useful to analyse the motion of an object in graphical form

-When plotting motion graphs, it is often possible to obtain further information from
the gradient of the line plotted or from the area under the graph

Graph Example
type

Position- s = Δx
time (x-t)
Gradient = Δx = s = v
Δt Δt

For curved line, the gradient of a

tangent to the curve gives
instantaneous velocity

Velocity- Gradient = Δv = vf - vi = a
time (v-t) Δt tf - ti

Area under graph = base x height

= v x Δt
=s

If the negative sign is ignored for

negative velocities, the area under
the graph gives distance instead of
displacement

Acceleration Area under graph = base x height

- time (a-t) = a x Δt
= Δv

Equations for uniform acceleration

-In Physics we will often need to perform calculations involving the displacement,
velocity, acceleration, or time intervals for objects

-Where an object is undergoing uniform (constant) acceleration, we calculate average

acceleration using:
a = vf – v i
Δt

-This can be rearranged to solve for initial or final velocity

vf = vi + aΔt vi = vf – aΔt

-When acceleration is uniform, vav = s = vi + vf

Δt 2

-Rearranging to solve for displacement gives: s = (vi + vf) Δt

 2

-As shown in the graph to the right, a uniformly accelerating

object has an area under its v-t graph equal to v i Δt + (vf - vi)
Δt
2

-The area under a v-t graph gives an objects displacement,

therefore we can use the formula:

s = vi Δt + ½ (vf – vi) Δt

-Substituting [vf – vi = a Δt] into this equation (substituting [a Δt] for [v f – vi]) gives us:

s = vi Δt + ½ a Δt2

-Substituting [vi = vf – a Δt] into the equation (substituting [v f – a Δt] for vi) gives:

s = vf Δt – ½ a Δt2

-Finally, substituting [Δt = (vf – vi) / a] into the equation (substituting [(vf – vi) / a] for
Δt) gives:
v f2 = v i2 + 2 a s

-All problems involving displacement, velocity (initial, final and/or average) and
uniform acceleration are solvable using rearrangements of one of:

vf = vi + aΔt s = ½ (vi + vf) Δt s = vi Δt + ½ aΔt2 s= vf Δt – ½

aΔt2
v2 = vi2 + 2as
Vertical Motion

-In the absence of air resistance, Earth’s gravity causes the same acceleration for all
objects

-Gravitational acceleration is given the symbol g

-Near the Earth’s surface, gravity will accelerate objects at 9.80 m s -2 in the direction
of the Earth’s centre, but the values of g will decrease at higher altitudes

-Whether g has a positive or negative sign depends on the sign convention used

-In vertical motion problems, up is typically designated as the positive direction, so

the value of gravitational acceleration is given as
g = -9.80 m s-2

-Different planets will have different gravitational fields, therefore different values for
g
(e.g. gmoon = 1.60 m s-2)

-As gravitational acceleration can be considered uniform near the Earth’s surface, g
can be substituted for a in equations of linear motion, providing gravitational
acceleration is the only acceleration acting on a body

vf = vi + g Δt s = ½ (vi + vf) Δt s = vi Δt + ½ g Δt 2
s = vf Δt – ½ g Δt2 vf2 = vi2 + 2gs
Momentum

-When people use the word momentum

conversationally, they are generally describing how
much force is required to stop a moving object

-An object that is heavier or travelling faster is

harder to stop than a lighter or slower object

-An object’s momentum is equal to the product of

its mass and its velocity

p=mv where p is momentum (kg m s-1),

m is mass (kg) and v is velocity (m s-1)

-As it includes the product of a vector, momentum

is also a vector quantity

-As we will only be considering momentum in a single dimension, a sign convention of

+ and – is used for changes in momentum

Conservation of momentum

-In any collision between objects, momentum is conserved

-The sum of momentum before the collision is equal to the sum of momentum after
the collision

-This is called the ‘law of conservation of momentum’

∑pi = ∑pf or ∑mvi = ∑mvf

-Problems involving 1D conservation of momentum can be solved by applying a +/-

sign convention to the directions involved and solving the problem algebraically

-For two objects colliding in one dimension, the equation can be stated as:

m(1)vi(1) + m(2)vi(2) = m(1)vf(1) + m(2)vf(2)

where m1 and m2 are the masses of objects 1 and 2 (kg), vi(1) and vi(2) are the initial
velocities the two objects and vf(1) and vf(2) are the final velocities (m s-1)
Proving the law of conservation of momentum (E)

-Newton’s third law states than when two objects collide, the force exerted by the first
object on the second is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
exerted by the second object on the first

-If a sign convention is used to indicate direction, the law can be stated
mathematically as follows:

F1 = -F2

-Newton’s second law states that force is equal to the product of mass and
acceleration, so:

m1a1 = -m2a2

-As acceleration is equal to change in velocity divided by time:

m1(vf(1) – vi(1)) = -m2(vf(2) – vi(2))

t t

-As the time for the collision is equal for both objects, this can be simplified to:

m1(vf(1) – vi(1)) = -m2(vf(2) – vi(2))

-Multiplying out the brackets gives:

m1vf(1) – m1vi(1) = -m2vf(2) + m2vi(2)

-Which can be rearranged to give the law of conservation of momentum

m1vi(1) + m2vi(2) = m1vf(1) + m2vf(2)

Equations for conservation of momentum

-The law of conservation of momentum can be expressed in slightly different ways,

depending on the type of collision and the number of objects involved

-When two objects combine to form a third object, it can be written as:

m1vi(1) + m2vi(2) = m3vf(3)

-In “explosive collisions”, where one object breaks up into two smaller objects, it is
written as:
m1vi(1) = m2vf(2) + m3vf(3)
Newton’s Laws

-Isaac Newton (1643-1727) was an English physicist and

mathematician and one of the most influential scientists in human
history

-His publications laid the foundation for classical mechanics (the

study of motion) and he was also hugely important in the
development of calculus and our understanding of optics and
gravity

-Newton’s laws of motion relate to the action of forces and the

motion of objects

Forces

-In simple terms, a force is defined as a push, a pull, or a twist

-While you cannot directly see a force, it can be recognised by its effect

-A force is anything that can act to change the speed, direction, or shape of an object

-Contact forces are those that act directly on an object (e.g. a cricket bat striking a
ball)

-Non-contact forces are those that act at a distance (e.g. gravity, electrical/magnetic
forces)

-The SI unit for force is the Newton (N), named after Sir Isaac Newton

-A net force of 1 N acting on a mass of 1 kg produces an acceleration of 1 m s -2

-Forces are vectors, so need to be given with a direction, either using a sign
convention (1D) or a bearing (2D)

-When multiple forces are acting on an object, the object will behave as if a single
force equal to the sum of the other forces (net force) was acting on it

-Net force (ΣF or Fnet) can be calculated using vector addition in one or two
dimensions:

ΣF = F1 + F2 + F3 + …… + Fn

Newton's first law

-Isaac Newton’s first law is sometimes called the law of inertia:

“Every object continues in its state of rest or of uniform velocity

 in a straight line, unless acted on by a net external force.”

-When you push a pencil across the desk, it eventually stops moving because of the
force of friction acting on the opposite direction to the pushing force

-Without this friction, it would continue moving until it collided with another object

-Whenever an object is accelerating or decelerating, it must be because a net external

force is acting on the object

-This idea counteracted earlier views that an objects natural state was at rest and that
a force was needed to keep an object in motion

-This tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or motion is known as inertia

-The larger an objects mass, the greater its inertia

Inertial reference frames (E)

-Whenever we describe the motion of an object, the description will be relative to a

frame of reference

-At a Year 11 level, it is generally assumed that the earth’s surface is the frame of
reference, unless stated otherwise

-Newton’s first law does not hold in accelerating reference frames

-In the reference frame of an accelerating car, a cup resting on the dashboard will
start accelerating towards the driver, even though no force has acted on the cup

-Reference frames in which Newton’s first law holds are called inertial reference
frames

-Most of the time it can be assumed that a reference frame that is fixed on the earth
is an inertial reference frame

-Reference frames in which Newton’s first law does not hold are called non-inertial
reference frames

Newton's second law

-While Isaac Newton’s first law describes how an object will maintain its motion in the
absence of a net force acting on it, his second law explains how it will respond when
acted upon by a net force

-This law describes the mathematical relationship between the magnitude of the net
force acting on an object, the mass of the object and the acceleration caused by the
force:

“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force

acting on it and inversely proportional to the object’s mass”
-This law is often written mathematically as:

ΣF = m a where ΣF is net force (N), m is mass (kg)

and a is acceleration (m s-2)

-Newton’s law explains why an object with a lower mass will experience a greater
acceleration than a heavier object when acted upon by a force of similar magnitude
(e.g. why motorcycles are typically capable of a greater acceleration than cars)

-It is important to note that the product of mass and acceleration gives the net force
acting on an object; any individual force may have a higher or lower magnitude

Newton's third law

-When a hammer used to push in a nail, the hammer exerts

a downward force of the nail

-As the hammer hits the head the head of the nail it
abruptly decelerates (accelerates in the upwards direction)

-Newton’s first law tells us that an object will only

experience acceleration if it is acted on by a net force

-The only way that the hammer could experience such a

deceleration is if the nail exerts an upward force on the
hammer at the same time the hammer exerts a downward

-Newton’s third law describes the relationship between these action and reaction
forces:

”Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second

object exerts an equal force in the opposite direction on the first.”

-This is often stated as: for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction
(force)
Identifying action & reaction forces

-When identifying the reaction force for a particular action force, it

can be helpful to label the force as follows:

Fon x by y where: x: “object the force is acting on”

y: “object applying the force”

-Note that while the magnitude of the action and reaction forces is
identical, they will not cause the same acceleration due to the
different masses of the objects they act on

e.g. for a 1.00 kg brick being attracted to the earth by its gravity:

Let upwards be positive and downwards be negative

Fon Earth by brick = - Fon brick by Earth = 9.80 N

abrick = Fon brick by Earth / mbrick = -9.80 / 1.00 = -9.80 m s-2

aEarth = Fon Earth by brick / mEarth = 9.80 / (5.97 x 1024) = 1.65 x 10-24 m s-2

Weight and normal forces

-When an object is falling in mid-air, an unbalanced force is

acting on it, causing it to accelerate towards the ground

-This is the weight force (Fg or Fw), the force due to gravity

Fw = mg

(where Fw is weight force (N), m is mass of the object (kg) and

g is gravitational acceleration (9.80 m s-2 at the Earth’s
surface)

-When an object is placed on the ground, it still experiences

the weight force, but it is no longer accelerating so the weight
force must be being balanced

-In the diagram above, you can see how gravity pulling down
on the bin, causes it to exert a force on the table (F bin on table) that is equal to the weight
force experienced by the bin (Fg)

-Newton’s third law, tells us that this force will be opposed by a reaction force (F table on
bin)

-This contact reaction force provided by a surface that is perpendicular to another

surface is called the normal reaction force
-This is often abbreviated to the normal (FN)

-The normal force provided by a surface will always be equal in

magnitude and opposite in direction to the weight force (F g), they are
technically not an action/reaction force pair, as they are both acting
on the same object

Change in momentum (impulse)

-While total momentum is conserved in a collision, the momentum of any single

object can change

-A collision can cause an object to change its velocity, either by changing its speed or
its direction

-As p = mv, any change in velocity will cause a change in momentum

-Change in momentum (Δp) is known as impulse and has units of kg m s -1

Impulse in one dimension

-Impulse in one dimension is calculated using the formula:

Δp = pf – pi = mvf – mvi
where Δp is impulse (kg m s -1), p is change in momentum and momentum (kg m s -1),
m is mass (kg) and vf and vi are final and initial velocity (m s-1)

Impulse in two dimensions

-When an object changes its direction, this causes a change in its velocity and its
momentum

Δp = mvf – mvi = m(vf – vi) = mΔv

-For impulse in two dimensions, the direction cannot be shown with a sign convention,
so a bearing must be provided

-The change in velocity (Δv) needs to be calculated using vector subtraction by

geometry
by adding together the vectors vf and -vi

-Pythagoras’ theorem is used to calculate the magnitude of Δv and trigonometry is

used to calculate its direction

-The value for impulse can be calculated by multiplying m by Δv, with the direction for
impulse the same as the direction for Δv
Forces & Impulse

-We have already seen that impulse (change in momentum) can be calculated using
the formulae:

I = Δp = mvf – mvi = m (vf – vi) = mΔv

-The formula for acceleration can be rearranged to solve for Δv:

a = Δv , so Δv = aΔt
Δt

-When this is substituted into the first equation, it gives:

I = maΔt

-The formula for force (Fnet = ma) can be substituted into this equation to give:

I = Fnet Δt

-As impulse is the product of F and Δt, it can be given with units of N s (1 N s = 1 kg m
s-1)

Force & time

-This formula shows that for a given change in momentum, the product of the force
experienced and time interval for the momentum change is constant

-This means that the shorter the time interval is, the larger the force experienced will
be
-Designers and engineers use this information in areas such as car safety

-A car with a given mass and travelling at given speed will always experience the
same impulse in a collision that results in it coming to a complete stop

e.g. for a Toyota corolla with a mass of 1375 kg, travelling at 60 km h -1

(16.7 m s-1) that collides with a wall, coming to a complete stop:

I = m(vf – vi) = 1375 x (16.7 – 0) =22 900 kg m

s-1 (3 sf)
-It is impossible to change the impulse for the
collision without changing the cars mass or
initial velocity

-Engineers and designers try to reduce the force

experienced by the occupants of the car by
increasing the time over which the collision
occurs

-One way they do this is with crumple zones,

areas of the car (other than the passenger
compartment) that are designed to crumple in a collision to extend the time over
which the impulse occurs

-Bicycle and motorcycle helmets work in the same way

-A layer of expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) compresses during a collision, increasing

Δt and reducing the force experienced by the brain

-Likewise, this is why it hurts less to fall onto a soft surface (e.g. grass instead of
concrete)

-A soft surface will compress when you fall on it, increasing Δt and reducing F

Determining impulse from changing force

-In many collisions, the force applied is not constant

-While the total impulse can be calculated using; I = FavΔt

the force at any moment in time will not necessarily be equal to the average force

-It can be more useful to plot a force time graph for the collision

-The area under the curve will be equal to the product of force and time (e.g. impulse)

I = FavΔt = area under a F-t graph

e.g. for the graph to the right:

I = area
= (½ x 2 x 10-3 x 60) + (6 x 10-3 x 60) + (½ x 5 x 10-3 x
60)
 = 0.570 kg m s-1

Mass & Weight

-While the terms mass and weight are often used interchangeably, in Physics they
have different meanings

Mass

-Mass is a scalar quantity, related to the amount of matter present in a substance

-While it is impossible to directly measure the matter contained in something, mass

can also be defined by the relationship between force and acceleration

-The mass of an object determines how much acceleration it will experience when
acted upon by a force of a given magnitude:
m= F
a

-Due to this, mass can be can defined as the property of a body that resists a change
in motion caused by a force (e.g. a measure of its inertia)

-The mass of an object is not affected by the strength of a gravitational field

-Applying a 1 N net force to a 1 kg mass will result in a 1 m s -2 acceleration,

regardless of whether it is applied of the Earth (g Earth = 9.8 m s-2) or the moon (gmoon =
1.62 m s-2)

Weight

-An objects weight is the force on the object due to a gravitational field

-It is given the symbol FW or Fg and can be calculated using the formula:

Fw = mg

(where Fw is weight force (N), m is mass of the object (kg) and

g is gravitational acceleration (9.80 m s-2 at the Earth’s surface)

-Force is a vector quantity, so it has a direction (generally provided using a sign

convention)

-Because the strength of a gravitational field depends on the mass of the object, the
value for gravitational acceleration will be different on different planets

-This means that an object will have different weight on the Earth than it will on the
moon, even though they have the same mass

Inclined Planes
-Gravity does not only accelerate objects in free-fall, it will also affect objects on
inclined planes (e.g. slopes/hills)

-This acceleration results from the imbalance between the weight force and the
normal force

-When an object exerts a force on a surface, that surface will

exert a reaction force at 90º to the surface (e.g. the normal
force)

-On a flat surface, the weight force is entirely perpendicular

to the surface, so the normal force completely balances the
weight force

-On an inclined plane, the weight force can be resolved into

components that act parallel with and perpendicular to the
surface

-The normal force will be equal and opposite to the

perpendicular component of the weight force

-The parallel component of the weight force is

unbalanced and provides the net force that accelerates
the object down the slope

-The net force (e.g. the parallel component of the weight

force) can be calculated by:

Fnet = sinθ Fg = sinθ mg where θ is the

angle of the slope to the horizontal

-As this net force is unbalanced, it causes the object to accelerate according to:

a = Fnet = mg sinθ = g sinθ

m m
Friction

Friction (Ff) is the resistance that an object encounters when moving over or through
another medium

It always acts in the direction opposite to the object’s motion

Friction can be classified as static or kinetic, based on whether the object the friction
is acting on is stationary (static) or moving (kinetic)

The frictional force is proportional to the normal force acting on an object, and
coefficients of static (µs) or kinetic (µk) friction are used to calculate the magnitude of
this force

Ff = µFN where µ is the unitless coefficient of static or kinetic friction

Friction and inclined planes

On inclined planes, the frictional force acts parallel with and towards the top of the
incline

If an object is accelerating down an inclined plane, the frictional force (F f) must be less
than the parallel component of the weight force (F f < sinθ Fw)

If an object is stationary or has a constant velocity down the inclined plane, the
frictional force and the weight force will be equal (F f = sinθ Fw)

Solving inclined plane problems

Inclined plane problems typically involve objects that are stationary, moving down a
plane at a constant velocity or accelerating

For objects that are stationary or moving at a constant velocity;

Fg + FN + Ff = Fnet = 0 and sin θ Fg = Ff

For objects that are accelerating down a slope;

Fg + FN + Ff = Fnet ≠ 0 and sin θ Fg > Ff

Objects will be accelerated by the net force acting on them; a = Fnet

m

Forces can be resolved into components that are parallel and perpendicular to the
incline
Motion and Forces Summary

Trigonometry/vectors

sin = (opp/hyp) cos = (adj/hyp) tan = (opp/adj) Grap Gradie Area

h (y- nt (m) und
x) er
Linear motion curv
e
x-Δt v -
v-Δt a s
Time interval: Δt = tf – ti

Displacement: s = Δx = xf – xi

Velocity: vav = s = Δx = xf – xi = vf – vi
Δt Δt t f - ti 2

Acceleration: a = Δv = vf – vi
Δt tf - ti

Equations of linear motion: vf = vi + aΔt s = ½ (vi + vf) Δt s = vi Δt + ½

aΔt2

s= vf Δt – ½ aΔt2 v2 = vi2 + 2as

Momentum & Forces

Momentum: p=mv

Conservation of momentum: ∑mvi = ∑mvf

Newton’s 2nd Law: ΣF = m a

Newton’s 3rd Law: Faction = -Freaction

Weight force: Fw = mg

Impulse: Δp = mvf – mvi = m(vf – vi) = mΔv = F Δt

Friction: Ff = µFN