MATHEMATICAL

INDUCTION

By Kurima Washington
[Link]. Maths (Hons, UZ)
 Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................... 2

Steps For Mathematical Induction .............................. 2

DIVISIBILITY ......................................................... 2

SERIES ...................................................................... 4

Facts on Series................................................... 4

MATRICES .............................................................. 7

COMPLEX NUMBERS .......................................... 8

RECURSIVE FORMULAE.................................... 9

CALCULUS ............................................................10

Differentiation.................................................10

Integration ........................................................12

INEQUALITIES ....................................................14

1
 Mathematical statements which can either be true or false,
INTRODUCTION like the one above, are called Proposition and are denoted by
P(n).
So in this case
Let P(n) be 8𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 7
Step 1: Base Case/Basis
Here we need to test whether this proposition is true for
smallest value of n, that is 𝑛 = 1
So for 𝑛 = 1: 81 − 1
8−1
Mathematical induction is a mathematical art of reasoning 7
that is used to prove the validity of mathematical statements.
Mathematical induction is one of the powerful tools used by Hence the statement P (n) is true for n=1
mathematicians in proving mathematical statement or
propositions. When performing Mathematical induction, we Step 2: Assumption/Inductive Hypothesis
follow certain steps
Assume that the statement, P(n), is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

STEPS FOR MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION That is 8𝑘 − 1 is divisible by 7.

1) Base Step: For a given Mathematical statement we Remember that if a number is divisible by 7 then it is a
prove that it is true for the smallest case. In most multiple of 7 or it can be written as 7𝑎, where 𝑎 is an integer
cases we prove that it is true for 𝑛 = 1
2) Assumption Stage. Here you assume that the given Since at this stage we are saying 8𝑘 − 1 is divisible by 7,
statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 then this can be written as
3) Thesis/Inductive: Here you test for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
8𝑘 − 1 = 7𝑎
4) Conclusion: You conclude that the statement is true
for all 𝑛. Step 3: Inductive Step
Mathematical induction can be use in almost all disciplines For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
of mathematics. At this level we are going to use
Mathematical Induction on: Here we want to prove that P(n) is true for n=k+1. That is ,
8𝑘+1 − 1 is divisible by 7, implying
 Series
 Divisibility 8𝑘+1 − 1 = 7𝑚 for some 𝑚 ∈ ℤ
 Matrices
Proof: Here we start with the statement
 Complex Numbers
 Recursive Formula 8𝑘+1 − 1
 Calculus (Differentiation & Integration)
 Inequalities = 8(8𝑘 ) − 1
From the Assumption we made, we had the equation
8𝑘 − 1 = 7𝑎. Making 8𝑘 the subject of the formula give
DIVISIBILITY 8𝑘 = 7𝑎 + 1 and substitute on the above expression we get
Example 1
= 8(7𝑎 + 1) − 1
Prove that 8𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 7 for all natural values of n.
= 56𝑎 + 8 − 1
Solution
= 56𝑎 + 7
In carrying out this proof, we are going to stick to the four
step of Mathematical Induction that we have highlighted. = 7(8𝑎 + 1)
Here we are dealing with the statement = 7𝑚 where 𝑚 = 8𝑎 + 1
𝑛
8 − 1 is divisible by 7 Hence the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

2
STEP 4: Conclusion Since P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then P(n)
is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
Since the statement P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1 , 𝑛 = 𝑘 and
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 hence it is true for all natural values of n.
Example 2 Just because we managed to factor out 4 on step
3 then we have already shown that the statement
Prove that 5𝑛 + 9𝑛 + 2 is divisible by 4 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
𝟓𝒌+𝟏 + 𝟗𝒌+𝟏 + 𝟐 is a multiple of 4, that is, it is
Solution: divisible by 4
Here again we all following all the four steps of
Mathematical induction.
Always note that when doing your calculations, you do not
Let P(n) be 5𝑛 + 9𝑛 + 2 is divisible by 4 write the headings Step 1, Step 2, etc. You can just do your
Step 1: Base Case proof without showing these headings as shown in the next
example.
For 𝑛 = 1: 51 + 91 + 2
=5 + 9 + 2 Example 3

= 16 (is divisible by 4) Prove that, for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑛3 + 6𝑛2 + 8𝑛 is divisible by 3.

Hence P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1. Solution:

Step 2: Assumption Stage Let P(n) be the statement 𝑛3 + 6𝑛2 + 8𝑛 is divisible 3.

Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. For 𝑛 = 1: (1)3 + 6(1)2 + 8(1)

That is 5𝑘 + 9𝑘 + 2 is divisible by 4 wich is the equation : =1+6+8

5𝑘 + 9𝑘 + 2 = 4𝑎 =15 which is divisible by 3

Step 3: Inductive Step Hence P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1

For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 Assume that P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

We need to show that 5𝑘+1 + 9𝑘+1 + 2 𝑘 3 + 6𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 = 3𝑎

Proof: 5𝑘+1 + 9𝑘+1 + 2 For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

= 5(5𝑘 ) + 9(9𝑘 ) + 2 R.T.P. (Required to Prove that)

(𝑘 + 1)3 + 6(𝑘 + 1)2 + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 3𝑞 for some integer 𝑞

Making 5𝑘 the subject of the formula on the Assumption
stage, we get 5𝑘 = 4𝑎 − 9𝑘 − 2 and substitute for 5𝑘 to get Proof

= 5(4𝑎 − 9𝑘 − 2) + 9(9𝑘 ) + 2 (𝑘 + 1)3 + 6(𝑘 + 1)2 + 8(𝑘 + 1)

= 20𝑎 − 5(9𝑘 ) − 10 + 9(9𝑘 ) + 2 = 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 + 6(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1) + 8𝑘 + 8

= 20𝑎 − 5(9𝑘 ) + 9(9𝑘 ) − 10 + 2 = 𝑘 3 + 3𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1 + 6𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 6 + 8𝑘 + 8

= 20𝑎 + 4(9𝑘 ) − 8 = 𝑘 3 + 9𝑘 2 + 23𝑘 + 9

=4(5𝑎 + 9𝑘 − 2) , a multiple of 4 From the assumption 𝑘 3 = 3𝑎 − 6𝑘 2 − 8𝑘

Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. = (3𝑎 − 6𝑘 2 − 8𝑘) + 9𝑘 2 + 23𝑘 + 9

Step 4: Conclusion = 3𝑎 + 3𝑘 2 + 15𝑘 + 9

= 3(𝑎 + 𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 3), a multiple of 3

3
Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 o A sum of 5 terms is the same as a sum of the four
two terms plus the last fifth term. That is
Since P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1′ 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 , the the 3 2
statement P(n) is true for all positive integer values of 𝑛. ∑ 𝑈𝑟 = ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈3
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

EXERCISE 1 o A sum of 10 terms is the same as a sum of the first

nine terms plus the last tenth term. That is
Prove that, for all 𝒏 ∈ ℤ+ , 3 2

∑ 𝑈𝑟 = ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈3
a) 𝟑𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 is divisible by 8 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝟒𝒏
b) 𝟐 − 𝟏 is divisible by 15
c) 𝟑 𝟐𝒏−𝟏
+ 𝟏 is divisible by 4 o In general, a sum of n terms is the same as a sum of
the first 𝑛 − 1 terms plus the last 𝑛𝑡ℎ term. That is
d) 𝟕𝒏 + 𝟐 is divisible by 3 𝑛 𝑛−1
e) 𝒏𝟑 − 𝒏 is divisible by 3 ∑ 𝑈𝑟 = ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈𝑛
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
f) 𝒏𝟑 + 𝟐𝒏 is a multiple of 3
o For a sum of (𝑛 + 1) terms, it is the same as the
g) 𝟐𝒏 ∙ 𝟑𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 is divisible by 17
sum of the first 𝑛 terms plus the (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ term. In
h) 𝟗𝒏 − 𝟖𝒏 − 𝟗 is divisible by 64 sigma notation this is
𝑛+1 𝑛
i) 𝟕𝒏 − 𝟒𝒏 − 𝟑𝒏 is a multiple of 12.
∑ 𝑈𝑟 = ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈𝑛+1
j) 𝟓𝟐𝒏 − 𝟔𝒏 + 𝟖 is divisible by 9
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
k) 𝟓𝟐𝒏 − 𝟑𝟐𝒏 is a multiple of 𝟖.
l) 𝟕𝒏 − 𝟔𝒏 − 𝟏 is divisible by 36
The last part above is very important in Mathematical
induction. When given
𝐾+1

∑ 𝑈𝑘
SERIES 𝑟=1

We also use Mathematical Induction to prove statements , it can be split as

𝑘
involving series. When performing Mathematical induction,
we still stick to the 4 steps ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈𝑘+1
𝑟=1

 Base Case : Test for 𝑛 = 1

That is
 Assumption: Assume that the given statement is
𝑘+1 𝑘
true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
∑ 𝑈𝑘 = ∑(𝑈𝑘 ) + 𝑈𝑘+1
 Inductive Step: Test for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
 Conclusion
Where 𝑈𝑘+1 is the (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ term.
Facts on Series.
Before we get into the proof, you need to remember the Example 1
following facts on series
Prove by induction that, for all positive integer 𝑛
o A sum of 3 terms is the same as a sum of the first 𝑛
two terms plus the last third term. That is ∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛2
3 2 𝑟=1

∑ 𝑈𝑟 = ∑(𝑈𝑟 ) + 𝑈3
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

4
 𝑘
Solution
= ∑(2𝑟 − 1) + [2(𝑘 + 1) − 1]
Here we are following all the four steps of Mathematical 𝑟=1
induction.
But from the assumption we made on step 2 we have
STEP 1 𝑘

For 𝑛 = 1 ∶ we need to show that the Left Hand Side of ∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑘 2

𝑟=1
𝑛

∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛2 So
𝑘+1
𝑟=1
∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑘 2 + [2(𝑘 + 1) − 1
is the same as its right hand side. 𝑟=1

On the Left hand side, on (2𝑟 − 1) substiture 𝑟 with 𝑟 = = 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 2 − 1

[Link] the right hand side substitute 1 for n on 𝑛2 .
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 (now factorise)
So for 𝑛 = 1
=(𝑘 + 1)2
LHS=2𝑟 − 1 RHS=𝑛2
Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
= 2(1) − 1 =(1)2
Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
=2−1 =1 therefore the statement is true for all positive integer 𝑛.

=1 Example 2

Since LHS=RHS, then the statement is true for n=1 Prove by induction that, for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ,
𝑛
STEP 2 1
∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = 𝑛(3𝑛 − 1)
2
Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. 𝑟=1

That is , replacing n with k, Solution:

𝑘
𝑛
∑(2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑘 2 1
Let P(n)be the statement ∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = 𝑛(3𝑛 − 1)
𝑟=1 2
𝑟=1

STEP 3 1
For 𝑛 = 1: LHS = 3𝑟 − 2 RHS= 𝑛(3𝑛 − 1)
2
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to show that
1
=3(1) − 2 = (1)[3(1) − 1]
𝑘+1 2

∑(2𝑟 − 1) = (𝑘 + 1)2 1
=3 − 2 = (2)
𝑟=1 2

Proof: =1 =1

Using the fact that a sum of (𝑘 + 1) terms is the same as the Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1
sum of the first 𝑛 terms plus the (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ term.
Assume that P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. That is
𝑘+1 𝑘
𝑘
∑(2𝑟 − 1) = ∑(2𝑟 − 1) + 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 1
∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = 𝑘(3𝑘 − 1)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1 2
𝑟=1
𝑡ℎ
The (𝑘 + 1) 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is found by 𝑟 = 𝑘 + 1 on (2𝑟 − 1)
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 we need to show that

5
 𝑘+1
1 Example
∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = (𝑘 + 1)[3(𝑘 + 1) − 1]
2 Prove by induction that for all positive integer values of n
𝑟=1

which, in simplified form, is 1

12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
3
𝑘+1
1
∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = (𝑘 + 1)(3𝑘 + 2) Solution
2
𝑟=1
Let P(n) be the statement
Proof:
1
𝑘+1 𝑘
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
3

∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = ∑(3𝑟 − 2) + (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Note that, in sigma notation,
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑛
But the (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 is found by substituting 𝑟 with 𝑘 + 1
1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = ∑(2𝑟 − 1)2
2 2 2 2
on 3𝑟 − 2. 𝑟=1

So the (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 3(𝑘 + 1) − 2 = 3𝑘 + 1 So here we need to prove that

𝑛
Also note that, from the assumption, on step 2, 1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
𝑘 3
1 𝑟=1
∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = 𝑘(3𝑘 − 1)
2 So for 𝑛 = 1
𝑟=1

𝑘+1 𝑘 1
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (2𝑟 − 1)2 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
𝑠𝑜 ∑ 3𝑟 − 2 = ∑(3𝑟 − 2) + (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 3
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
1
=[2(1) − 1]2 = (1)[4(1)2 − 1]
1 3
= 𝑘(3𝑘 − 1) + 3𝑘 + 1
2 1
= [1]2 = [3]
3
3𝑘 2 1
= − 𝑘 + 3𝑘 + 1
2 2 =1 =1
3𝑘 2 5 Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1
= + 𝑘+1
2 2
Assume that 𝑃(𝑛) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
3𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 2
= 𝑘
2 1
⟹ ∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = 𝑘(4𝑘 2 − 1)
(3𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 1) 3
= 𝑟=1
2
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(3𝑘 + 2) 𝑘+1
2 1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)[4(𝑘 + 1)2 − 1]
Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 3
𝑟=1

Since P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then P(n) Which reduces to

is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
𝑘+1
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)[4(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1) − 1]
3
𝑟=1
Note that the whole proof of Mathematical Induction is on 𝑘+1
step 3 (the inductive/ thesis step). On this step make sure in 1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)[4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 4 − 1]
doing your proof , you use the assumption made on step 2. 3
𝑟=1

6
 𝑘+1
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 =
3
(𝑘 + 1)[4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 3] EXERCISE 2
𝑟=1

𝑘+1
Prove by induction that for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ,
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
3
𝑟=1 a) σ𝑛𝑟=1 4𝑟 − 3 = 𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
Proof
b) σ𝑛𝑟=1 6𝑛 = 3𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑘+1 𝑘

∑(2𝑟 − 1) = ∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

2 c) σ𝑛𝑟=1 2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛 − 1
𝑟=1 𝑟=1
𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
𝑘+1 d) σ𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) = 3
1
∑(2𝑟 − 1)2 = 𝑘(4𝑘 2 − 1) + [2(𝑘 + 1) − 1]2
3 1
𝑟=1 e) σ𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
6
1
= 𝑘(2𝑘 − 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + [2𝑘 + 1]2 5𝑛
3
f) 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 + ⋯ + 5𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)
2
Always avoid expanding the brackets, try to factorise where
1
possible. Note that expanding the brackets will give a cubic g) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = 4 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
polynomial which may be difficult to factorise. So avoid
unnecessary expansions. 1 1 1 𝑛
h) + + ⋯ + (3𝑛−1)(3𝑛+2) =
2×5 5×8 6𝑛+4
Here we need to factor out (2k+1) so that we get
i) σ𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(2𝑟−1 ) = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)2𝑛
1
=(2𝑘 + 1) [ 𝑘(2𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1)]
3 𝑛
j) σ𝑛𝑟=1(𝑟 + 3)(2𝑟 + 1) = 6 (4𝑛2 + 27𝑛 + 41)
𝑘(2𝑘−1)+3(2𝑘+1)
= (2𝑘 + 1) [ ]
3

2𝑘+1
= [𝑘(2𝑘 − 1) + 3(2𝑘 + 1)]
3

1
= (2𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 − 𝑘 + 6𝑘+3
3
MATRICES
1 2
= (2𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 + 5𝑘 + 3] Example
3

1 2 0 𝑛 2𝑛 0
= (2𝑘 + 1)(2k+3)(k+1) Prove by induction that ( ) =( 𝑛 ) for all
3 1 1 2 −1 1
1 positive integers 𝑛.
= (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)(2k+3)
3
Solution
Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
For 𝑛 = 1
Since P(𝑛) is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 therefore
2 0 1 1
P(n) is true for all positive integer values of n LHS=( ) RHS=( 12 0)
1 1 2 −1 1
2 0 2 0
=( ) =( )
In conducting your proof , when testing for 𝑛 = 1 and 1 1 1 1

Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1.

𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 make sure you comment after doing your
calculations. Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

2 0 𝑘 𝑘
⟹ ( ) = ( 𝑘2 0)
1 1 2 −1 1

7
 For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
2) Prove by induction that , for 𝑛 ≥ 1,
𝑘+1
2 0 2 𝑘+1
0) 3𝑛 − 1
We need to show that ( ) = ( 𝑘+1 𝑛 3 𝑛
0
1 1 2 −1 1 3 1 0 ‫ۇ‬ 2 ‫ۊ‬
൭ 0 1 0൱ = ‫ ۈ‬0 1 0‫ۋ‬
Remember that this is where all the proof starts. 𝑛
0 −1 4 1−4
0 4𝑛
‫ۉ‬ 3 ‫ی‬
Proof: 2 5
3) The matrix 𝑴 = ( ).
0 1
2 0 𝑘+1 2 0 𝑘 2 0 Prove by induction that for all positive integers 𝑛,
( ) =( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
2𝑛 5(2𝑛 − 1)
𝑴𝑛 = ( ).
2 0 𝑘 𝑘 0 1
From the assumption we have ( ) = ( 𝑘2 0)
Hence find an expression for (𝑴𝑛 )−1 in terms of 𝑛.
1 1 2 −1 1

So
2 0 𝑘+1 𝑘
0) ( 2 0
= ( 𝑘2
(
1 1
)
2 −1 1 1 1
)
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Example
Now we do the Row by Column matrix multiplication on the
RHS. Prove by induction that , for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃 if

2 0 𝑘+1 2𝑘 ∙ 2 + 0 ∙ 1 2𝑘 ∙ 0 + 0 ∙ 1 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
( ) =( 𝑘 𝑘 )
1 1 (2 − 1) ∙ 2 + 1 ∙ 1 (2 − 1) ∙ 0 + 1 ∙ 1
Solution
2𝑘+1 + 0
= ( 𝑘+1 0 + 0)
2 −2+1 0+1 For 𝑛 = 1
2𝑘+1
=( 𝑘+1 0) 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 −1 1

Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖(1)𝜃

Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, therefore it is true for all positive integers 𝑛. Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

⟹ 𝑧 𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝜃
EXERCISE 3
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, 𝑧 𝑘+1 = 𝑟 𝑘+1 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+1)𝜃
1) Prove by induction that for all positive values of 𝑛,
Proof:
𝑛
1 3 1 3𝑛
a) ( ) =( ) 𝑧 𝑘+1 = 𝑧 𝑘 ∙ 𝑧
0 1 0 1
−2 9 𝑛 −3𝑛 + 1 9𝑛
b) ( ) =( ) = 𝑟 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝜃 (r𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
−1 4 −𝑛 3𝑛 + 1
𝑎𝑛+1 −𝑎
𝑎 𝑛
1 1 2 6
c) ( ) = ቆ1 𝑎−1 ቇ. Hence simplify ( ) = 𝑟 𝑘 ∙ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝜃 ∙ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑎𝑎 0 𝑎 𝑛 𝑎 2
−1 0 2𝑛 1 0 = 𝑟 𝑘+1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝜃+𝑖𝜃
d) ( ) =( )
1 1 0 1
2 𝑎 𝑛 2𝑛 (2𝑛 − 1)𝑎 = 𝑟 𝑘+1 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘+1)𝜃
e) ( ) =( )
0 1 0 1
Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1 0
2) Let 𝑨 = ( ). Use induction to prove that, for all
−1 2 Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1,
1 0 then it is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ .
positive integers 𝑨𝑛 = ( ). Determine whether
1 − 2𝑛 2 𝑛
or not the formula is valid for when 𝑛 = −1.

8
Example Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

Prove by induction that , for all 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , Since P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 therefore
P(n) is true for all positive integers 𝑛.
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

Solution:
RECURSIVE FORMULAE
Let P(n) be the statement Example1:
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
A sequences 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … is defined by 𝑢1 = 2 and
For 𝑛 = 1
1
𝑢𝑛+1 = 2 − , for 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1 𝑢𝑛
LHS=(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) RHS= cos 1𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 1𝜃
𝑛+1
= cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 Prove by induction that 𝑢𝑛 = for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
𝑛

Therefore the P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1 Solution

1
Assume that P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 Here were are using these recursive formula 𝑢𝑛+1 = 2 −
𝑢𝑛

That is (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑘 = cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃 in proving the proposition

For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to show that 𝑛+1

𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) 𝑘+1 = cos(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃
For 𝑛 = 1
Proof 𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) 𝑘+1
1+1
𝑘
𝑢1 =
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) (cos 𝜃 +𝑖 sin 𝜃) 1

𝑢1 = 2
= (cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃)(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) from the assumption

= cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝑘𝜃 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 +𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃cos 𝜃 + Therefore true for 𝑛 = 1 since we are told in the question
that 𝑢1 = 2
𝑖 2 sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑛+1
Assume that the statement 𝑢𝑛 = is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.
𝑛
Remember that 𝑖 2 = −1. So 𝑖 2 sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 = − sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃.
𝑘+1
That is 𝑢𝑘 =
Regrouping the real and the imaginary terms together gives 𝑘

=cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑖coskθ sin θ + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to show that
(𝑘+1)+1 𝑘+2
=cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 + coskθ sin θ) 𝑢𝑘+1 = =
𝑘+1 𝑘+1

But also note that, from trigonometry Proof:

cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 In doing this proof, we use the recursive formula
1
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑢𝑛+1 = 2 −
𝑢𝑛

So cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cos(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃) and So 𝑢𝑘+1 = 2 −

1
𝑢𝑘
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 + coskθ sin θ = sin( 𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃) 𝑘+1
But from the assumption we have the value of 𝑢𝑘 which is
𝑘
=cos(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃)
1
So 𝑢𝑘+1 = 2 − 𝑘+1
=cos(𝑘 + 1) 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 𝑘

9
 𝑘
= 2−
𝑘+1 CALCULUS
2(𝑘+1)−𝑘
=
𝑘+1 Differentiation
2𝑘+2−𝑘 Before we delve into the proofs, we have to remind one
=
𝑘+1 another of the following facts about derivatives
𝑘+2 𝑑
= The notation [𝑓(𝑥)] implies the derivative of the function
𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
dy 𝑑
Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 ,  The derivative of 𝑦 is that is (𝑦)
dx 𝑑𝑥
then we can conclude that the statement is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 1. dy 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
 The derivative of is that is ( )
dx 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑦
 The derivative of is that is ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
EXERCISE 4  The derivative of
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
is
𝑑 𝑛+1 𝑦
that is
𝑑
(
𝑑𝑛𝑦
)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
1) Given that 𝑈𝑛+1 = 3𝑈𝑛 + 4 and 𝑈1 = 1 .Prove by
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
mathematical induction that for 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ So always remember that is the derivative of .
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
𝑈𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 2 When proving the third step of induction, for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1,
2) A sequence 𝑢1 ; 𝑢2 ; 𝑢3 is defined by
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑘 𝑦 𝑑𝑘𝑦
we use the fact that = ( ), the derivative of .
1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑢1 = 2, 𝑢𝑛+1 = 2 − .
𝑢𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑𝑘 𝑦
Prove by induction that for all 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑢𝑛 = . In calculating you just differentiate .
𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘

3) Prove by induction that if 𝑢1 = 5 and Example

𝑑
𝑢𝑛+1 = 2𝑢𝑛 − 3𝑛(−1)𝑛 then 𝑢𝑛 = 3(2𝑛 ) + (−1)𝑛 𝑛 Prove by induction that (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 for all positive 𝑛.
𝑑𝑥
4) A sequence 𝑢0 , 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 is defined by
𝑢0 = 2and 𝑢𝑛+1 = 1 − 2𝑢𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 0. Solution.
Prove by induction that, for all 𝑛 ≥ 0, For 𝑛 = 1
1
𝑢𝑛 = {1 + 5(−2)𝑛 }
3 Here we need to show that LHS=RHS. In Proving the LHS we
State, and briefly give a reason for your answer, are not going to use the technique of dropping the power
whether the sequence is convergent. because that is what we want to prove, so we need to use
5) Consider the sequence define by the relationship other means of computing
𝑑
(𝑥 𝑛 ). Here on the LHS we are
𝑑𝑥
𝑢𝑛+1 = 5𝑢𝑛 + 2 whose first term is 𝑢1 =1.
going to use differentiation from the first principle.
i) Show that the first four terms are 1; 7; 37 and
187. From the first principle, remember that
ii) Use the method of induction to prove that
1
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑢𝑛 = [3(5𝑛−1 ) − 1]. [𝑓(𝑥)] = lim
2 𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

Now for 𝑛 = 1,
𝑑
LHS= (𝑥 1 )
𝑑𝑥

Here 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 1 = 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑥 + ℎ

Using the first principle

𝑑 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
[𝑓(𝑥)] = lim
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ

10
 Example
𝑑 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
[𝑥] = lim 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ Prove that if 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 , then = (𝑥 + 𝑛)𝑒 𝑥 for all natural
𝑑𝑥 𝑛

𝑑 ℎ values of 𝑛.
[𝑥] = lim ( )
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
Solution
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)] = lim (1) = 1 For 𝑛 = 1
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0

𝑑 𝑑1 𝑦
RHS= (𝑥 1 ) = (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1
= (1)𝑥 1−1 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= 1∙1
Proof : Since 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
=1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Then =𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. That is 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑘 ⟹ = 1 and = 𝑒𝑥
(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
dy
So = 𝑒 𝑥 (1) + 𝑥(𝑒 𝑥 )
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to show that dx

𝑑 𝑘+1 = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)
(𝑥 ) = (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 (𝑘+1)−1
𝑑𝑥
= (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
= (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘
Hence the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1
Proof:
Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘.
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 𝑘+1 ) = (𝑥 𝑘 ∙ 𝑥) 𝑑𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
That is = (𝑥 + 𝑘)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Here we use the product rule
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 we need to show that
𝑑 𝑘 𝑑
=𝑥∙ (𝑥 ) + 𝑥 𝑘 ∙ (𝑥) 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1
𝑑
From the assumption and the base case, (𝑥 𝑘 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1
𝑑𝑥 Proof:
𝑑
and (𝑥) = 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑘𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑𝑘 𝑦
= ( ) is the derivative of
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
So (𝑥 𝑘+1 ) = 𝑥. (𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 ) + 𝑥 𝑘 (1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
= (𝑥 + 𝑘)𝑒 𝑥 from the assumption
𝑘 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥
Here we differentiate (𝑥 + 𝑘)𝑒 𝑥 using the product rule
= (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1) + (𝑥 + 𝑘)𝑒 𝑥
Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
= 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑘)
Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1,
then the statement is true for all positive 𝑛. = (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1)𝑒 𝑥

Therefore the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

11
Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 we need to show that
then it is true for all natural values of 𝑛.
𝑑 (𝑘+1)+2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑘+1)+1 𝑦
(𝑘+1)+2
= 2[(𝑘 + 1) + 1] 𝑘+1 + 2𝑥 (𝑘+1)+1
Example 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

If
dy
= 2𝑥𝑦 − 1, show by induction that for 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑑 𝑘+3 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
dx = 2(𝑘 + 2) + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+3 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
𝑑 𝑛+2 𝑦 𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑 𝑛+1 𝑦 Proof
= 2(𝑛 + 1) + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+2 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑘+3 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
Solution 𝑘+3
= ቆ ቇ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
For 𝑛 = 1
𝑑 𝑑𝑘 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦
= ቆ2(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘 + 2𝑥 𝑘+1 ቇ
𝑑1+2 𝑦 𝑑1 𝑦 𝑑1+1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2(1 + 1) + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1+2 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1+1
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
= 2(𝑘 + 1) +2∙ + 2𝑥
𝑑 𝑦3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
=4 + 2𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
= [2(𝑘 + 1) + 2] + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
dy
In proving for 𝑛 = 1 we have to show that = 2𝑥𝑦 − 1, if
dx
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 = [2(𝑘 + 1) + 2] + 2𝑥 𝑘+2
further differentiated, leads to =4 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

Proof :Here we are using the product rule to differentiate 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
= 2[(𝑘 + 1) + 1] + 2𝑥
2𝑥𝑦 Note that the derivative of 𝑦 is
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦
dy = 2(𝑘 + 2) + 2𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+2
dx
Therefore true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
= 𝑦 ∙ (2) + 2𝑥 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1,
therefore the statement is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑦 + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Integration
We further differentiate again to get the third derivative. On Example
𝑑𝑦
differentiating 2𝑥 we use the product rule and again, here 1
𝑑𝑥
Prove by induction that ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1
dy 𝑑2𝑦 𝑛+1
note that the derivative of is .
dx 𝑑𝑥 2
Solution
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
= 2 + ∙ 2 + 2𝑥 ∙ For 𝑛 = 1:
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 Starting with the Left Hand Side

= 2 + 2 + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
∫ 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
= 4 + +2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
Now to integrate 𝑥 we cannot use the power rule of
Therefore true, for 𝑛 = 1. increasing the power because that is the proposition which
we want to prove. So to integrate 𝑥 we need to use other
Assume the statement is true 𝑛 = 𝑘.
techniques of integration like the product rule, substitution
That is or recognition.

𝑑 𝑘+2 𝑦 𝑑𝑘 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘+1 𝑦 Here we are going to use the geometrical interpretation for
𝑘+2
= 2(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘 + 2𝑥 𝑘+1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

12
 𝑥
Note that ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 Proof

𝑥
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑘 ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑥 By parts let 𝑢=𝑥 and = 𝑥𝑘
𝑑𝑥
So ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑑𝑢
the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑥 as shown below. = 1 and 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒚=𝒙
1
But from the assumption made, ∫ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑘+1 ,
𝑘+1
(𝒙; 𝒚)
1
So 𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑘+1
𝑘+1

So by parts,

𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
∫𝑢 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Since ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =Area of the Green triangle 1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ( 𝑥 𝑘+1 ) − ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 ∙ 1 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑘+1 𝑘+1
= 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
𝑥 𝑘+2 1
1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥
= (𝑥)(𝑦) 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
2

Grouping like terms gives

But, from the equation of the line, 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑥 1 1 𝑥 𝑘+2
So ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥)(𝑥) ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 =
2 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
1
= 𝑥2 1 𝑥 𝑘+2
2 (1 + ) ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑘+1 𝑘+1
𝑥
Since ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑘+2 𝑥 𝑘+2
1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 =
Hence ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
2

𝑥 𝑘+2 𝑘 + 1
Now going to the Right hand Side for 𝑛 = 1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∙
𝑘+1 𝑘+2
1 1
RHS= 𝑥 1+1 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑘+2
1+1 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 =
1 𝑘+2
Therefore the statement ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 is true for 𝑛 =
𝑛+1
1. Therefore true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 Since the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 = 𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
therefore the statement is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1
That is ∫ 𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑘+1
𝑘+1 Note that in this proof, there are several ways of proving the
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to prove that base case. On proving the base case, some mathematicians
use the integration by parts and other methods and all those
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑘+1)+1 methods are correct in their sense.
(𝑘 + 1) + 1

which reduces to

1
∫ 𝑥 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑘+2
𝑘+2

13
 EXERCISE From the LHS to the RHS

1). It is given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 . We start from the assumption:

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 (1 + 𝑥)𝑘 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥

a) Show that = 4𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2.
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
b) Hence, prove by induction that the statement Now lets multiply both sided with (1 + 𝑥) so that the left
𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 hand side becomes (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 .
= (𝑛 − 1)(2𝑒 𝑥 ) + 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1
is true for all positive integers 𝑛 such that 𝑛 ≥ 2. (1 + 𝑥)𝑘 (1 + 𝑥) ≥ (1 + 𝑘𝑥)(1 + 𝑥)

1 (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2
2). Given that 𝑦 = , where 𝑎 is a constant.
𝑎𝑥+1
Now note that we want to show that
dy 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦
a) Find an expression for , 2, 3 , giving you
dx 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 but we have obtained that
(−𝑎)𝑘 𝑘!
answers in the form where 𝑘 = 1, 2 or
(𝑎𝑥+1)𝑘+1

3. (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 when we multiplied both

b) Hence suggest the formula for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative sides by (1 + 𝑥). Now we are close to completing our proof.
of 𝑦 in term of 𝑎 and 𝑛. We now have to compare 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 and 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 .
c) Prove by induction the suggested 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative
Note that 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 because of the
of 𝑦
extra term 𝑘𝑥 2 on the Left Hand Side. Also note that 𝑘𝑥 2 is
positive since 𝑘 is a positive integer.

INEQUALITIES So since 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 and we have

Example established that (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 then it
means that (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥
Prove by mathematical induction that (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≥ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for
all positive integer 𝑛.
Hence we have proven that (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥, which
Solution is the statement for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

Let P(n) ne the proposition (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≥ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 Hence P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

For 𝑛 = 1
Now that P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 =k and 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then
1
(1 + 𝑥) ≥ 1 + 1 ∙ 𝑥 P(n) is true for all positive integers 𝑛.

1+𝑥 ≥1+𝑥 The idea in proving inequalities is to use the transitive

relation : If 𝐴 > 𝐵 and 𝐵 > 𝐶 then 𝐴 > 𝐶.
Therefore P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 1
In the previous example, from on the thesis/inductive step,
Assume that P(n) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 we wanted to prove that (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 and we
That is (1 + 𝑥)𝑘 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 established the inequality (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 . But
using the transitive relation :If 𝑨 ≥ 𝑩 and 𝑩 ≥ 𝑪 then 𝑨 ≥ 𝑪
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, we need to show that
, we see that if (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 and 1 +
(1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 2 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥, then (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥.

which is (1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥

Proof

Here we are going to prove our statement

(1 + 𝑥)𝑘+1 ≥ 1 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑥

14
 Since the statement is true for the base case 𝑛 = 5, the
assumption 𝑛 = 𝑘 and true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, then it is true for
Example
all 𝑛 > 4.
Prove by induction that 2𝑛 > 𝑛2 for all integers 𝑛 > 4
Please note that on the inductive step we could have just
Solution said that 2𝑘 2 > 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 but it is not convincing enough.

Base Case: Here we use the smallest value of 𝑛 which is

𝑛 = 5. We cannot use 𝑛 = 1 because we have been given a
range 𝑛 > 4 and 1 is not in this range. EXERCISE 6

For 𝑛 = 5 : 25 > 52 Prove by induction that

:32 > 25 Therefore true for 𝑛 = 5 a) 𝟑𝒏 > 𝟏 + 𝒏 for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏.

Assume the statement 2𝑛 > 𝑛2 is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘. b) 𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 < (𝟏 + 𝒏)𝟐 for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏.
c) 𝟑𝒏 ≥ 𝟑𝒏 for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏.
That is 2𝑘 > 𝑘 2 .
d) 𝒏𝒏 > 𝟐𝒏 for all 𝒏 > 𝟐.
𝑘+1 2
For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. We need to show that 2 > (𝑘 + 1) e) 𝒏! > 𝒏𝟐 for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
which reduces to 2𝑘 > 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 f) 𝟏+ + + ⋯+ > 𝟐(ξ𝒏 + 𝟏 − 𝟏) for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏
ξ𝟐 ξ𝟑 ξ𝒏

Proof:

To avoid difficulties, take it from the assumption step

2𝑘 > 𝑘 2

Multiply both sides by two inorder to get 2𝑘+1 on the Left

Hand Side.

2 ∙ 2𝑘 > 2 ∙ 𝑘 2

2𝑘+1 > 2𝑘 2

2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2

Here we want to prove that 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1.

Now we have established that 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2 .

Now we want to compare 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2 and 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 +

2𝑘 + 1 in order to complete our proof. Note that on the Right
Hand Side of 2𝑘+1 > 𝒌𝟐 + 2𝑘 + 1 and 2𝑘+1 > 𝒌𝟐 + 𝑘 2 here
is 𝒌𝟐 so ingnoring 𝑘 2 > 2𝑘 + 1these 𝒌𝟐 purple terms, we are
left to compare the red terms in red . Now note that on the
terms in red, all 𝑘 > 4, leading us to conclude that 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2 ≥
𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 for all 𝑘 > 4.

Hence 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 because 2𝑘+1 > 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2 and

𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2 ≥ 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 for all 𝑘 > 4. Hence the statement is

true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

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