Crystal Field Theory of Co-ordination compounds

Crystal field theory was formulated by Berthe and Van Vlick in1930.It
was originally applied mainly to ionic crystals. Due to this reason it is
called crystal field theory (CFT). Orgel in 1952 extended CFT to
explain the electronic structure and properties of transition metal
complexes.
CFT is much more widely accepted compared to valence bond
theory. This theory assumes that the attraction between the central
metal ion and ligands in a complex is purely electrostatic in nature.
The transition metal of the complex which behaves as central atom is
regarded as a positive ion of the charge equal to the oxidation state.
According to CFT the central metal atom /ion is surrounded by
negative or neutral ligands. If the ligand involved in the formation of
complex is neutral like H2O, NH3 etc the negative end of the dipole in
the ligand is directed towards the central metal atom /ion.
CFT which was which was propounded by Van Vlick and popularized
by Orgel is based on the following basic assumptions or features of
CFT.
1. According to CFT, a complex is a combination of central metal
ion surrounded by ions or dipolar molecules called ligands
which contains at least one pair of lone pair electrons.
2. Central metal ion is treated as point charge and ligands are
treated either point charge or point dipoles.
3. The anionic ligands like Cl-, Br-, CN- etc. are treated as point
charge while neutral ligands like H2O, NH3 etc. are treated as
point dipoles.
4. There is no interaction between the orbitals of metal cation
and the orbitals of ligands or there does not occur any type of
orbital overlapping between the orbitals of ligands and that of
central metal cation. Hence there is no any covalent
contribution between Metal – Ligand bonding in complexes.
5. The bonding between metal cation and the ligand is purely
electrostatic or columbic attraction between positively charged
metal ion and negatively charged anion.
6. If the complex is surrounded by neutral ligands the negative
pole of neutral ligand will be directed towards the central metal
cation.
7. All the five d-orbitals on the central metal have same energy
(degenerate) in free atom or ion. However, when the complex
is formed the ligands destroy the degeneracy of these orbitals
i.e. d orbitals now have different energies.
Crystal Field Splitting of d- orbitals
a) Octahedral complex:
On the basis of orientation of the lobes of five d-orbitals
with respect to the co-ordinates these have been divided
into two sets.
i) eg set of orbital or axial set: This is a set of d- orbitals
whose lobes are directing along the co-ordinate axis as
shown in the sub script. As the lobes are directing along
the co-ordinate axis, they are also called axial set. Two d-
orbitals namely dx2-y2 and dz2 are of this type.

d-z2 dx2-y2
ii) t2g set of orbitals or non-axial set :
This is another set of d-orbitals whose lobes are directing
between the co-ordinate axis as shown in the sub script.
As the lobes are not directing along the coordinate axis,
this set is also called non axial set. Three d-orbitals
namely dxy, dyz and dzx orbitals are under this type.

In the octahedral complex of the type [ML 6]n+ The metal

atom/ion at the center of the octahedron and six ligands
are at its six corners.
Figure:
The three axis viz. x,y and z which point along the corners
have also been shown

Now suppose both ligands on each of the three axis are

allowed to approach towards the metal cation M n+ from
both the ends of axis. In this process the electrons of d-
orbitals of the metal cation are repelled by the negative
point charge or negative end of the dipole of ligands
(remember CFT regards the ionic ligands as point charge
and neutral ligands as point dipole.)
This repulsive interaction rises the energy of five d-
orbitals. If all the ligands approaching the central metal
cation are on equal distance from each of the five d-
orbitals (i.e. the ligand field is spherically symmetrical) the
energy of each of the five d-orbitals will rise by the same
amount so that all the five d-orbitals still remained in
degenerate energy state although they will have now
higher energy than before. However, this is only a
hypothetical situation in fact the lobes two e g orbitals (i.e
dx2-y2 and dz2 ) lie directly in the path of approaching
ligands , the electrons in these orbitals experience greater
force of repulsion than those in three t2g orbitals(dxy,dyz
and dzx ) whose lobes are directed in space between the
path of approaching ligands. So, that energy of eg set of
orbitals increased but those of t2g set decreased. Thus
under the influence of approaching ligands the five d-
orbitals which were degenerate before now resolved into
two levels i.e. triply degenerated lower energy level (t2g)
and doubly degenerate higher energy level (eg). Such a
separation or splitting of five d-orbitals of metal ion into
two sets is called crystal field splitting or energy level
splitting. This concept of CFT makes the basis of CFT.
The energy gap between t2g and eg set is denoted by ∆o
Or 10 Dq. This energy difference arises because of the
difference in electrostatic field exerted by the ligands on
t2g and eg sets of d - orbitals on the central metal ion.
This difference in energy between eg and t2g set of
orbitals is called crystal field splitting energy. With the
help of simple geometry, it can be shown that the energy
of t2g set is less by 0.4∆o (or 4Dq) than hypothetical
degenerate d-orbitals and energy of eg set is more by
0.6∆o (or 6Dq) that of hypothetical degenerate d-orbitals
(before splitting of d-orbitals shown by dotted line in
figure) ∆o

In octahedral complexes the filling of electrons in t2g

orbitals decrease the energy of complex by -0.4∆o per
electron which tends to make the complex more stable.
Similarly filing of electrons in eg set of orbitals increase
the energy o the complex by +0.6∆o per electron. So the
change in energy of the metal ion due to splitting of d
orbitals is called crystal field stabilizing energy(CFSE). The
total CFSE is given by
CFSE(oct.) = -0.4n(t2g) + 0.6n(eg) + xp
Where n(t2g) and n(eg) = number of electrons occupyinf
t2g and eg orbitals respectively.
x= number of paired electrons an P = pairing energy ffor a
single pair of electrons.
It has to be noted that CFSE for d0 and d10 for both strong
field and weak field (high and low spin state) will be zero.
Similarly, CFSE for d5 in in weak field (high spin) will be
zero. But in other configuration there will be some value
for CFSE. For example for d4 high spin octrahedral complex
(t2g3 and eg1) the value of CFSE can be given as ;
CFSE = -0.4 x3 + 0.6 x1 + 0 x P = -0.6∆o
Similarly for d4 strong field or low spin (tg4 and eg0)
CFSE = -0.4 x4 + 0.6 x0 + 1xp = -1.6∆o
Similarly, it is possible to calculate CFSE for other
configuration for both strong and weak field.
Crystal field splitting of d-orbitals in tetrahedral complex
In order to understand the splitting of d-orbitals in
tetrahedral complex it is convenient to picture a
tetrahedron placed inside a cube as shown in figure.

A tetrahedron[ML4]n+ placed in a cube the center of the

cube is the center of the tetrahedron at which is placed
central metallic cation Mn+. Four corners of the cube are
the four corners of the tetrahedron at which are placed
the four negative ligands which have been shown by
circles with negative sign.
From this figure it is clear that the four ligands circle with
negative sign placed at the four corners of the cube. Thus
these four ligands are lying between the three axis i.e. x, y
and z axis. Now the lobes of t 2g orbitals (dxy, dyz and dzx)
are lying between the axis i.e. the lobes of these orbitals
are lying directly in the path of approaching ligands. In
fact they are not lying directly in the path of approaching
but are closer to the approaching ligands with bond angle
between metal ion and the ligand 36 o16’ but eg set of
orbitals their lobes are lying away from ligands, where the
angle between the metal ion of the complex and that of
ligands is only half of the tetrahedral angle i.e. 54 o44’.
Due to this reason, these t2g set experience greater force
of repulsion from the ligands. But remaining two orbitals
viz. dx2-y2 and dz2 or eg set they experience relatively less
repulsion from the ligands. Thus energy of e g set of
orbitals decrease. Consequently, the d-orbitals get
splitted into higher energy t2g and lower energy eg sets as
shown in the figure.
The energy difference between t2g and eg sets for
tetrahedral complex is represented as ∆t. It has to be
notice that ∆t < ∆o .
The reason behind this is that
1.the t2g orbitals although now closest to the ligands, do
not point directly at the ligands i.e. in the tetrahedral
complex no ligand lies directly along any axis
2.As there are only four ligands in tetrahedral complex
but in octahedral complexes there are six ligands which
leads to decrease in ligand field splitting by two- third.Due
to the above reasons crystal field splitting of d-orbitals in
tetrahedral complex i.e. ∆t is less than in ∆o .
Thus the energy level of t 2g is raised by 0.4 ∆t = 0.18∆o
while that of eg set lowered by 0.6∆t = 0.27∆o [Note 0.4∆t=
0.4x0.45∆o = 0.18∆o and 0.6∆t = 0.6x 0.45∆o = 0.27∆o].

Since ∆o is relatively small orbital splitting, hence spin

pairing in tetrahedral complexes is rather unlikely i.e.
tetrahedral complexes are mostly spin free or high spin
complexes.
As ∆t < ∆o, crystal field splitting favors the formation of
octahedral complexes.
Applications of Crystal Field Theory
1.It it is used to explain the colour in metal complexes:
According to CFT there occur splitting of d-orbitals due to
ligand field during the formation of complexes. The
energy difference between eg and t2g set of orbitals
determine the colour of metal complexes. The difference
in energy of eg and t2g set of orbitals responsible for the
variation in the wavelength of radiant energy absorbed or
emitted during the transition of electrons in these set of
orbitals which ultimately brings the variation in the colour
of metal complexes.
2. It is used to predict the magnetism in metal complexes:
CFT is crucial in understanding the magnetic behavior of
co-ordination compounds. It explains why some
compounds exhibit para magnetism or diamagnetism
based on the arrangement of electrons in these sets of
orbitals. If the electrons are distributed in both eg and t2g
orbitals giving unpaired electrons, the complex shows
para magnetism and if they are distributed only on lower
energy set of orbitals so that no unpaired electrons are
left on these d- orbitals, the complexes become
diamagnetic.
3. It is used for predicting the geometry of the complexes:
CFT helps to predict the geometry of co-ordination
compounds. This theory predict the geometry of the
complexes based on the interaction between the metal
ion and surrounding ligands. Ig the ligand field splitting is
 significant, leading to large difference between eg and t2g
sets of d-orbitals, the complex tends to adopt an
octahedral geometry. If the ligand field splitting is small,
resulting in a relatively small energy difference between
eg and t2g sets, the complex is more likely to adopt a
tetrahedral geometry.
According to this theory the complex with maximum
symmetry is more preferable. Octahedral and tetrahedral
geometries represent arrangement with minimal
repulsion hence such geometries are more preferable.
4. It is used to predict the stability of complexes:
CFT provides insights into the stability of co-ordination
compounds. Strong field ligands which leads to greater
crystal field splitting leads to higher stability of complexes,
influencing their reactivity and practical applications.
5. It is used to interpret the electronic spectra:
CFT is used to interpret the electronic spectra specially in
UV-visible spectroscopy. The transition between e g and t2g
set of orbitals give rise to characteristic absorption bands.
6. It is used for designing the catalyst for industrial and
environmental applications:
By knowing the electronic structure of central metal ion in
the complexes, it is possible to design catalysts for various
chemical reactions, including industrial and
environmental applications.
7. It is used in Bio-inorganic chemistry:
CFT is used to study the structure and function of metal
containing bio-molecule, such as metalloenzymes and
metalloproteins.
8. It is used for designing new materials suitable for electronic
devices:
Principles of CFT are used in designing materials with specific
electronic and magnetic properties, contributing to the
development of new materials for electronic devices and other
applications.
 Alloys
When two metals are heated together or a metal is mixed with
non-metallic elements then any one of the following may
occur.
1.An ionic compound may form.
2. An interstitial alloy may form.
3. A substitutional alloy may form.
4. A simple mixture may form.
i. ionic compound: - This type of compound formed when element of
high electronegativity like F (4), Cl (3) or O (3.5) is added to the metal
of low electronegativity like Li (1.0), Na (0.9) etc. the product will be
ionic not metallic.
ii. Interstitial alloys: - when relative size of atoms is considered, then
structure of many metals is a closed packed lattice of spherical atoms
or ions. Therefore, there are many tetrahedral and octahedral holes.
If the element added while forming alloy has smaller atomic size,
that can be easily accommodated in these holes without altering the
lattice structure of the metal.
As the alloy formed by this process occupied the interstitial position
by the atoms of added element it is called interstitial alloy.
The added atoms in this type of alloy occupy the interstitial position
in the metal lattice instead of replacing the metal atoms.
So the chemical composition of this type of alloy may vary over a
wide range depending on how many holes are occupied by the
atoms of the element added.
Such type of alloys are called interstitial solid solution and are
formed by wide range of metals with hydrogen, boron, carbon,
nitrogen and other elements.
The most important factor for the formation of this type of alloy is
the size of invading atoms. For to occupy the otrahedral holes, the
radius ratio of smaller /larger atom should be in the range 0.414-
0.732. The addition of interstitial site does not significantly alter the
lattice structure of metal.
The alloy thus formed looks like metal, and still conduct heat and
electricity.
However, filling some of the holes has considerable effect on the
physical properties like malleability and ductility. This is because
filling holes in interstitial space makes it much more difficult for one
layer of metal ions to slip over another .
Substitutional Alloys:-
If two metals are completely miscible with each other can form a
continuous range of solid solution. Examples of such alloys are
Cu/Ni, Cu/Au,K/Cs and Rb/Cs.
Substitutional alloys are those in which one atom may replace
another atom randomly in the crystal lattice. Only a few metals form
this type of alloy.
 Hume- Rothery has shown that for complete miscibility the
following three rules should apply;
1. The two metals involved I the formation of alloy should be of
similar in size i.e. their metallic radii should not differ by more
than 14- 15%.
2. Both metals should have same crystal structure.
3. The chemical properties of the metals must be similar i.e. they
should have same number of electrons in their valance shell.
 In the case of Cu/Au alloy the metallic radii differ by only
12.5% both have cubic closed packed structure and have
similar chemical properties (same number of valance
electrons) and are belong to same group(IB).
 These two metals are thus completely miscible.
 Group IA elements are chemically similar (have only one
electron in their valance shell), all have body centered
cubic structure. The size difference between adjacent
pairs of atoms are Li/Na = 22.4%,Na/K = 22%, K/Rb =9.3%
and Rb/Cs = 6.9%.
 Due to size difference complete miscibility found with
K/Rb and Rb/Cs alloys (Substitutional alloys) but not with
Li/Na and Na/K alloys.
 If only one or two of these rule is satisfied, then random
substitutional solid solution will only occur over a limited
range at the two extremes of composition.
 In Pb/Sn alloy, their radii differ by 8% both are belonging
to group (IVA), so have similar properties. However, their
structures are different so they are only partially miscible.
Classification of alloys
 Based on the Iron content in alloys they are classified
into two types.
1. Ferrous alloys: Alloys which contain iron as one of
the constituent are called ferrous alloys. Beside
iron they contained other elements like C, Mn, Cr,
Ni, and Mo. These alloys are widely used in
engineering and manufacturing due to their
desirable properties like strength, hardness,
durability and magnetic properties. Examples
include steel and cast iron.
2. Nonferrous alloys: Nonferrous alloys are alloys
that do not contain iron as primary metal. Instead
they are composed of other metals or elements
such as Al,Cu,Zn.Ni, Ti and others. These alloys
are valued for their properties like light weight,
corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity and
 malleability. Examples are brass, bronze,
aluminium alloys, and titanium alloys.
Characteristics of alloys
 Alloys of the elements are prepared so as to acquired
desired properties that is not present in individual element
which might be suitable for specific purpose. Both chemical
and physical properties of individual element get modified
after alloy formation.
1. Hardness: Alloys are generally harder than the component
metals from which they are formed. For example the hardness
of gold can be significantly increased by alloying it with copper
or silver while making coins or ornaments.
2. Resistance towards corrosion: Alloys are relatively less
sensitive towards corro6sion than component metals. For
example iron gets easily rusted but stainless steel which is an
alloy of iron is free from corrosion.
3. Melting point: Aloys have generally lower melting point than
its component metals. For example solder alloy(Pb+Sn) has
0
melting point C but those of Pb and Sn are 327.60C and
232.10C respectively.
4. Tenacity: Alloys are relatively more tenacious than pure metal.
For example, addition of 5% Si on copper increase the tenacity
of copper by double.
5. Sound : Alloys can possess sonorous sound suitable for musical
instruments.

Preparation of alloys: Alloys of different elements can be

prepared by the following methods;
1. By fusion: In this process the component metals are melted
together that results a solid solution. Brass (Cu 90% + Zn
 10%) and Bronze(Cu 90% + Sn 10%) are prepared by this
method.
2. By reduction: Some alloys like aluminium bronze can be
prepared by this method where reduction of Al2O3 can be
achieve by heating it with carbon in presence of calculated
amount of copper. Al2O3 + C + Cu (Al + Cu) + CO
3. By compression : In this method the required metals are
converted into thin sheets ,which are then rolled together
and hammered under high pressure so as to convert them
into solid solution. Solder alloy (Sn50% + Pb50%) can be
prepared by this method

4. By simultaneous electrodeposition:

The cell used for this process consist of aqueous solution of

component metals. when electric circuit is completed then
there occur simultaneous deposition of different metals at
the surface of cathode that results alloy of desired
composition.
Alloys of aluminium:
Aluminium, as a metal can be alloyed with elements such as
Cu,Mg,Si,Zn,And Mn to modify its mechanical and physical
characteristics. The addition of these metals is carefully controlled to
achieve specific properties suitable for particular application.
Aluminium is extensively used in various industries due to their light
weight, corrosion resistance and strength to weight ratio. For
example, Al-Mg alloy though it is light weight however, it is strong
alloy that is suitable for automotive and aerospace engineering.
Alloys of aluminium are popular for their low density, thermal
conductivity and corrosion resistance nature and hence are used in
various industries.
 Examples of some aluminium alloys and their application are given
below:

S. Alloy Alloying element present Properties Applications

N
1. 1000 Pure or 99% Aluminium with Soft, ductile, Used in application
serie minor impurities. excellent requiring high
s corrosion corrosion resistance,
resistance. electrical conductivity,
cooking utensils
chemical equipment,
foil and architecture .
2. 2000 Copper as primary alloying High For making aerospace
serie element. strength and and automotive
s machinabilit equipmentswhere high
y strength and durability
are required.
3. 3000 Mn as primary alloying Good Cooking utensils, heat
serie element With small formability exchanger, and
s amount of other (plastic automotive parts.
impurities like Cu and deformation
Mn ), Corrosion
resistance
and
weldability.
4. 4000 They contain Si as primary Excellent Welding wires, brazing
serie alloying element(4-13%), fluidity, alloys ( flux for to join
s other alloying elements are weldability, by soldering), and
Cu,Mn and Mg. good automotive
corrosion components.
resistance
and
moderate
strength.
5. 5000 Mn as primary alloying High Marine(boat),automoti
serie element with small amount strength, ve and structural
s of impurities like Cr and Mn excellent application.
corrosion
resistance,
weldability.
6. 6000 Si and Mg as primary Good Structural components,
serie alloying element with small formability, exturtions and
s amount of other impurities weldability architectural
like Cu and Mn. and applications.
corrosion
resistance.
7. 7000 They contain Zn as the High In aerospace and high
serie primary alloying element strength, .ex performance
s with small amount of other cellent appliances where
impurities like Cu and Mg fatigue strength and toughness
resistance is desirable.
8. T6 Primary element is Mechanical Aircraft equipment
Al(97.2%), Si is another strength, and in various
major alloying element(0.4- heat industries.
1.2%),Mg(0.6-1.2%)and resistance,
small amount of other corrosion
elements like resistance,
Cu(0.3%),Cr(0.2%),Zn(0.2%) machinabilit
Mn and Ti (0.1% )each. y, hardness
and
formability
T6 refers to a temper designation in Al-alloys or it is a very
common heat treatment for Al-alloys used for air craft alloys.
When Al-alloys are subjected to heat treatment, they undergo
a series of processes to increase their mechanical properties.
T in T6 heat treatment stands for “solution heat treatment”
where alloy is heated to a specific temperature (500-550 oC)
known as solutionizing temperature to dissolve any alloying
elements into Al matrix. This step helps for uniform distribution
of elements throughout the alloy resulting the formation of
homogenous solution. Similarly, 6 in T6 refers artificial aging of
alloy. After solution heat treatment, the alloy is rapidly cooled
or quenched to lower temperature using water air or both
which helps to freeze the dissolved alloying element in the Al-
matrix preventing them from forming large coarse precipitate.
After quenching the alloy is reheated to lower
temperature(100-200oC) for specific duration (5-8 hrs). This
aging process allows for the precipitation of fine particles
within the Al- matrix which increase the hardness, strength,
ductility and toughness. This is called artificial aging or
precipitation hardening.
Al-alloy when subjected to T6 treatment (temper) exhibit
improved mechanical properties such as higher strength and
hardness maintain good formability and corrosion resistance.
Clad Aluminium
There are various methods used for coating corrosion
resistance metal or alloy to the base metal or alloy. One of such
method is cladding. The term for this Al- laminate was coined
by the aluminium company of America is Alcad.
Cladding is a process of bonding together two or more layers of
material with different properties to create a composite
material. The main purpose of cladding is to combine the
desired characteristic of each layer such as strength, durability,
conductivity or corrosion resistance.
Clad aluminium refers to the material composed of two or
more layers of Al- bonded together through a process called
cladding. Each layer may have different compositions,
properties or thickness that allow the clad aluminium to
combine the desirable characteristic of each layer into a single
material,
Cladding can be achieve either by roll bonding, explosive
bonding or hot isostatic pressing.
 Types of clad aluminium and their application:
1.Aluminium clad steel:
 This is a kind of clad aluminium in which a layer of AI- is
bonded to a layer of steel.
 This type of steel possesses combined properties like light
weight of AI- and strength of steel.
 It is used for making light weight structures material for
automotive and in construction industries for building
facades ( Exterior envelop that separates the interior of
building from external environment) a roofing panels.
 2.Alminium clad copper ( Al-Cu This is a kind of clad
aluminium in which a layer of AI- is bonded to a layer of
copper.
Al-cu clad possess excellent electrical conductivity from copper layer
which is benefited from light weight and corrosion resistance of
Aluminium.
 Widely used in electrical and electronic industries like bus bars,
connecters, and heat sink.
3. Al-Clad stainless steel- (Al-Stainless steel clad)
 This is a kind of clad aluminium in which a layer of AI- is bonded
to a layer of stainless steel.
 Al-Clad stainless steel combine corrosion resistance properties
of stainless steel & light weight property of Alumimium.
 It finds applications in industries like food processing, chemical
processing, architecture, which required material like corrosion
resistance and strength.
4.Al-Clad Titanium (Al-Ti clad)
 This is a kind of clad aluminium in which a layer of AI- is bonded
to a layer of Titanium.
 Al-Ti clad material offer a balance between light weight
properties of Al and light strength to weight ratio of Ti.
  Used in aerospace and marine application where both
corrosion resistance and strength are desirable.
Iron Alloy
Iron alloys are homogenous solid solution which composed primarily
iron and one or more other elements which may be either metal or
metal and non-metals. Iron is one of the major component of
majority of commercial alloys including wrought and cast iron,
common alloys of iron contains other alloying elements like Mn, Cr,
Mo, V, Nb, Se, Ti, Si, C, P and other. Iron alloys are widely used in
various industries for their desirable properties like: Strength,
durability corrosion resistance, magnetic property electrical
resistance, thermal expansion, heat resistance etc.
A. Ferro alloys: Ferro alloys are alloys of Fe, with a high
proportion of one or more other alloying elements ferro alloys
are characterized by their high carbon content which unusually
exceeds 50%. Most commonly used alloying elements in ferro
alloy are: Ti, V, Cr, W, Mo, Nb, Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr, Si, Al, and some
rare earth metals.
 Based on the quality of their production ferro alloys are
categorized into
 i. Bulk or major ferro alloys:- Which are produced in
large quantities. They find wide application in steel
making. About 85-90% of ferro alloys are used in steel
industries.
 ii. Minor ferro alloys:- which are produced in smaller
quantities.
 Bulk ferro alloys are:
 i Ferro silicon FeSi
 ii. High, Medium and low carbon ferro manganese-
FeMn
 iii. High, medium, low and ultra low carbon
ferrochrome FeCr
 iv. Ferrosilicon chrome FesiCr
 Minor Ferro alloys are:

 i. Ferrotungsten FeW

 ii. Ferro molybdenum FeMo

 iii. Ferro vanadium FeV

 iv. Ferroniobium FeNb

 v. Ferrotitanium FeTi, FeSiTi, TiAlCrFe

 vi. Ferroboron FeB, FeBAl

 vii. Ferronickel FeNi

 viii. Ferrocobalt FeCo

B. Steel:- Steel is an alloy primarily composed of iron

and carbon, with carbon content ranging from 0.2 to
2.1% by weight. It is one of the most widely used
materials in construction, manufacture and various
other industries due to its exceptional strength,
durability and versatility. Beside, this steel can be
further alloyed with other alloying elements like Mn,
Cr, Ni, W, etc to enhance specific properties like
hardness, corrosion resistance, heat resistance, etc.
Based on carbon content, heat treatment and types of
alloying elements present steel possesses a wide range
of characteristics suitable for diverse applications
including structural components, machinery, vehicles
and household appliances.
1. Carbon steel or mild steel: - Carbon steel is an alloy
of iron with carbon, where C-content in steel is less
than 2%. Beside carbon, it contains a trace amount of
other elements like S, Si, P, Mn, etc. The properties of
carbon-steel depends on the carbon content in steel
types of alloying element present and heat treatment.
Based on the carbon content in carbon steel, it is
classified into following types.
a. Low carbon steel: Maximum percentage of carbon in
this steel is 0.05-0.25%. It is the most commonly used
steel.
Properties: It is highly ductile compared to high
carbon steel, machinable and can be welded.
Application: It is used for making pipes, bolts, wires, in
construction, automotive etc.
b. Medium carbon steel:- Such steel contains 0.25-
0.60% of carbon.
Properties: Increased carbon content makes it harder
and provides higher tensile strength but reduces its
ductility, machining and welding properties are also
diminished compared to low carbon steel.
Application: For making gears, axels, rails, shafts.
c. High carbon steel:- The carbon content in such steel
is between 0.6-1.0%.
Properties: Due to high carbon content this type of
steel is hard, wear resistant and possesses high
strength but its ductility significantly decreased. It is
not easily welded. For to weld head treatment is must.
Application: Cutting tools, Knives, spring, high strength
wives.
d. Ultra high carbon steel: - Such steel contains up-to
1.50 of carbon.
Properties: Due to high carbon content, this type of
steel is extremely hard and brittle. This type of steel
needs heat treatment before, during and after welding.
Application: Used for meaning knives, razor blades and
truck spring, metal cutting tools in the production of
robust (strong, tough) steel material.
2. Alloy Steel: -
Ordinary steel is an alloy of iron with carbon beside
iron and carbon if some other alloying elements like Cr,
Ni, Mn, W, Si, B etc. are present in steel, then they will
be called alloy steel. The addition of an additional
alloying element provides steel with a unique property
suitable for specific application. Alloy steel can be
classified into two types:
i. Low alloy steel: Low alloy steel is such type of
alloy steel that contains less amounts of alloying
elements (other than carbon and iron) such as
Mn, Ni, Mo, Cr, V, and Si.
 Their alloying elements enhance certain
properties of steel like strength, toughness wear
resistance and corrosion resistance without
significantly increasing its cost. However, welding
difficulty is a drawback.
Applications: used in electrical wiring, heat
exchanger, anti-drill plates, high strength safes,
pipelines, electrical transformers and for making
permanent magnets.
ii. High alloy steel: Alloy steel that contains a higher
percentage (more than 8%) of alloying elements
compared to low alloy steel are called high alloy
steel. These alloying elements are added in steel
to modify the properties of steel as per the
specific requirement. High alloy steel acquired
 properties like strength, hardness, corrosion and
heat resistance.
Applications: They find applications in aerospace,
automotive, constructive, manufacturing, driers,
heat exchanger for cleaning equipment for
pharmaceutical, petrochemical and
semiconductor.
iii. Stainless steel: Stainless steel is a corrosion
resistant alloy composed primarily of iron, with
varying amount of chromium, nickel and other
elements. Its resistance to corrosion and staining
makes it ideal for a wide range of applications,
corrosion resistance nature increases the lifespan
of articles made from it. The increased chromium
content provides stainless steel gloss when
polished and corrosion resistance properties.
Application:
1. It is used for making kitchen applications like
refrigerators, stoves, microwaves, ovens,
dishwashers and kitchen sinks.
2. It is used for making utensils and cutlery like
knives, forks, spoons, spatulas and cooking
pots.
3. Used to make medical instruments like surgical
and dental instruments and orthopedic implants.
4. It is used to make the components of engines,
exhaust systems, and grilles of automobiles.
5. It is used in making construction materials like
building facades, handrails, elevator doors and
structural elements.
 6. Used to make industrial equipment like tanks,
pipes, valves, and pumps in chemical plants and
refineries.
7. Used to make jewelry like watches, bracelets,
rings and necklaces.
8. Used to make marine equipment like boat
fittings, propellers, and other underwater
equipment.
9. Used to make infrastructures for railways like
train carriages, tacks and signaling systems.
Stainless steel possesses variation in its
properties. When chromium is electroplated on
other metals creating a robust (strong or tough),
polish coating. Their metallurgical structure and
composition stainless steel are classified into four
types.
i. Ferritic stainless steel: This type of steel has
higher chromium content and lower nickel
content. It is magnetic and possesses good
corrosion resistance property but not ductile as
austenitic stainless steel. Corade 430 is a
common ferritic stainless steel.
 This type of steel is used in automotive industries
as higher chromium content provides them high
strength and gloss.
ii. Austenitic stainless steel: This type of alloy
contains high levels of chromium, Content,
common grade Includes 304 & 316.
 These alloy are popular for their good corrosion
resistance and formability properties.
  They are used in commercial kitchen industries
due to durable and easy cleaning.
 iii. Martensitic stainless steel: This type of
stainless steel contains higher level of carbon
than austenitic and ferritic stainless steel.
 This type of steel has good strength and wear
resistance but lower in corrosion resistance as
compared to other types. Grade 410 is a popular
stainless steel of this type.
 It is used in cutlery, medical instruments and
pliers.
iv. Duplex Stainless steel: This type of stainless steel
has balanced content of nickel and molybdenum.
It is made of by blending austenitic and ferritic
stainless steel. This type of stainless steel has
double strength while inheriting Properties from
both. It has corrosion resistance property as well.
They are highly ductile. It is used for oil and gas
industries. In chemical industries they are used
for handling corrosive chemicals and acids. Due
to their corrosion and erosion resistance nature,
they are used in distillation plants. Used in paper
and pump industries to resist corrosion from the
chemicals used for pulping and bleaching. They
are also used for ship building and in other
marine equipment. They are used in structural
applications where high strength and corrosion
resistance is the criteria. They are also used in
making food processing equipment.
3. Tool and die steel: Tool and die steel is a
specialized type of steel designed for
manufacturing tools, dies and molds used in
various industries such as automotive,
aerospace, manufacturing and construction.
They are important for their hardness, wear
resistance, toughness and ability to have sharp
cutting edges even in high temperature. Tools
and die steel contain carbon content between
0.7 to 1.5%, beside this they contain other
alloying elements like Cr, V, V, Mo and
sometimes Co are introduced in the alloy to
achieve desired properties. Based on the
composition, mechanical properties and heat
treatment method so as to make them suitable
for different application purposes, the tool-die
steel are classified into following types:
i.Austenitizing tool-steel: These steels are
obtained by heating them above the critical
point to form an austenitic special type of
metallic microstructure followed by quenching
to achieve high hardness. They are tempered
to improve toughness (hardness) and reduce
brittleness. They have high level of Nickel and
Chromium. They are widely used in food
processing, chemical processing and
automotive industries due to their superior
corrosion resistance and versatility. Examples
are AISID2 and AISID3.
ii. Air hardening tool steel: They contain
alloying elements like Cr, Mo, and V which
increase hardness after cooling in air. They are
prepared to austenitizing range (critical point)
followed by air cooled which makes it hard.
They can withstand high temperatures without
distorting them. Examples are: AISIA2, AISIA6.
iii.. Oil hardening tool steel: Oil hardening
 steels are similar to air hardening tool steel but
are quenched in oil while using to acquire
hardness, and wear resistance during slipping.
They are used for producing tools, dies, knives
and shears. Examples AISIO1, AISIO2.
iv. Water hardening: Such steel is quenched by
plunging into cold water while using, that
provides steel with a high degree of hardness.
They are less expensive than oil or air hardened
steel but offer good wear resistance and
toughness.
They are widely used for making common tools.
Examples AISIW1, and AISIW2.
v.High speed steel (HSS): They are subjected to
heat treatment to achieve high degree of
hardness, wear resistance which makes them
suitable for making cutting and drilling tools. They
are obtained by austenized at high temperatures
followed by quenching and tempering.
They are used for making power saws and drill
bits. Examples AISIM2 and AISIM1.
v.Hot working tool steel: The purpose of making
hot working tool steels is to withstand high
temperature and mechanical stress encountered
during forming processes such as forging (shaping
metal by compressive force) extrusion (dieing)
and die casting. Steel thus obtained possess
hardness and strength which ensures their
durability and longevity.
They are capable of resisting deformation and
fracture under rapid and severe loading
conditions. They are used for forging and casting
processes.
 vi. Shock-resistant tool steel:
Such steel contains high content of alloying
elements like Cr, Mo, V, W, Si, and C which played
an important role to contribute their exceptional
toughness, strength and wear resistance. Alloying
elements form carbides and other strengthening
phases within steel matrix, which enhance the
mechanical properties of steel.
 They are used for making punching
machines and riveting (permanently joining
different metals mechanically).

Rare Earth Elements

A group of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table including 15
lanthanides (including Lanthanum) plus scandium and yttrium are
commonly called rare earth elements.
Scandium(21),Yttrium(39),Lanthanun(57),Cerium(58),Praseodymium(
59),Neodymium(60),Promethium(61),Samarium(62),Europium(62),G
adolium(63),Terbium(64)Dyropsium(65),Holmium(66),Erbium(67)
Thulium(68), Ytterbium(69)Lutetium(70)
They are unique in the magnetic properties. Due to above
properties, luminescent and catalytic properties. Due to
above mention facts they can be used as crucial components
in various high tech applications such as electronics,
renewable energy, technologies, catalysis and defense
systems. China is a dominant producer and of rare earth
elements.
Rare earth elements are called so because they were
originally thought to be rare in occurrence. When they were
first discovered in the late 18 th and early 19th century, they
were found in the minerals that were uncommon and
difficult to extract and their precipitation were scarce. But in
fact these elements are relatively abundant in earth crust
compared to other elements however they are dispersed in
the earth crust and are not concentrate in viable deposits.
Cerium(Ce)
Cerium is a chemical element with the symbol Ce and atomic
number 58. It is the second member of lanthanide series. It is
soft, ductile and silvery metal.
Abundance: - Cerium is the most abundant of the rare earth
elements followed by Nb, La and Pr and is more common in
the earth crust than copper and lead. It is typically found in
mineralsmonazite[(Ce,La,Th,Nd,Y)PO4],Basnasite[(Ce,LaNd,Pr)
(CO3)F] and cerite[(CeLa,Ca,Th)CO3(F,OH)]. With regard to
abundance it holds 25th position in earth’s crust, constituting
66ppm which is the half of chlorine and five times of lead.
Properties: -
1. Cerium is reactive metal that readily oxidizes in air.
2. It has relatively low melting point.
3. It is malleable and ductile.
4. The most common oxidation state of cerium in its
compound is +3 beside this it also exhibits +4 oxidation
as well.
5. It is non toxic except under the condition of prolong
exposure, on long exposure to high concentrations of
cerium dust or fumes may cause respiratory and skin
irritation.
 Application: -
1. As catalyst: - Cerium compounds are used as catalysts
in various industrial processes like automotive
catalytic converters to reduce emission from the
exhaust of vehicles.
2. In glass and ceramic industries: - Cerium oxide or
ceria (CeO2) when added to ceramic and glass
formulation improve their optical properties such as
absorb UV radiation and clarity. It is also used as
decolourising agent for glass where green coloured
ferrous impurities are converted into colourless ferric
oxide.
3. As polishing agent: - Ceria (CeO2) is for
manufacturing of polishing compounds for glass,
lenses and mirrors due to its abrasive nature.
4. In lighting: - Cerium is used in the production of
phosphorus fluorescent lamps and lighting
applications.

Neodymium(Nd)
Neodymium is another rare earth element with the atomic
number 60. It belongs to 6th period in the periodic table. It is
the fourth member of lanthanide series including lanthanum
and sits in the middle of this series, that makes it a part of
transition metal group.
Abundance: - It is available in nature in various minerals
including monazite [( Ce,La,Th,Nd ,Y)PO4 ] ,bastnasite
[(Ce,LaNd,Pr)(CO3)F] in association with other rare earth
elements. It is primarily mined in china though significant
deposits exist in other countries.

Properties: -
1. It is soft silvery metal which get tarnish when exposed to air.
2. It has high M.P. of 1021o C and B.P. of 3068oC.
3. It reacts slowly with oxygen and water but reacts rapidly with
acids.
4. Its compounds are light purple in colour.
5. It forms various compounds like oxides fluoride and chloride.
6. It is famous for its magnetic property and is a key component in
Neodymium magnets which are the commercially available
strongest type of permanent magnets.
7. Neodymium and its compounds are generally considered to be
low toxicity when handled properly, but like many rare-earth
elements they may cause health hazard if mishandled or
ingested.
Application: -
1. It is popular for neodymium magnets which are the
strongest magnets and used in electric vehicles, industrial
machinery, hard disk drives, power tool etc., in the
generator of wind turbines and other renewable energy
systems. They are used in medical instruments like MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging), In audio equipment like
headphones, microphones and loud speaker to improve
sound quality, they are also used in magnetic separator for
separating ferrous materials in recycling and mining
operation.
2. Neodymium is used in laser technology: - Neodymium doped
lasers are used for industrial cutting and welding processes
for metals and other materials. It is used in medical surgery
for dermatology, ophthalmology and urology. In scientific
research like spectroscopy, microscopy and material
processing.
3. It is used in glass colouring: - Neodymium compounds are
used for manufacturing various shades of purple, grey or
blue glass for decorative items and filters.
4. It is also used in lighting systems: - It is used in compact
fluorescent lamps to adjust colour temperature of emitted
light. It is used in high intensity discharge light like head
lights of automotive and stadium light.
5. As catalyst: - Compounds of neodymium acts as catalyst in
certain chemical reactions particularly in plastic production
and petro refining.
6. In electronic devices: - It is use in small quantities in
electronic devices like capacitors sensors and electronic
displays. It is also used ass dopant in semiconductors.
7. In nuclear reactor: - In the control rods of nuclear reactor it
is used as neutron absorber so as to regulate the nuclear
fission reaction.