DEFINITIONS

17 10
.
Linguistic: Dictonary definitions
1. The scientific study of the structure and development of language in general or of a languages in
particular (Cambridge AdvancedLearner's Dictionary)
2. The study of the way in which language works (Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner's
Dictionary)
3. The study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, and history
(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)
4. The scientific study of language or of particular languages (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary)

Linguistics: Dictionary definitions (2)

• Differences in definitions
• Monosemic word: one meaning (monosemy)
• Monoreferential word: one referent (the entity in the real world or in an imaginary world that a word refers
or denotes)
• The scientific study of language in general or of one more languages in particular
• The study of how language in general or one or more languages work(s), the study of their structure,
grammar, development and history
• Language/s is/are the focus of Linguistics (linguists)

Language: Dictionary definitions (1)

• Different definitions
• Different meanings or senses
• Different referents
• Polysemic word: more than one meaning (polysemy)

Language: Dictionary definitions (2a/2b)

• Communication between people, usually using words The origins of languages; Language is constantly
evolving
• A system of communication in speech and writing (by spoken or written words), used by the people of a
particular country or area (English, Spanish, Arabic, native language, foreign language)
• Words of a particular type, especially the words used in connection with a particular subject by people of a
particular social group or in a particular job (youth, language of politicians, legal language, medical
language, the language of business, the language of advertising)
• Signs, movements, sound and other methods of communicating information, feeling, or ideas (body
language, sign language, the language of dance, the language of music, the language of animals)
• A particular style of speaking or writing, the style in which a piece of writing or speech is written or
spoken (spoken/written language, literary language, poetic language, formal/ informal language, bad/strong
language)
• (computing) A system of instructions for operating a computer, that is used to write computer programs
 Language: Polysemy
Different criteria are used to define and explain 'language', including:
• Geographical criteria: language as a system of communication used by the people that live in a
particular country, region o area (national languages, regional varieties, dialects, English as a global
language, a language of international communication)
• Contextual and textual criteria: language as the system of communication of/in a particular social

!
group/job and/or about a particular subject (specialized languages or languages for special purposes,
such as military language, medical language, legal language, etc.)

English as a system of communication

English Language Studies or English linguistics:
• Language, that is English as a system of communication, as a method of communications, which consist of
sounds and written symbols, which consists of spoken and written words, and which is used by a speech
community, that is English-speaking community, in different areas of the world, to communicate

Language as a system (of communication)

Dictionary definitions

↓
1. A set of connected things or devices that operate together (Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary)
2. A way of working, organizing, or doing something which follows a fixed plan or set of rules (Collins
Cobuild Advanced Learner's Dictionary)
3. A group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose (Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English)
4. A method of organizing or doing things (MacMillan Dictionary for Advanced Learners)
5. An organized set of ideas or theories; a group of things that are connected or work together (Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary)

Language as a system (of communication)

• A system is a complex way or method of working, organizing, or doing something. it is a complex whole,
made of a set of related and connected things, parts and mechanisms which work together, which cooperate
under a set of rules, by following a set of working principles, for a specific purpose.
• Language as a complex way or method of communication, a set of connected linguistic elements and
mechanisms which work together by following a set of linguistic rules and working principles for the
purposes of communication.

I 3.
1. Share information with others by speaking, writing, moving your body, or using other signals (Cambridge)
2. Share or exchange information, for example by speaking, writing, or using equipment (Collins Cobuild)
3. The process by which people exchange information or express their thoughts and feelings (Longman)
4. The process of giving information or of making emotions or ideas known to someone (MacMillan)
5. The activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information (Oxford)
 Lexical vs grammatical words
• Lexical or content words are the main carriers of (referential) meaning. they are essential to the basic
interpretation of the sentence (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
• Grammatical or function words do not carry lexical meaning, but signal the links between different words
(pronouns, articles, prepositions, etc.), they make the sentence grammatically complete and help to make
the sentence's meaning explicit

Word: Different criteria

• A linguistic item can be defined as a word according to orthographical. phonological and semantic criteria
• Delimitations and limitations show how the use of "word" In linguistics can be problematic due to its
*1
ambiguity
• The Importance and the Influence of spelling. pronunciation and meaning on the study of words
• The way these three aspects interact defines some types of words
• homographs (same spelling, different pronunciations and meanings)
better at
p G
.
E • homophones (same pronunciation, different spellings, meanings)
• homonyms (same spelling, same pronunciation, but different meanings)

Word: Semantic criteria

• In terms of meaning, a word is defined as a linguistic unit which expresses one single concept, which
the word
designates one single referent may
consist on 1 Morpheme
(SIMPLEWORDon
me
ND

↓
• "Table" (single word): A piece of furniture that consists of a flat top supported by legs
E • "Travel agency" (compound): A company that arranges travel and/or accommodation for people going on a
holiday or journey.
• The man who came to the office an hour ago (a long string of words, one referent)
• Problems arise with linguistic items which do not carry referential meaning, they do not refer to one
specific concept/content (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.) Theyrele furt ta

Word: Phonological criteria

• A word is a linguistic unit surrounded by pauses and having only one main stress
• Stress is the relative prominence given to a syllable in a word
• Compound words (travel agency, drop box, ice cream, etc.) which orthographically consist of two words,
should be considered as one word because they normally have one main stress
• The use of phonological criteria may be problematic when applied to unstressed words, ex. the so-called
grammatical or function words (pronouns, articles, prepositions, etc.),
AMBIBUIGITY * 1

The most important sources of ambiguity are:

- the generic character of the word. A word its generic when it has 'abstract' reference, i.e. is more schematic, poorer
than particular words in its ability to distinguish specific features. Generic terms apply to a wide range of items but
tell us little about them. The word mammal, for example.
- the multiplicity of aspects in every word. The words we use are never completely homogenous in their meaning: all
of them have a number of facets or aspects depending on the context and situation in which they are used and also
on the personality of the speaker using them. Consider the word table again. Its significance will vary according to
the context in which it occurs; e.g. a table for two in a restaurant, the table of contents in a book...
- the lack of clear-cut boundaries in the nonlinguistic world. For example, the colour spectrum is a continuum;
however, each language introduces into it a certain number of more or less arbitrary distinctions.
- and the lack of familiarity with the referent of the words. Highly variable factor, since it depends on the general
knowledge and the special interest of each individual.

Linguistic sign
linguistic sign, as defined by de Saussure, comprises two inseparable components: a concept and an acoustic image.
The concept represents the idea or meaning, while the acoustic image is the sound associated with the word.
However, this model doesn't address homonyms. Since linguistic signs encompass both form and meaning, analysis
can focus on either aspect when dealing with words.

Word as a ling sign

In discussing word meaning, we focus on the relationship between the two facets of the linguistic sign: the acoustic
image or signifier (the sound of the word) and the concept or thing meant (the meaning).
Understanding word meaning is complicated by the fuzzy nature of meaning and the inherent ambiguity of words.
This discussion will explore common terms associated with word meaning, including denotation, connotation,
reference, and sense. To facilitate comparison and cross-references, these terms will be discussed in pairs: denotation
and reference, denotation and sense, and denotation and connotation.
29 .
10

English is a system of communication

• English is a complex whole a complex way or method of communicating, made of a set of related and
connected linguistic elements and mechanisms which work together, which cooperate under a set of
linguistic rules and working principles for the purposes of communication, to allow English-speaking people
to share or exchange Information, to express thoughts, feelings, Ideas, emotions with other people

-mental
unit of
Word: A general definition consisting 2 faces
,
which cannot be
separated concept
: and significant

• A linguistic unit, orthographically preceded and followed by spaces or punctuation marks, phonologically
preceded and followed by pauses, having only one main stress, and (semantically) expressing a single
meaning
• Three main sets of criteria can be used to define a word:

I
1. orthographical criteria: spelling, the written form of a word
importanto 2. phonological criteria: pronunciation
todefi
a
3. semantic criteria: meaning
• This definition is not straightforward and unproblematic
• The use of these sets of criteria presents different delimitations and limitations which constrain its
application

Defining a word
• the importance and the role of spelling, pronunciation and meaning
• The influence of these three aspects on the study of word
• The way these three aspects interact with each other defines different types of words
• The interaction between these three aspects influences the way we can examine and classify words

Defining a word: Grammar

• The role of grammar in identifying and defining a word and different types of words
• Doubts and problems may arise due to grammatical reasons
• New concepts:
- Word form
- Word class
- Lexical or content words vs grammatical or function words

Types of words
• Homographs: words which are spelt the same but have different pronunciations and meanings (Ex. bowl
and bow2), separate numbered entries
• Homophones: words which are pronounced the same, but have different spellings and meanings (Ex. feet
and feat /fit/, lesson and lessen I'lesn/, flower and flour / flaua/), separate entries (dictionaries are
based on spelling)
• Homonyms: words which have the same spelling, the same pronunciation, but different meanings (Ex.
bankl, bank2, bank3), separate numbered entries
 Occasionally ambiguity may also rise.
Ex. Look at that bat under the tree.
Polysemy vs homonymy
Susan may go to the bank today.
Ambiguity results from the fact that bat • Both polysemic words and homonyms present multiple and different meanings
may mean either ‘floating mammal’ or
‘implement head to hit the ball in
cricket’, while bank may mean either
• The difference concerns the relationship between their meanings GEXAMPLE :
P Ge
.

&
‘river bank’ or ‘three paddle that deals
with money’ • Polysemic words: multiple but closely related meanings, multiple senses or variants of a single
homographs meaning (ex. language as system of communication, grow as development/increase)
homophones
e.g. grave (adj) vs grave (n), stick (v) • Homonyms present multiple but totally unrelated meanings (ex. bank: (I) a financial organization,
E
(2)↓the side of a river, and (3) a series of machines)
vs stick (n). This analysis shoes that
difference in grammatical class
contributes to a substantial reduction
in the number of ‘effective’ homonyms
def: 2 or more
in English. However, it must also be word with the Come
acknowledged that difference in class shope but distinct lexemes with different meaning
alone does not automatically rule out
all possibilities of confusion. Spelling Grammatical criteria
also helps.
• Spelling and pronunciation differences reflect grammatical difference
• Words are grammatically different cause they occur in different grammatical contexts
Ex. 'does' (present tense, 3 pers. sing grammatical subject) vs 'done' (perfect tenses with "have", has
done, have done, had done)
Ex 'girl' (sing, number) vs 'girl's' (sing possessive/genitive case)
↓
Grammatical criteria and meaning
• Semantically, they can be considered as the same word
• In terms of their essential meaning, they are the same word
• BUT they mark different grammatical categories (past tense, plural number, possessive/genitive
case, etc.)
• BUT they occur in different grammatical contexts
• Ambiguity is due to the variation of word forms

Word forms
• They represent inflectional forms of the same word
• They represent a change in the form of a word to express a grammatical function or attribute
• These changes in form are grammatical
• Inflection, a change in the form of a word (typically the ending of a word) to express a
grammatical function or attribute (tense, mood, person, number, case, and gender)

Word forms and lexemes

• Word forms (do/does/doing/did/done) represent grammatical variants of the same "word" or
"lexeme", the word or form we find in dictionaries
• Lexeme: A unit of vocabulary/lexicon which is the basis of different variants, known as word
forms
• A lexeme represents a group of related forms which share the same meaning and belong to the
same word class (noun, adjective, verb, preposition, etc.)
• Word form: The concrete realization or expression of a lexeme in speech or writing (in
grammatical context)
Lexemes in dictionaries
• In dictionaries, a lexeme (the base form of a word) corresponds to the headword of a dictionary
entry
• In dictionary/lexicographic terms, lexemes are called headwords
• Headword: the word placed at the beginning of a dictionary entry, the word we look up when we
consult a dictionary
• Lexemes/headwords represent the base form of words, from which other forms can derive (addition
of suffixes)

Lexemes in dictionaries: Word classes

• The base form (lexeme) ofE verbs is the infinitive form (without to), ex. ask (word-forms derivation,
suffixes: asks, asking, asked)
• The base form ofO nouns is the singular common case form (not plural, genitive/possessive case), ex.
girl
• The base form of E adjectives is the "absolute" or "positive" form (not comparative or superlative), ex,
small
• Other word classes (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions) do not present grammatical word forms,
there is only one form that can be the headword of a dictionary entry

Headwords
• The base forms of words (lexemes) in dictionaries
• The main word of a dictionary entry, usually printed in bold and typically followed by Information on
its spelling pronunciation, word class, Inflections, meaning(s) and examples of use
• All these pieces of information make up the dictionary entry for a lexeme (in print dictionaries, listed
in alphabetical order)
• Headwords are also called "citation forms" of lexemes or "lemmas"
• In lexicographic terms, they are synonyms, they all refer to the base form of a word or lexeme as
recorded in a dictionary

Word class or part of speech

• The use of grammatical criteria to Identify, study and classify words
• Words are grouped into different classes according to their meaning, their structure and their
position in a sentence
• Differences in the terminology used to classify word classes and also in the number of word
classes
• Eight word classes or parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions,
determiners and pronouns
 Texem's that we can kind in dictionaries
WORD CLASS DNouns
• Words which refer to or denote:
MAJOR - concrete objects or entities, le, people, chings places, events in the real world
CLASS - abstract notions and things, states, qualities
=
Examples: house, John, London, festival, or happiness, love, politics
open
• They are usually divided into:
- proper nouns, proper names (Silvia, New York, Google)
- common nouns (dog, bus), which can be countable and uncountable

A Verbs
• Words which express actions, events, states, processes (be, do, cook, cry, think, etc.)
• They are divided into:
- lexical or main verbs, they carry lexical meaning
- auxiliary verbs (smaller class), they accompany a lexical verb
• Auxiliary verbs are subdivided into:
- primary auxiliaries (be, have, do), they help lexical verbs in grammatical constructions
- modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must), they accompany lexical verbs to
express degrees of possibility, probability, certainty, necessity, obligation, etc.

* Adjectives
• Words which describe qualities and properties of things people, states
• They describe nouns and pronouns (wonderful, lucky, serious, etc.)
• They can be gradable (large, larger, largest, very large, extremely large, etc.) or non-gradable (dead or
alive, NOT very dead, married or unmarried single, NOT very or quite married)

* Adverbs
• Words which serve different functions:
- they describe the degree of an adjective (very Interesting)
- they accompany another adverb (quite strangely)
- they give information about place, time, manner, degree, frequency, duration of an action, event, process or
state (yesterday, tomorrow, usual, carefully, etc.)
- they express the speaker/writer's attitude, feelings, point of view towards what he/she is saying (honestly,
probably, interestingly)
- they link clauses and sentences (however, moreover, therefore, first, finally)
WORD Conjunctions
LASS • Words which link linguistic items (words, phrases, clauses and sentences)
• They are usually divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, depending on the relationship
Minor * between the linguistic items they link:
sass - Coordinators link elements with the same grammatical status and syntactic role (and, but, or)
[
- Subordinators introduce dependent and subordinate clauses and can express relations of time, place,
closed condition, concession, purpose or reason (after, where, if, although, so that, because)

Prepositions
• Words which link words or larger units to express a relationship between them in time, space, and other
types
Examples: I went to the party with Mary, I'm worried about your health, I live in Rome, This is a present for your
birthday, etc.
• Prepositions can be:
- simple, one single word (in, at, for, to, after, by)
- complex, two or more words (next to, because of, thanks to, together with, by means of)

Determiners
• Words used before a noun to determine the type of reference of that noun
• The main determiners in English are articles (a, an, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those),
possessives (adjectives only. my, your, his, her, our, their), quantifiers (some, many, more, few, all, enough)
• They can indicate definiteness or indefiniteness (articles), quantity (quantifiers and also numerals),
possession (possessives) and relation to the speaker/writer (demonstratives)
• They are modifying words, which accompany nouns and determine their contextual status
Major and minor word classes
• Language is constantly evolving
• New words are continuously created and existing words can also become obsolete or even
disappear in use
• Word classes are divided into:
- major and open word classes
- minor and closed word classes

• The number of words of these types

• The degree of receptiveness to new members
• Their potential change in use

Major and open classes

• Nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives and adverbs
• They include a large number of words in the vocabulary of a language
• They can admit new members, as new words of these types are frequently created
• They are open because their membership is not stable, they can become obsolete and even disappear
in use
• These word classes are also called lexical or content words, because they are the main carriers of
meaning in a text

Minor and closed word classes

• Conjunctions, prepositions, determiners (articles, possessives, demonstratives, quantifiers), pronouns
and auxiliary verbs
• They include a small(er) number of words in the vocabulary of a language (vs major and open word
classes)
• New words of these types are rarely created
• Their membership is relatively stable, it can change only very slowly over time
• These word classes are also called grammatical or function words, they signal the links between
different words or linguistic units and show how a lexical word or linguistic unit should be
interpreted
Lexical and grammatical words
• Lexical or content words are the main carriers of meaning, they are essential to the basic
interpretation of the sentence (nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
• Grammatical or function words do not carry lexical meaning, but signal the links between different
words, they make the sentence grammatically complete/correct and help to make the sentence's
meaning explicit (conjunctions, prepositions, determiners, pronouns, and auxiliary verbs)

I am coming tomorrow by train at six o'clock.

• Lexical words: coming, tomorrow, train, and six o'clock (ex, telegram, space limitations, omission for
A

brevity)
• They cannot be omitted
• Grammatical words: I, am, by, and at
*

• They are not essential to the basic interpretation of the sentence (they do not carry lexical
meaning), they can be omitted
• BUT they make the sentence grammatically complete and correct because they make the relations
between words explicit

• The distinction between lexical and grammatical words is not clear-cut

• There are completely lexical words like nouns and completely grammatical words like articles
• There are also many word classes falling somewhere between these two extremes of a spectrum
• In English, the same “word" can belong to more than one word class, depending on the grammatical
context in which it appears and the grammatical function it carries out

Word forms and lexemes: Examples

The lexeme DOG is the basis of (base form) and is realized in speech and writing by the grammatical
word forms dog, dogs, dog's and dogs'
• TEACH: teach, teaches, teaching, and taught
• SHORT: short, shorter and shortest

Words and (multiple) word classes

• Examples:
ALL: (determiner) in All the students, (pronoun) in This is all I got, (adverb) in She got all wet.
AROUND: (preposition, before a noun/pronoun) in I walked around the city centre, (adverb) in I was
just walking around.
WALK: (noun) in Shall we go for a walk?, (verb) in It takes me half an hour to walk to work.
• The same word-form in English can express different lexemes (walk noun and walk verb)
• In dictionaries, separate entries clearly indicating the word class, usually under the same headword
07 17
.

What is meaning? Dictionary definitions

1. The meaning of words, signs, or actions is what they express or represent (Cambridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary);
2. The meaning of a word, expression, or gesture is the thing or idea that it refers to or represents and
which can be explained using other words (Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner's Dictionary) (=
Paraphrase: express the meaning of something using different words)
3. The thing or idea that a word, expression, or sign represents; the thoughts or ideas that someone
wants you to understand from what they say, do, write, etc. (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English);
4. The thing action, feeling, idea, etc. that a word or words represent (MacMillan English Dictionary for
Advanced Learners);
5. The thing or idea that a sound, word, sign, etc. represents (Oxford Adranced Learner's Dictionary.

• 'Meaning' is deeply linked to the notion of lanuage as communication

• Meaning can be communicated through words and expressions (verbal language, spoken and written
words)
• Meaning can be communicated through signs and gestures (non-verbal language)
• All these means of meaning expression (esp. words), represent, or are linguistic representations of
things, ideas, actions, feelings
• BUT the linguistic representation of the meanings of things may be extremely different from the
linguistic representation of the meaning of ideas and feelings
• The way the meaning of things and objects can be defined can greatly differ from the way the
meaning of ideas and feelings can be defined
• The linguistic representation of meaning is a complex phenomenon

Word and meaning

• Focus on word
• How language is meaningful thanks to words
• How words communicate meaning
• The meaning of words, the semantics of words
• Meaning' is often used as a general term to refer to (lexical) semantics
• Semantics is the study of word meaning
• Focus on one particular aspect of word semantics: the relation between words and the world, the
meaning relation between words and the extra-linguistic reality referred to as the world
 depends on

en
Reference or denotation
• How words relate to the world / world entities
• The relation between words and the world
• Words refer to / denote something/someone in the world
• The real existing world and an imaginary world (fictional)
• The meaning of a word, based on this relation, is called referential or denotative meaning
• Cognitive, descriptive, conceptual, factual, objective
• The meaning typically recorded in dictionaries
• The meaning which arises from the relation between a word and its referent (thing, property,
action, state, concept that a word refers to)

• It is not the only link between a word and the world

• This meaning relation, the relation of refence (between a word and its referent) is not simple
• Based on reference/denotation:
- Words enter into other meaning realtions
- Words relate to other words in semantic words
- Semantic relations link words to other words
Ex. Hyperonymy/hyponymy,synonymy/antonymy
• A web of meaning realtions within the vocabulary/lexicon of a language between words
themselves

To analyze the relation between words and the world

To understand why this meaning relation is not always simple
To explore the complex nature of reference or denotation
1. Why a particular word is or should be in a relation of reference to a particular entity in the world?
2. Is this relation somehow motivated? Why do we use a particular word to name an entity in the
world?
3. Do words or different types of words denote / refer to entities in the world in the same way?
 - words w context
Denotation and reference
The concept of 'lexeme' helps distinguish between denotation and reference. A lexeme, coined by Lyons analogous
to phoneme and morpheme, is an abstract linguistic unit with variants (e.g., SING, sang, sung).
Denotation refers to the relationship between a lexeme and a class of extra-linguistic objects. It's challenging to
provide concrete examples of denotation since it involves an abstract linguistic unit and a whole class of external
objects. Conversely, reference relates an expression to what it stands for in specific instances of its use. It
depends on concrete utterances and is a property only of expressions, not single lexemes. Expressions like "the
computer" establish reference with specific items as referents, partly determined by the denotation of the lexeme
"COMPUTER" in the English language system.

Denotation and sense

Denotation, as defined by Lyons, pertains to the relationship between a lexeme and a class of extra-linguistic
objects. Sense, on the other hand, evolved in Lyons' definition. Initially, sense referred to a word's place in a
system of relationships with other words. Later, it was defined as the relationship between words or expressions
within a language system, independent of their referents. Sense is a language-immanent relationship, inherent to
the language system. Both individual lexemes and larger expressions have sense, influenced by their occurrences
in specific grammatical constructions. A comparison between denotation and sense reveals their interdependence.
While some words may lack specific denotation yet possess sense, as exemplified by "unicorn" in sentences like
"There is no such animal as a unicorn" versus "There is no such book as a unicorn," where the latter is
semantically odd. This underscores that a word may have sense without denotation, indicating a complex
relationship between the two concepts.

Denotation and connotation

There's disagreement among specialists regarding the distinction between denotation and connotation.
Some view them as binary opposites, while others see them as more nuanced. However, connotation is closely
linked with synonymy, where synonyms may share denotative (cognitive) meaning but differ in connotation. The
line between connotation and denotation can be blurred, as illustrated by variations in Made with Goodnotes
dialects like Scots English, where a word like "loch" can be seen either as a dialectal variant or a distinct lexeme
with specific descriptive meaning and connotations. Supporters of the binary view define denotative meaning as
the relationship between a linguistic sign and its referent, while connotations represent a dalisinannessor
Veterendelexemes, such as poetic, slang, or colloquial associations.
Understand both denotation and connotation is crucial for determining word meaning in context.
Arbitrariness of reference
• In general, the relation between words and what they refer to or denote in the world is arbitrary
• In most cases, the relation of reference is not visibly based on a reason, it is mostly a matter of
convention
• There is no intrinsic relationship between the nature of a linguistic sign and the nature of its referent
• For the large majority of words, the relation of reference does not seem to be motivated
• In most cases, there is no visible connection between the spoken and written symbols representing a
word in a language and the referent of that word in the world

Arbitrariness of reference across languages

• The arbitrary nature of reference manifests itself across languages
• Multilingual perspective
Different equivalent words for the same referent
• Different languages present equivalent BUT different spoken and written symbols for the same referent in
the world
Ex Butterly: ‘Farfalla’ (IT), 'papillon' (FR), 'mariposa’ (SP), etc.

Exceptions
1. Sounds, words present phonological motivations (imitatiove words). Imitate the sound (GRUNT, PLOD, SWISH)
reference to the sound
2. Meaning words representing semantic motivations (proper names)

Imitative words
- Grunt (verb): (of animals, especially pigs) to make a short, low sound in the throat; (of people) to make a
short, low sound in your throat, especially to show that you are in pain, annoyed or not interested; to say
something using this sound
- Plod (verb): to walk slowly with heavy steps, especially because you are tired.
- Swish (verb): to move quickly through the air in a way that makes a soft sound

• Definitions show that these verbs include some reference to sound

• The relation between these words and their referent is motivated by the sound that the referent makes, it
is phonologically motivated
• Imitative words', because the sound of the word is assumed to be imitative of the sound associated with
the referent (mostly an action and so mostly verbs)
• A small group of verbs in the vocabulary of a language
Proper nouns or proper names
• A group of words whose relation to their referent in the world is not arbitrary but motivated
• Names of people, places, institutions, etc.
• They present an intended unique referent
• They are created to refer to / denote one unique referent
Ex. Mount Everest: the highest mountain in the world
Ex. Nelson Mandela: South-African leader (Nobel Peace Prize)
• Also when the same proper name denotes different referents
Ex. Rome: (a) the capital of Italy, (b) small town in the USA (Georgia)

• They are often semantically motivated

• A proper name Is often related to or derives from a (common) word whose meaning characterizes the
unique referent of the name
• Proper names are chosen because of the supposed meaning of the name
Ex. "Jennifer': the fair one' or "Yair lady'
Ex. 'Chester': a city in north-western England, whose name derives from the Latin word 'castra', which means
'camp' and indeed Chester was an important military center in Roman Britain
• Proper names, like imitative words, represent a small group of words in the whole vocabulary of a
language = The large majority of words present an arbitrary relation to their referents

Common nouns
• They do not have a unique referent
• They do not denote unique entities
• They refer to classes or categories of things
• The description of the reference relation of common nouns is more difficult and complex

Ex. window
• How might we describe window' in terms of reference/denotation?
• How many referents of window do we know?
The reference relation or common nouns
• As opposed to proper nouns, the nature of reference of common nouns is not unique
• Their reference relation is generic
• Common nouns refer to classes of items which, despite common essential properties, may differ
from one another (shape, size, purpose)
ex. Window. bedroom window, roof window, car window, shop window, etc.
• BUT they have enough properties in common to allow speakers of a language to use a single
word / the same word to denote them
• OR, if necessary, to specify the type of window meant in a particular context by adding
information: bedroom window, car window, shop window (more specific reference)

Common nouns: generic or specific reference (2)

• Technical language:
Ex. 'Warship' (IT nave da guerra, nave militare), defined as "a ship that has weapons and that is used
in war" is a generic name for more specific types, like
"destroyer' (IT cacciatorpediniere), "frigate' (IT fregata), 'cruiser' (IT incrociatore), 'aircraft carrier' (IT
portaerei), etc.
• Everyday language
Ex. 'Cutlery', defined "knives, forks and spoons, used for eating and serving food" (its dictionary
definition clearly indicates that it is a category word)
Ex.'Knives, forks and spoons' include subcategories
Ex. Different types of spoons: tablespoon, teaspoon, soup spoon, etc.
• The relation of reference between words (common nouns) and the entities in the real word they
denote can be more or less generic or specific

Generic or specific reference

• In terms of reference/denotation, some words refer generically, while other words refer
specifically
• A lexical or meaning relation between these words
• The words with more general references are called hypernyms
• The words with more specific references are called hyponyms
• Hypernyms are words with a general meaning that includes the meanings of other particular
words, they represent a sort of category names
Ex. "fruit" is the hypernym of 'apple', 'orange', 'lemon', etc.
• Hyponyms are words with a particular and specific meaning that is included in the meaning of a
more general word, of a hypernym
Ex. 'dog', 'cat', 'rabbit", etc. are hyponyms of 'animal'
14 11
.

Words relate to the world

• The first aspect concerning word meaning in lexical semantics
• The relation between words and the world
• The meaning relation between words as linguistic signs and the world (extra-linguistic reality)
• Reference or denotation: words refer to or denote entities in the world
• Based on this relation, "referential" or "denotative" meaning (also "cognitive", "descriptive", "conceptual",
"factual" or "objective")
• The meaning recorded in dictionaries
• The meaning which arises from the relation between a word and its referent (thing, property, quality,
action, state, feeling, concept that it refers to / denotes)

Reference is complex
• BUT reference or denotation is not the only link between a word and the world
• Reference or denotation is not a simple relation, especially in meaning definition or description on the
basis of reference
• Some aspects of word semantics clearly show why this reference relation is NOT always direct, clear,
unique or motivated

Arbitrariness
1. The arbitrary nature of reference
• For the large majority of words, this meaning relation is not motivated but arbitrary
• Reference / denotation is a matter of convention
• No visible or intrinsic reason why a word is in a relation of reference with an entity in the world
• The arbitrary nature of reference clearly manifests itself across languages
• The same referent in the world is denoted / referred to by different spoken and written words
(butterfly, farfalla, papillon, mariposa, etc)

Genericness
2. The generic nature of reference
• Except for the small group of proper nouns or proper names
• For the large majority of nouns (common nouns), this meaning relation is not only arbitrary but also
generic
• Unlike proper nouns (an intended unique referent, a one-to-one correspondence between a word and
its referent)
• Common nouns denote classes or categories of entities in the world (one-to-many correspondence)
• Reference is indirect and unspecific
Genericness / Specificity
2. The generic/specific nature of reference
--

• BUT the referents of common nouns have a set of essential properties in common
• One single word can denote different entities in generic terms
• BUT, since common nouns are category words
• Many more specific words representing types or subcategories
• Types of referents which differ in shape, size, purpose, etc.
• Some words in a language refer generically, while other words refer more specifically
• A lexical sense/meaning relation between these words

·
Lexical sense relations
• Hyperonymy or hyponymy. depending on which words I focus on:
- The words with more general reference are called hypernyms
- The words with more specific reference are called hyponyms
- Hypernyms are words with a general meaning that includes the meanings of other particular words
(hyponyms), they represent category names
- Hyponymns are words with a particular and specific meaning that is included in the meaning of a more
general word (hypernym)

Fruit' (hypernym): 'apple", orange, lemon', etc. (hyponyms)

Animal (hypernym): dog'", cat", rabbit' (hyponyms)

Concreteness/abstractness
3. The abstract nature of reference
• Refence or denotation can be also the relation between a word and the concept, the idea of an entity
in the world
• Reference can be an abstraction, based on the general image we conceive in our mind of what is
denoted, based on our experience of what is referred to
• Words which do not refer to concrete, observable, tangible objects (unlike concrete nouns and activity
verbs)
• Words which denote concepts which are more difficult to be defined in terms of reference (abstract
nouns and cognitive verbs)
• Differences concerning other word classes, like adjectives and adverbs
 The nature of reference
• The nature of the reference relation changes depending on referents and words (motivated or arbitrary,
direct or indirect, unique or generic, generic or specific, concrete or abstract)
• It varies across word classes and also within the same word class
• In dictionaries, it is the concrete/abstract nature of the reference relation what influences the way word
meaning is defined
• when words denote more concrete or observable entities, definitions are descriptive and analytical
• when words denote more abstract entities, definitions tend to rely more on the use of paraphrase and
synonyms

Examples
• Lion: "A large, powerful animal of the cat family that hunts in groups and lives in parts of Africa and
southern Asia. Lions have yellow-brown fur and the male has a mane (= long, thick hair round its neck)"
• Tion' typically connotes bravery, strength, or ferociousness
• figurative/metaphorical "A brave, strong, or fierce person"

• Pig: "An animal with pink, black or brown skin, short legs, a broad nose and a short curly tail. Pigs are
kept on farms for their meat called pork) or live in the wild*
• Pig typically connotes uncleanness and unpleasant smells
• informal, disapproving, figurative/metaphorical "A person who is dirty or greedy, an unpleasant or
offensive person".

Words and the world

• They denote concrete but different entities in the world
• BUT they all present similar additional semantic values
• They all suggest additional semantic associations
• Their denotational meaning is different
• Their connotational meaning is similar
• They all connote luxury, richness, high living, special and expensive food or drink
• Dictionaries do not always record this additional level of meaning
• BUT sometimes dictionaries offer connotational information, ex. CHAMPAGNE, CAVIAR ("special" and 'very
"expensive", "celebrate special occasions", " rich people")

It refers to the
Connotation
additional meaning or • From the perspective of word semantics, another aspect to analyze is the distinction between denotation
emotional association
that a word carries and connotation
beyond its literal
definition. It's the • Reference or denotation is not the only link between words and the world
subtle nuances or
feelings that a word
• Connotation is another type of relation between the two
evokes beyond its
surface meaning.
• It relates to the meaning that a word may have in addition to its denotation
• A word may suggest some semantic associations in addition to its denotative meaning
• A word may evoke ideas or feelings in addition to its literal or primary meaning
• Connotation can be of different types (positive or negative, specific to lifestyle, aspects of human
experience, feelings, etc.)
Denotation refers to
the literal or
dictionary definition
of a word, devoid of
any emotional or
&
subjective
association. It's the
Denotation vs. connotation
straightforward, • The nature of the denotation meaning differs from the nature of connotational meaning if any
objective meaning
of a word. • Connotations are rather indeterminate, not exactly established, defined and fixed
• Connotations are much vaguer and unclear
• Connotations are more variable, they can change and are subject to variables
• Connotations are more language-specific and culture-specific

1. Connotations can be subject to variation in time (from one generation to another)

Example: food words like 'milk" or 'meat'>
• In the past, associated with health and strength (positive connotation)
• Today, with many vegetarian or even vegan people, associated also with health risks, environmental issues,
etc. (negative connotation)
• Sociocultural variables influence word connotation
• Connotation can change depending on sociocultural factors and values
• Connotation can change across societies and cultures

2. Connotations can be subjective, not shared in the same way by the whole speech community
• The experience of language and the way it is used in relation to the world is individual, to some extent it
can be unique and very personal
• Connotation reflects the experience of the entity to which that word refers, it reflects the characteristics the
entity has in our mind, in our belief-system
• By choosing a word, we transfer the associations of that entity stored in our mind to that word

• Connotation relates to the "emotive" meaning of words, also called "affective", "attitudinal or "expressive"
• A meaning that expresses a person's feelings rather than being neutrally descriptive
• A meaning that expresses the way of thinking or feeling about the referent of a word
• Words often have personal and/or sociocultural associations which contribute to their denotative meaning
• Connotations are additional components of meaning

Word semantics and context

• The meaning of a word (denotation and connotation) is deeply context-dependent
• It depends on the context of its use, the context in which that particular word is used, including
1. Linguistic context or "co-text", the other words in the same sentence, paragraph or text
2. Situational context who uses the word (the speaker/writer), who is involved in that communication the
listener/reader or the audience), in what occasion or communicative situation it is used
• The actual meaning of words can be interpreted only in their linguistic and situational context
• When consulting dictionaries, contextual aspects should be always taken into account to learn word
meaning
 ?
14 11
.

Words relate to other words

• Words do not exist isolation
• They continuously establish relations with other words to convey meaning
• Grammatical relations, to perform different grammatical functions and finally build grammatically
complete and correct sentences
• Lexical or sense relations, related to meaning

Sense relations
• Word meaning(s) can be identified through a web of sense or meaning relations linking words within
the vocabulary or lexis of a language
• Word meaning(s) can be described in terms of
1. Reference/denotation
2. Connotation (if any)
3. Sense relations, the connections between one word and another based on its meaning(s) or senses
• The study of sense relations is a traditional way to examine word semantics or words from a semantic
perspective
• BUT, lexical relations hold between or connect specific senses of words, rather than words themselves;
that is why we refer to them as sense relations"

Hypernyms and hyponyms

• Lexical sense reladons of hyperonymy and hyponymy
• The notion of hypernyms and hyponyms
• A sense relation between "flower' (category word, superordinate, hypernym) and "rose'and Violet"
(types of flowers, hyponyms of the hypernym lower")
• A hierarchical relationship between the meaning of words
• BUT, since lexical relations connect senses of words
• A different sense of a word presents different sense relations

Sense relations refer to the ways in which

-
words are related to each other in meaning.
There are various types of sense relations,
including synonymy (words with similar
meanings), antonymy (words with opposite
meanings), hyponymy (words that are more
specific than others), and meronymy (words
that represent parts of a whole). These
relations help us understand the connections
and distinctions between words.
Other sense relations:&
synonyms Sim
• Relations Inking senses of words to other senses of words in the vocabulary of a bague

Rich (ad): "having a lot of money or property"

Wealthy (ad): "having a lot of money possessions, etc."

• The same referential or denotational meaning

• They both refer to / (adjectives) they can be both used to qualify a person (-) owning a los of
money or property
• A sense relation can be identified based on simility or sameness
• They an be considered synonyms
OPPOSITE

Other sense relations:&

meaning
antonyms
Rich (ad): "having a lot of money or property"
Wealthy (ad): "having a lot of money. possessions, e."
+
Poor (ad): having very lite money, not having enough money for basic

• A sense relation can be identified based on difference, contrast, oppositeness

• The denotational meaning of poor is in opposition to the denotational meaning of rich' and of
wealthy'
• These words are antonyms

Synonymy and antonymy

• Words can be synonyms or antonyms of other words
• Two types of lexical sense or meaning relations
• Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning so more than one word having the same meaning or
alternatively the same meaning expressed by more than one word
• Antonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning words with opposite meanings, and semantic
opposition can be of various kinds
• BUT synonymy and antonymy as lexical relations link senses of words, not words themselves
• The same word presenting distinct senses will have different sets of synonyms and antonyms
 Synonyms 'in theory'

I
• Words which "mean the same thing"
• Words which have the same referent and meaning
• BUT, the actual meaning of words depends on its co-text and context
• Synonymy must be defined in terms of context of use

important[
• Theoretically, two words are synonyms/synonymous if and when:
- they can be used interchangeably in all contexts
- they can be exchanged in all contexts
- (for a specific sense of a word) substitution does not change the meaning of a sentence

Synonyms 'in practice'

• Pairs of words may appear to be synonyms
• BUT It is extremely rare that they can be used interchangeably in all contexts, that they can be
exchanged in all contexts
• "Strict", "complete" or "perfect" synonyms are very rare
• The definition of synonyms as "interchangeable in all contexts" is nearly impossible
Do strict/complete or perfect synonyms exist in a language?
• Actually, synonyms in Linguistics refer to pairs of words that can substitute for each other in a wide
range of contexts, but not absolutely, meaning not in all co-texts and contexts
• "Near synonyms", with varying degrees of interchangeability
• Based on this definition of synonymy, many near synonyms in English

Why near synonyms abound and diffe

1
1. Origin the different origin of near synonym
2. Language variety, the use of near synonym is different varieties of eng
3. Style or level of formality informality
4. Technically or specialization
5. Connotation
6. Euphemism (and dysphemism)
English has many synonyms due to its
rich history and the influence of various
languages and cultures over time.
Synonyms often arise from linguistic
evolution, borrowings from other
languages, regional variations, and the
need for precise expression in different
contexts. Additionally, synonyms provide
speakers and writers with O flexibility,
allowing them to choose words that best
convey their intended meaning or tone.
1. Origin
• The origin and history of the English language (9 program) west Germanic branch
• Present day vocabulary of English is the result of many historical, social and cultural events which
influenced the way language (esp. lexis) developed in the course of time
• In particular, present-day English contains:
- words of Anglo-Saxon origin, coming from the languages or dialects spoken by the Carmanle tribes
which Invaded the British Isles In the 5th century
- words of French origin (Old French), Introduced after the Norman Conquest in 1066 (the Invasion and
assumption of control of England by William of Normandy)
- words of Latin origin, Introduced during the Renaissance period, when Latin became the language of
learning and academic life

• Why the English vocabulary contains so many pairs of near synonyms, words which developed
differently in the course of time, indicating the semantic changes that can take place through the
history of a language
• Example of near synonyms involving the three origins mentioned: kingly (Anglo-Saxon), royal (Old
French), regal (Latin)

2. Language variety
• Many near synonyms exist and differ in English
• Many words densting the same referent, bur which cannot be used interchangeably
• Language variety includes different varieties of English:
- British and American English
- national varieties (Australian, Irish etc) or dialects of one national variety
• Near synonym can belong to different varieties because different groups of speakers of the same
language use different words to refer to the same entity

3. Style or level of formality informality

• Linked to the origins of words: (usually) Anglo-Saxon words are more Informal and colloquial, while
French or Latin-derived words are more formal
• Near synonyms can differ in terms of stylistic effect the level of formality or informality in
communication
• Even if these words represent near synonyms, their degree of formality varies, they can(not) be used
in the same situational contexts
• Samples (Anglo-Saxon vs French/Latin origin)

&
help/aid
teach/instruct
kingdom/realm

S
 4. Technicality or specialization
• Technical or specialized vocabulary or "jargon"
• Language' dictionary definitions: "words of a particular type", people working in a particular field
or job tend to use specific words
• Many professions, trades, sports and hobbies have developed their own specialized language
(Language for specifies/special purposes or LSP), words which allow people to talk and write
about their activity
• Technical words or "terms" may have a common-language synonym
• Examples: (medical) pulmonary and (everyday synonym) lung, as in pulmonary disease and lung
disease
• (med lang): cardiac/heart incision/cut, lesion/injury, auditory/hearing
• Difference the level of specialization of words, some near synonyms are technical terms adopted
in specialized contexts

5. Connotation
• Personal, social and cultural associations, additional levels of meaning
• One of the two synonyms in a pair has connotations which are not shared by the other synonym
• Example: 'love' and 'adore' can be synonyms, but 'adore' has connotations related to religion,
worship and devotion which love does not share She loves/adores her mother. love and respect
(someone) deeply" She loves/adores Maricon cusine: "like very much"
• BUT worship, venerate, feel devotion for" (religious sense, co-text and context)
• For your resurrection that sets us free, l worship and love/adore you
Hindus love/adore Gods in the forms of statues

6. Euphemism

!
• The use of an indirect word or phrase to refer to something embarrassing are unpleasant,
sometimes to make it seem more acceptable than it really
• The need for euphemism: in some contexts, there is taboo in referring directly to a given subject
like sex, death and body functions
• Euphemistic synonyms are coined to denote more indirectly these copies
• BUT synonyms arising from euphemism are limited in number and confined to restricted areas of
human experience
• Plus, more colloquial synonyms for the same copies exist also in Informal language or slang
(dysphemisms)
- Dysphemism is the opposite of
A euphemism is a mild or indirect
word or expression used in place of euphemism. It involves using a
one that may be considered harsh, harsh, blunt, or offensive word or
blunt, or offensive. Euphemisms are expression instead of a neutral or
often employed to soften the impact polite one. Dysphemisms are often
of sensitive or unpleasant topics, intentionally employed to shock,
such as death, bodily functions, or offend, or emphasize the negative
controversial issues. They can also aspects of a topic. They can be
be used to make language more used for comedic effect, to express
polite or socially acceptable. frustration, or to convey disdain.
 6. Euphemism and dysphemism
• A euphemism is a mlld or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too
harsh when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing®
• A dysphemism is a derogatory or unpleasant term used instead of a pleasant or neutral one" (the
opposite of a euphemism)
• Samples:
'die' (neutral), 'pass away' (euphemistic synonym),'snuff it' or 'kick the bucket" (colloquial synonym
or dysphemism)
kill (neutral), liquidate (euphemism), do in (dysphemism)
urinate (neutral, formal), pass water (euphemism), pee (dysphemism, less vulgar), wee
(dysphemism, less vulgar, with children), piss dysphemism, vulgar) > (go) to the toilet / loo / bathroom
(polite)

Synonyms: A summary
• In Linguistics, synonyms' actually refer to near synonyms, words which present and share the
same sense, and which can substitute for each other in a wide range of contexts, but not
absolutely, meaning not in all co-texts and contexts
• Synonyms have the same referent in the world, the same denotational meaning, but can and do
differ in their context of use:
=

- geographically (variety or dialect)

- stylistically (informal vs. formal), also depending on origin
888 - In domain or register (technical vs. ordinary words)
IMPORTANT - attitudinally (connotation)
- in sensitivity (euphemism and dysphemism)
-

Partial synonyms

1.
• Only part of the meaning of two or more words is shared
• There is partial overlap in meaning but not complete identity of meaning
• Example mature, ripe and adult (adjectives)
• They all refer to growth, a certain point of maturity achieved, BUT
• ripe' also "(of fruit or crops) fully grown and ready to be eaten"
• adult also a fully grown person who is legally responsible for their actions"
• mature' (the most general reference of the three) also "behaving in a sensible (wise, sound) way.
like an adult"
Partial synonyms are words that share some, but
not all, aspects of meaning. They overlap in
mature
-

meaning to some extent but also have distinct

nuances or connotations that differentiate them. For -

> upe
-
example, "happy" and "joyful" are partial synonyms odult
because they both convey positive emotions, but
"joyful" may imply a stronger or more intense feeling
of joy than "happy." Similarly, "car" and "automobile"
are partial synonyms, as they both refer to a mode
of transportation, but "automobile" may suggest a
more formal or technical context compared to "car."
28 .
Il

Analysis of word meaning

• Types of meaning or semantic relations into which words enter:
1. Referential, the relation between words and the world (what we talk and write about, the
content of communication)
2. sense relations (hyperonymy/ hyponymy, synonymy/antonymy), the relations that words
establish with other words in the meaning system of the vocabulary, within the lexicon of a
language
• BUT, mostly words as individual single items or substitutes for one another
• New perspective on lexical semantics, focusing on meaning from word combinations
• Multi-word units"

Multi-word units

S
• Units made of more than one word
• Sequences or combinations of words which express one single meaning
• They represent single lexical units or single lexemes
• They include more or less fixed (more or less invariable), and more or less semantically
transparent expressions
Examples: phrasal verbs, compounds, idioms, proverbs, discourse organizers, binomials, and
similes

1. Phrasal verbs
• Verbs followed by a particle: verb + particle
• Examples: give in, pass out, think up, put off, etc.
• A combination functioning as a single lexical unit, a single unit of meaning (semantic unit)
• Meaning is not always compositional
• Meaning is not predictable/ transparent from the meaning of the verb and of the particle
• They are multi-word units, ie., multi-word verbs, which express a single unitary meaning
which cannot be interpreted as the sum of the meanings of its components

Phrasal verbs: Grammar

• They have the same function as single-word verbs
• The particle may be immediately after (a) the verb or (b) the direct object
• Most phrasal verbs present equivalent single-word verbs (BUT
sometimes more formal)
Example:
Jane has put off the meeting (verb + particle) "Phrase verbs" typically refer to verbs that
are made up of more than one word. These
Jane has put the meeting off. (verb + direct object + particle) combinations often involve a main verb plus
Jane has cancelled/postpone the meeting (equivalent) one or more auxiliary verbs, also known as
helping verbs. For example, "have been,"
"going to," and "should have been" are all
examples of phrase verbs. They're used to
convey various tenses, aspects, moods, and
other nuances in the English language.
 Phrasal verbs in dictionaries
• They are multi-word lexemes representing single semantic unit
• Dictionaries tend to record them as single lexical units
• BUT, different approaches in dictionary treatment:
• In general-purpose monolingual dictionaries, esp. online, they represent separate headwords (a single
entry devoted to their definitions)

of
Put off: (phrasal verb) I. Postpone something. They can't put off a decision much longer. 2. Cause
compe someone to lose interest or enthusiasm. She wanted to be a nurse, but the thought of night shifts put her
off. 3. Distract someone. Don't put me off. I'm trying to concentrate.
• In monolingual learners' dictionaries, they represent senses or derivations of the verb word they
belong to
"Put off under 'put', in the alphabetical list below the entry for 'put'
n e
2. Compound words -wordsthat adithat create
a

• Mentioned in the notion of word, defined depending on different features (orthographical, phonological,
etc.), different types of words
• To be discussed later as word formation, compounding as an extremely productive process: how
words can combine to form compounds, different types of compounds, etc.
• Today as an example of multi-word units
- Expressions including more than one word, BUT semantically representing single lexical units / lexemes
- Two or more words combine to form a new lexeme with a new meaning

• Word combinations differ orthographically

• Compounds can be written as one word (timekeeper), as one word but hyphenated (time-consuming),
as separate or distinct words (time machine)
• BUT, semantically they are single units of meaning
• Their meaning is not always compositional, the sum of the meanings of their components

J
Blackbird, not simply a black + bird but "a European bird: the male is black with a yellow beak and the
female is brown with a brown beak"
examp Blackboard: "A large board with a smooth black or dark green surface that teachers write on with a piece
of chalk" (also when green/white, also when using marker pens)

• Different approaches in dictionary treatment, won't find this under black or board/bird it has its own
entry
Compound words in Linguistics
• Described and classified in terms of.
- the word classes they are composed of (which word classes combine to form a compound)
- the word class of the resulting compound (which word class the compound belongs to)
• Frequency: noun + noun = noun
Country house: (noun) "A large house in the country, especially one that belongs or used to belong to a
rich important family"
Armchair: (noun) "A comfortable chair with sides on which you can rest your arms"

Compound words: noun + noun

• Noun functions as an adjective and modifies the meaning of noun?
• Example: school day vs day school
School day :"A day of the week when students go to school"
I get up very early on school days.
Day school: (British English) "A course of education lasting one day, at which a particular topic is
discussed"
She attended a day school at Leeds University on women in Victorian times.

Compound words: Other patterns

• Nouns (adjective + noun): green light, strongbox
• Adjectives (adjective + adjective): bittersweet, African-American
• Adjectives (noun + adjective): bottle green, user-friendly, seasick
• Verbs (noun + verb): daydream, stargaze

•
D In compounding, two or more words of the same/different word classes) combine to form a lexeme
with a new meaning (a new lexical semantic unit) which belongs to the same / a different word class
-
 3. Fixed expression
• A group of combinations of words which occur in a more or less fixed or Invariable form:
- Discourse organizers
- Binomials
- Similes
- Idioms
- Proverbs

& Discourse organizers

• Multi-word units or lexical patterns which are used to organize or structure discourse
- To start a speech or a piece of writing let me start with, what I want to talk about is, let's begin with
- To explain something or to introduce explanations: that is, in other words, what I mean is, I mean
- To exemplify something for example, for instance, to give an example, to illustrate the/this point
- To conclude a speech or a piece of writing: to sum up, in conclusion, to conclude

&
Binomials or binomial pairs
• Expressions made of two fixed elements, which are connected by a conjunction which indicates a
- binary relation
• Binomials are fixed combinations because their order cannot be modified
• "Frozen expressions"
• Examples: more or less, back and forth, to and fro, ups and downs, pros and cons, sick and tired, knife
and fork, etc.
wordphoboth ametophsa ded
e

meaning "veguor" acros

>
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Similes conguages
• Multi-word fixed expressions representing stereotypical comparisons based on the figurative use of
language
• They are figures of speech composed of a part that is interpreted more literally and a part that is
interpreted more or less non-literally
• They are similar to metaphors BUT the comparison is linguistically expressed, it is signaled and based
on the fixed patter C
as ... as ...
• Example: She's as blind as a bat without her glasses (not able to see well)
• The usually contain non-human entities as terms of comparison
• Across languages and cultures, tendency to associate certain characteristics of non-human creatures
like animals or objects with human beings
As busy as a bee: "very busy"
As flat as a pancake: "completely flat"
As regular as clockwork: "very regularity, happening at the same time in the same way"
Idiomatic phrases or idioms
• A more or less fixed sequence of words with a unitary meaning
• They usually have a single-word equivalent expression (more formal)
Spill the beans: "(informal) to tell somebody something that should be
kept secret or private" = 'reveal' (a secret)
Get the wrong end of the stick: "(British English, informal) to understand
something in the wrong way" = 'misunderstand'
Pack your bags:"(informal) to leave a person or place permanently,
especially after an argument" = 'leave'

• Their meaning cannot be Interpreted literally or compositionally

• They are figurative expressions, longer than one word, shorter than a sentence, whose meaning cannot
be derived from the sum of the meanings of their components
• Their meaning is non-compositional, it must be interpreted non-literally. as a whole, and thus as a
single semantic unit
• Dictionaries treat idioms as single lexemes, usually listed as a derivative under one or more of the
constituent words of the Idiom, usually the ones which are considered to be central, the most
important one (5) in the whole expression
• In English, many more or less fixed expressions, both phrases and clauses, are idioms, whose meaning
cannot be guessed from their individual words

I really put my foot in my mouth with Mary. I didn't know shed split up with Tom.
• Idiomatic non-compositional/non-literal meaning
a. put your foot in your mouth: "to say or do something that upsets, offends or embarrasses somebody"
b. split up with somebody:"(phrasal verb) to stop having a relationship with somebody"
• In leaners' dictionaries, a) under foot and/or mouth; (b) under split
 Idioms in dictionaries
• Dictionaries treat idioms as single lexemes
• They usually list idioms - as derivatives under one or more consistent words of the idiom, usually the
ones which are considered to be central, the most important one(s) in the whole expression
Example: Hand in glove (with somebody): "Working closely with somebody, especially in a secret and/or
illegal way"
- a derivative under the entry for HAND
- In some dictionaries also under the entry for GLOVE, or as a cross-reference to the entry for HAND,
highlighted with an arrow (→HAND) or phrased as 'see HAND' together with the number of the relevant
sense (hand')
• Dictionaries tend to cover any potential type of search

Idioms: Essential features NOT LITERAL

• They present a non-literal, figurative or metaphorical meaning
• They are fixed expressions
-

• Idioms are characterized by:

• lack of semantic transparency
• limited flexibility

Idioms: Semantic features

• Some Idioms have no literal interpretation, they are used only metaphorically, ex. "A storm in a teacup'
• Other idioms allow both a literal and a non-literal interpretation, which makes some idioms misleading
because the non-literal meaning of an idiom cannot be deduced by its literal one
Example: Grandpa kicked the bucket last night I'm still in shock
• Literal interpretation: meaning of "kick' and of 'bucket' BUT the non-literal and idiomatic meaning is 'to
die'
• A relation may exist between the literal and the non-literal meaning, in terms of origin or etymology, ex
'kick the bucket' derives from committing suicide
• Co-text and context clarify ambiguity, allowing us to understand whether the expression is used literally
or idiomatically/metaphorically (idiom)

NO PLURAL Idioms: Fixity

NO PASSIVE FORM • They are fixed expressions
• BUT, relative concept: idioms differ in how fixed they are, the extent to which idioms may be
manipulated is variable
• BUT, only small and grammatical changes can be made
• Some idioms are property fixed, ex 'a storm in a teacup", and no changes are permitted except for
wordplay (lexical creativity)
• Example: plural form 'storms-in-a-teacup' or 'a-storm-in-teacups', different sequence 'a-teacup in a-
storm'
• Other idioms can be manipulated to a certain extent, mostly verb idioms, ex 'kick the bucket'
• Example: verb tense (has/have/had/will) kick(ed) the bucket' BUT not plural form 'kick the buckets'
and passive form 'the bucket was kicked'.
 s collocation
idians Multi-word fixed expressions: Proverbs
Bes
theydo
J• They represent the accumulated folk wisdom of a culture, as expressed by language
• A common cultural fund of folk knowledge and wisdom
• They are usually long self-contained statements that express popular wisdom or historical heritage
not have
the • Used to describe or comment on life experiences in a more indirect way
meaning • They are usually figurative, their meaning is not to be interpreted literally. they are used as an image, a
on the
words graphic way of describing or commenting on something
↓
the Proverbs (figurative, non-literal meaning): Examples
meaning • Too many cooks spoil the broth: "If too many people are involved in doing something, it will not be done
is
figurative well"
• A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush: "It is better to keep something that you already have than
to risk losing it by trying to get much mora"
• People (who live) in glass houses shouldn't throw stones: "You should not criticize other people, because
they will easily find ways of criticizing you"

* Proverbs and idioms

• In Linguistics, some scholars regard proverbs as a kind of idioms
• In some dictionaries, lexicographers include and treat proverbs or abbreviated forms of proverbs as
idioms
• Similar phenomena: like Idioms, proverbs are characterized by the non-literalness of their intended
reference
• BUT, unlike idioms, proverbs present a more direct, although pictorial or figurative, relation to their
intended reference (the situation we describe or comment on by using a proverb)
• The figurative relation between a proverb and its intended reference is clearer, it is easier to guess the
meaning of a proverb by knowing the meanings of its components
• The essential feature of an Idiom is its non-literal metaphorical meaning which is not the sum of the
meanings of its parts
 Another aspect of the analysis of meaning from word combinations
• Syntagmatic lexical relations
- lexical and semantic relations that a word establishes with the words that accompany
-Grelations between a word or an individual lexeme and other accompanying words
- they emerge from word combinations, ie, when words combine which other words to convey a specific
or particular meaning

Syntagmatic lexical relations

• Words tend to keep company with other words, they tend to appear repeatedly together
• Words tend to attract one another in ways that cannot be explained only through grammatical or
syntactic rules
• Grammatical syntax explains how words (word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, determiners, etc.)
combine with other word classes by following the specific rules of grammar in order to build a
grammatically correct sentence
- Noun + verb in the 'subject + verb'" patter
- Verb (transitive) + noun in the verb + (direct) object pattern
- Property grammatical combinations

• As opposed to grammatical relations, they link individual lexemes with other accompanying lexemes
based on meaning
• They are another type of semantic relations between words
• They explain how and why words tend to select other words in order to express a specific meaning
• "Collocation" #fixed expression

words
S • Words enter into collocational relations with other accompanying words
Skibidibabababa :{(

Anot da Dictionaries of collocations

Repeatedly • Headword (in bold) word class (in italics)

&together
On FREQUENTLY
• A list of collocations divided into groups (word classes): 1-5
• Word classes vary across entries, depending on the entry's word class
• Mustrative examples, examples of use
• Example: LIST (noun)
The dictionary provides a set of words which belong to different word classes and which can be used
(frequently used), with list' to express and associate specific meanings to the word list' as a noun
 Collocation: dictionary ex
• 'Commit a crime' is a typical collocation in eng
• Resound success' and 'crying shame' are eng collocation
• The phrase a 'hard frost'

Collocation: Dictionary definitions and examples

• Linguistics
*• Collocation means:
- a combination of words (two or more words)
- frequency or very often used together, which occur together, which co-occur regularly (frequency of
use, frequent co-occurrence)
• which sound natural and correct (fluency).
• The combination of words that have a certain mutual or reciprocal expectancy
• Words tend to occur together with other words to convey meaning
• Words regularly keep company with certain other words to convey meaning

Collocations
• This relations link components of a word combination to express a given meaning
• They present recurrent and arbitrary word combination
• Arbitrary because are always predictable
• A given word prefers the company of another word (not its synonyms) because of constraints which
do not depend on syntax, grammar or log, but because of constraints which depend on usage, on the
way language is used
• Conventional form-meaning pairings
• Native speakers of a language naturally make typical' or regular in combining wards to express a
specific
Collocations: Language-specificity
• They often differ across languages, they are language-specific, specific to languages
• Example (Italian-English pair)
- fare colazione: have breakfast and not do/make breakfast
- fare ricerca: do research and not make research
- gravemente ferito: badly/deeply/seriously hurt and not gravely hurt
- completo (hotel): fully booked and not completely booked
- forti piogge: heavy rain and not strong rain
- Price (subj) + verb: rise, increase, go up, soar and rocket, but not grow, or fall drop, decline, plummet and
tumble, but not decrease or diminish
Considerable differences in the choice of collocations

• They are of particular relevance in English Language teaching

• They represent a difficulty for learners of English as a foreign language (L2)
• Tendency to produce several collocational errors due to the influence of the native language
• Leamers of English may make mistakes due to the influence of collocations in their own native language
(tendency to literally translate a collocational patter)
• How important is the choice of appropriate collocates when you speak or write in English
• Recommendation: consult dictionaries of collocations for text production

Collocations in English
• They are a very pervasive feature of the English language
• They influence the way in which words in different word classes occur together in a correct and natural-
sounding way
• Collocations are not fixed expressions, BUT the degree of co-selection between words is variable, i.., how
strong is the tendency of certain words to co-occur with other certain words to convey a given meaning:
- Some words co-occur rather freely with other words
- Some wards appear to be more limited in combining with other words
- Other words are totally restricted in their combinability

Degree of co-selection: types of collocations

• Based on the number of potential words which may collocate with another word, Le., the collocational
range of a word
a. unrestricted collocations or free combinations (ex. core vocabulary of English: man, woman, house, night)
which can collocate with a very high number of other words;
b. restricted collocations, words with a smaller collocational range, words which can collocate with fewer
words (ex. nouns like need, condition, standard or requirement present a small number of verb collocates, like
meet, satisfy. fulfil,
c. fixed, unique or frozen collocations, words which combine with only a very few or even only one collocate
(ex. the verb 'nod' almost exclusively combines with the noun head; the verb 'shrug' only co-occurs with
shoulders', the adverb sorely' only co-occurs with the verbs 'miss' and 'need)
An introduction to monolingual learners'
Dictionary of English: the ''big five''
• Introduce and discuss basic concepts of English lexicography
- The theory and practice of writing dictionaries, of making or compiling dictionaries, involving
lexicographers, i.e., professionals who write and edit dictionaries
• Focus on monolingual and especially learner's dictionaries
- An alphabetical listing of words in a language (English) with descriptive information about them,
intended to be used for reference purposes by foreign learners

Why dictionaries?
• Authoritative sources of information about English
• Important and useful alds in language learning
• The development of dictionary skills
- The ability to consult and use dictionaries correctly
- The ability to interpret (correctly) dictionary information
• They enhance lexical competence, learners' knowledge of words
- Receptive (reading, listening) AND productive (writing, speaking) competence
- Knowledge of the formal, semantic and usage features of lexical units (a word or multi-word unit)

Lexical competence
• Understand a word in its written/spoken form
• Spell it and pronounce it correctly
• Identify the parts it is composed of, and their grammatical features
• Understand its meaning(s), referential and connotative meaning(s) ex. neutral/positive/negative
associations
• Know the network of sense relations it is part of (synonyms and antonyms, hypernyms and hyponyms)
• Know its grammatical patterns and its collocations, use it in a grammatically correct way and know
which words can be used with it
• Know its use (where, when and how) in communication (formal/informal, common/rare, dated/old-
fashioned, derogatory/offensive, BrE/AmE, etc.) and use it appropriately
Dictionary: Dictionary definition
DICTIONARY (noun) (plural dictionaries)
1. A book or electronic reference resource (printed or digital, ex. website, app) that provides information
about the words of a language, usually in alphabetical order and explains what they mean in the
same language (monolingual, learners'), or gives a word for them in a foreign language (bilingual).
2. A book or electronic reference resource that explains the words that are used in a particular subject,
A medical dictionary, A dictionary of business English.
3. A list of words in electronic form, for example, stored in a computer's spellchecker.

Dictionary: Collocations and word origin

ADJ. comprehensive, good | electronic, online | picture | pocket | English, French, etc. | English/French,
French/English, etc. | bilingual, monolingual | learner's, native-speaker | standard | specialist, technical |
collocation, etymological, historical, pronunciation | biographical, encyclopaedic, medical.
VERB + DICTIONARY check look sth up in, use, consult (formal). If you don't know the meaning of a word,
look it up in the dictionary. Teaching children how to use dictionaries | compile, write | edit | publish.
DICTIONARY + NOUN definition, entry
PREP. in a/the ~ I couldn't find the word in the dictionary.
Word origin: early 16th cent: from medieval Latin dictionarium manual or book of words', from Latin dictio,
from dicere 'to say.

Types of dictionaries
• The number of languages covered (monolingual, bilingual, multilingual)
• The number of lemmas included (large unabridged, middle-sized desk, small pocket)
• The area of language covered (general, specialized or pronunciation, collocations, idioms, proverbs)
• The target user (native-speaker, foreign learner, children)
• The type of publication (paper or electronic format)

Broad categories of dictionaries

1. General-purpose
2. Specialist
a. the subject matter (area of knowledge or of language)
b. the target audience (children or learner's dictionaries)

General-purpose dictionaries
• They aim to contain all the lexicographic information that users might need
• A comprehensive coverage of the vocabulary within the limits of their size (desk dictionaries, concise
dictionaries, pocket dictionaries)
• Size influences their extent and coverage (number of headwords)
• They are compiled within a lexicographical tradition defining what lexical information is included and
how (treatment)
• Pronunciation, irregular inflections, part-of-speech (word-class), definitions, examples of use,
etymology. (if any) stylistic and geographical restrictions, and (if any) field of use
Specialist dictionaries
1. (subject) They aim to contain information which general-purpose dictionaries do not, or do not
sufficiently, deal with
They provide specialist information, a more detailed treatment of specific information, ex. spelling,
pronunciation, etymology proper names (toponyms or of people), special registers or fields (slang,
computing, medicine, business)
2. (audience) They aim to address specific groups of users, who are not sufficiently or adequately served
by general-purpose dictionaries, ex. dictionaries for learners (foreign learners', students of EFL)

Learner's dictionaries
• They are specialist dictionaries, ie., essentially general-purpose dictionaries, but tailored to the needs
of one specific group of users
• Differences depend on (a) information selection and (b) the attention paid to the use of language
a. What is regarded as useful and relevant for learners, the most important and central information they
should know
b. 1 How words are used to define vocabulary, definitions are deliberately simple (the limited linguistic
resources of learners)
b. 2 Word usage, very detailed grammatical and semantic information which is very relevant to learners
(not to native speakers)

• They do not usually contain etymological information, considered to be of no relevance or help to a

learner of the language
• They do not usually contain older or rare senses of lexemes in current English, learners would hardly
find them in their typical communicative situations
• They are tailored to the needs of people who are learning a language, whose goals in dictionary
consultation include:
- decoding (listening, reading), receptive skills
- encoding (speaking, writing), productive skills

• Their function changes in decoding and encoding activities

• Decoding, ex. reading: learners need to interpret lexemes in context (clear definition of all the different
senses of a lexeme and, if any, appropriate register and field labels)
• Encoding, ex. writing: learners need different information
- Check the definitions and register/field labels of the lexeme used
- Check if it is appropriate to the context of use
- Find out accurate and detailed grammatical information or check the grammatical correctness of
sentences
- Find out appropriate collocational information and check the naturalness of sentences > Dictionaries of
collocations
 Detailed grammatical information
• Dictionaries employ different methods and symbols to encode grammatical features and patterns
(instructions and practice)
uncountable &
countabl
• U) and/or (C) for nouns: plural or not, possible determiners (a/an, the), quantifiers (many, some, few)
- Countability of nouns can change across languages, ex. information, advice (U in English vs C in
Italian)
&
transitive • (T) and/or (I) for verbs, whose nature determines which grammatical functions can be found (S, Od,
intransitive
Oi, Co, Cs, A)
• Restrictions in the position of adjectives: attributive (before noun) and/or predicative (after copular
verbs)
• Features of adjectives, ex gradable or non-gradable (comparative, superlative); their order (qualitative
+ classifying: good criminal lawyer)

Simple definitions and examples

• Restricted coverage (number of headwords/entries)
• Only the vocabulary actually in use in current English
• The language and wording of definitions is simple and usually more _concise
• The most frequently occurring words in English define the frequently occurring vocabulary of English
• Frequency based on corpora
• The limited (vs native speakers) vocabulary of learners
• Examples illustrating the senses of words, providing a range of typical contexts of use (semantically
and grammatically)
• Authentic examples taken from corpora

Dictionary organization and structure

1. The front-matter, preceding macrosection which includes different subsections the user (YOU) should
read before consulting a dictionary, like a preface/foreword/introduction and keys, instructions on
how to use it (annotated sample pages, usage notes or more explanatory sections)
2. The main body of a dictionary, the alphabetical list of headwords or lemmas with their accompanying
articles, i.e., dictionary entries
3. Appendixes or the back-matter, different sections containing information which may or may not be
strictly "lexical", but useful to the dictionary user

The dictionary's main body

• The ordering is alphabetical
• Dictionaries are based on spelling
• A form to arrange lexical items representing a long-established traditional lexicographic practice in
print dictionaries (vs online dictionaries)
• The alphabetical listing makes consultation easier, the use of dictionaries as reference works is
easier (all kinds of reference works are typically organized alphabetically, ex. telephone directories,
encyclopedias, etc.)
• Headword or lemma: the item, or lexical unit, usually in bold, initiating the dictionary entries
Headwords
• Single-word lexemes, the citation form is used, i.e., the base form of a verb (infinitive without to),
the singular form of a noun, the positive form of an adjective (not comparative or superlative)
• Multi-word lexemes, ex. compounds, phrasal verbs, Idioms, different approaches: they can be
treated as O
(a) separate and independent headwords, or as⑧ (b) derivations of another headword (in
the entry for the main or most important word in the combination)
- Compounds usually independent lemmas: country house, not under country or house
- Phrasal verbs usually derivatives: 'give up' under give
- Idioms and proverbs/sayings usually derivatives: "hand in glove' under hand and under glove
(cross-reference)

• Other than words or lexemes

- Prefixes and suffixes
- Abbreviations
- Proper names of places and people

Information in dictionary entries

• Headword
• /Pronunciation/, mostly IPA transcription, BrE and AmE
• Grammatical information (abbreviated or not): word class (es), inflections (esp. irregular),
grammatical properties and syntactic information
• Definitions: description of senses (listed or numbered if multiple)
• Illustrative examples of usage (italics) supporting the definition
• Labels of usage (style and geographical markers): field or domain (medical, literary), linguistic
context (formal, informal, slang, old-fashioned), geographical context (national varieties or
dialects)
• Collocations or 'word partners', also in bold in examples
• Related multi-word expressions: phrasal verbs, idioms, proverbs
 Derivatives in learners' dictionaries
• Dictionaries are based on spelling (alphabetical listing)
• The way they treat derivatives varies, ex. friend':
- prefixation: separate entry in the order, ex befriend (v.) defriend/unfriend (v.)
- suffixation: (a) separate entry in the order or (b) within the entry for the wordform from which they
derive, ex. friendless, friendship, friendly (friendliness)
• Definitions for derivatives are NOT always provided

Spelling and meaning

• They are the major reasons for consulting a dictionary
• Given the typical alphabetical ordering, spelling information is offered naturally and implicitly (some
spelling variations)
• BUT, complex relationship between spelling and meaning
• Words with the same spelling and different meaning (related or completely different)
• The dictionary treatment of homographs
• Differences between your learners' dictionaries

manca lezione del 17 feb.

.3
5

Grammar: Dictionary definitions

• Apobsemic word (diferent relerens and related sentes)
la core sense telers to the rules of a language, and ato do the study and use of these rules
Other senses a person) Anowede and use of gramenatical rules a book
which explains the rules of a language a particular gramenan
• Granar particulady deal with the rules and the study and voe of the toes which control.
• How words change their form, their stractin, morpholop)
• How words can be combined to mile tentences, how gramance) correct sentences can be formind
syntax

Grammar in Linguistics: Morphology

• The areas of language analysis which typically represent the main core of grammar are morphology
and syntax
• Area of grammar and of Linguistics
• The study of the internal structure of words, of the form of words according to the grammatical
context in which words occur
• The study of the grammatical rules which control how words are constructed with roots, prefixes and
suffixes, how morphemes combine to form words
• The study of how these small and meaningful elements can make up words, how they contribute to
create meaning and form new words

Morphology
1. Inflectional morphology (inflection)
• Changes in the form of words depending on the grammatical context in which they occur and on their
grammatical function, grammatical information
2. Derivational morphology (derivation)
• Changes in the form of words depending on word-formation processes through affixation
• The addition of prefixes, infixes and suffixes to the root or base form of a word to modify the
meaning of a word or create a new word

Morpheme
• The smallest unit of meaning and/or grammatical function
• It cannot be divided into smaller units
• The minimal and indivisible element of a word which can (2) carry semantic content and/or (b) signal
a grammatical function/information
Examples:
• 'un.' + adjective implies the meaning of 'not, able vs undble; (derivational)
• 'girl' (morpheme/word) means young woman'
• '-s' in girls signals the plural number
Morpheme(s) and words
• Based on the number of morphemes they are composed of:
• monomorphemic or simple words (only one morpheme), the, girl, sad, play, etc.
• polymorphemic or complex words (more than one morpheme), gir-s, sad-ness, sad-ly, play-
ed, meaning-less-ness, etc.

Morphemes in Linguistics terminology

• Like lexemes and phonemes, morphemes are abstract entities
• They are abstract units of meaning or of grammatical function used in linguistic analysis
• The concrete realization and representation of a morphere is actually a 'morph'
• A morph is the physical form or the physical manifestation of a morpheme
• A morphere is realized and represented by a ‘morph’
• In Linguistics, we can examine words from a morphological perspective in terms of
morphemes and of morphs

Morphemes in Linguistics terminology

• 'Allomorph’
• The large majorioy of English morphemes have a singles morph (a single concrete phonetic and
graphic realization and representation)
• BUT, In some cases (small number), no one-to-one corruspendence between morpheme and morph
• The same morpheme can have different morpher representing, and realizing it phonetically and
graphically
• The same morpheme can have different phonete ard ethe too which express the same features
• Allomorphe one of the déferent phonede or graphic realtacions of a morphere
 Allomorph: examples
• The morpheme (past tense) Is graphically realized by the morph-ed
- The pronunciation/phonetic realization of this morph/morpheme can differ depending on the sound
preceding -ed in a verb; raised /retzd/, looked /lukt/ and decided /dI saidid/
- [d]. [t] and [1d] are allomorphs of the past tense morpheme

• The morpheme (plural) is graphically realized by the morph s which presents different pronunciations/
phonetic realizations depending on the sound preceding -s: cups /Aps/, hands / handz/ and
beaches /, bi. tfiz/
- [S]. [z] and [rz] are allomorphs of the plural morpheme

mancaupezo
Morphemes
• Definitions the smallest units of meaning and or grammatical function
• But, not all morphemes have the same characteristic, functions and BOH DIO PORC

Free morphemes
• They can stand alone as a word
• Based on lexical vs grammatical words, they are divided into lexical morphemes and grammatical/
functional morphemes
Ex. The students organized a party in the hall.
- free grammatical morphemes, the and"" (det), in' (prep)
- free lexical morphemes: 'student, organize', 'party' and "hall"
• ‘Free root': free lexical morphemes carrying the semantic content of the word (vs bound root)

Bound morphemes (1)

• They cannot stand alone as words, occur on their own as separate words, they need to be added/
attached to another morpheme
• Two types: affixes and bound roots
1. Affixes are bound morphemes attached to the beginning or end of another morpheme and, for this, they
are prefixes (preceding another morpheme) and suffixes (following another morpheme)
• Affixes are always attached to the root a word
• The root is the core of a word, the morpheme which determines the meaning of a word, with no affixes
added to it
Ex. unhappiness; un- (prefix) + happy (root) +-ness (suffix)
Bound morphemes (2)
• Roots can be free or bound
• Many roots are free (free lexical morphemes representing the core meaning of a word and able to
stand alone as independent words)
• Other roots cannot occur on their own, but need to be attached to another morpheme, they are bound
morphemes and represent bound roots

Ex. 'dentist', 'dental, dentistry, 'denture', etc., dent- is a bound root, typically combining with different suffixes
to convey related meanings (teeth, from. Latin dens- dentis)

Ex. "liberal, liberty, 'liberalize, liberate, liber- is a bound root, typically combining with different suffixes to
convey related meanings (freedom, from Latin libertas)

Ex. -ceive, a bound root (because alone it does mean nothing) typically combining with prefixes to form
verbs (re-ceive, per-ceive, de-ceive), less transparent (Anglo-Saxon origin)

Root
• Root is the core of a word, the morpheme which determines the meaning of a word, with no affixes
added to it
• Vs base, the form of a word (a word form) to which any affixes (inflectional and derivational) can be
attached
Ex. 'happy' (root and base, a free morpheme) of 'un-happy, but unhappy (only the base) of
'unhappi-ness'
Ex. 'origin' (root and base) of origin-al, but "original is (only the base) of originality
• Any root is also a base, but a base is not always only a root
• Root is the minimal part of a word, it cannot be divided into smaller morphemes
• Base is the part of a word containing at least a root, and an affix?

Affixes
• They are bound morphemes attached to the beginning or end of another morpheme, always attached to
the root of a word
• (Position): prefixes and suffixes
• (Meaning and function): derivational and inflectional
• Morphology is divided into derivational and inflectional marphology
- Derivational affixes/bound morpheres are prefixes and suffixes which are attached to other
morphemes to derive new words
- Derivation, word-formation process, very productive tool of lexical creation in English
Inflectional affixes
• They are only suffixes In English which are attached to other morphemes to express grammatical info,
relations or functions (vs derivational affixes, not to create new words, change the meaning or word
class of words)
• They are added to and change the form of words according to their grammatical features or function:
Ex. -s in book-s (plural), -ed In play-ed (past tense), -er In smaller (comparative degree)
Ex. play and play-s are (word-Forms of PLAY), -s inflection signals 3rd person singular
Ex. student and student-s (word-forms of STUDENT), -s signal the plural number
• (Polysemy) the same form, inflectional -s or -ed, represents different morphemes and conveys
different meanings

Inflectional morphology
• It deals with the changes in the form of words according to the grammatical context
• It is concerned with inflections which carry and convey grammatical meaning and signal grammatical
information (plural form, past tense, comparative/superlative degree)
• Words change their form to express grammatical categories (gender, number, tense, superlative, etc.).
• In English, it is rather limited (vs other languages and also Old English -English until the Norman
Conquest in 1066)
• Present-day English has lost many inflections in its history and grammatical relations are signaled by
syntax and word order
• BUT, limited number, inflections concern many word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some
adverbs) and inflectional suffixes can be regular and irregular

Regular inflections in nouns

• The grammatical categories which apply to nouns include gender, number and cas
• BUT, in English case only refers to possession, the "genitive case"
• Gender: most English nouns do not express this category morphologically and a very few gender-
markers exist in English (vs Italian, each noun Inflects for gender) - development in language use
• Number: most English nouns (countable nouns) Inflect to express this category, I.e, the addition of the
inflectional suffix -s to the singular form of (regular) plurals:
• Case: English nouns can express the grammatical category of genitive case by adding the
inflectional suffix 's

Irregular plural inflections in nouns

• Irregular nouns form the plural with different patterns:
- by adding the irregular suffix -en (child-children, ox-oxen)
- by retaining the original Greek, Latin and French plural form, BUT sometimes a regular plural form may
co-exist (formula-formulae-formulas, medium-media-mediums)
- by changing the vowel of the root (man-men, tooth-teeth), 'replacive morph'
- by changing the consonant of the root and adding the inflection -s (wife-wives, knife-knives)
- no change, the singular/plural form is identical, the plural is obtained by a 'zero morph' (sheep-sheep,
fish-fish)
Morphological analysis: nouns
• 'Cars' (word form) = 2 morphs car+s, realizing and physically representing the/two morphemes (CAR) +
(plural)
• 'Singers' = 3 morphs sing-ers, 3 morphemes (SING) + (noun, derivational) + (plural)
• ‘Sheep' = 1 morph sheep, 2 morphemes (SHEEP) + (plural)* expressed by a 'zero morph’
• "Women's" = 2 morphs women-s, representing 3 morphemes (WOMAN) + (plural)* vowel change, replacive
morph + (possessive)

Regular inflections in verbs

• Verbs present four inflections or inflectional suffixes:
-s (3rd person singular, simple present tense), which signals the grammatical category of person (3rd),
number (singular) and tense (simple present)
-ed (simple past tense), for all persons (not signaling person, number)
-ed (past participle)
-Ing (present participle and gerund)

Irregular inflections in verbs

• Many irregular verbs, but most only in the past tense/past participle forms,
TAKE: take, takes, taking (regular) vs took, taken (irregular)
• Irregular verbs follow different processes or patterns:
- 'zero morph' realization: the past tense and past participle forms have no inflectional suffix, morphemes do
not have a morph or concrete realization (put-put-put, cut-cut-cut, hit-hit-hit)
- vowel mutation: the change of the base vowel (come-came-come, sing-sang-sung, begin-began-begun)
- vowel mutation + irregular inflection -en in the past participle form (write-wrote-written, give-gave-given)
-

- replacive morphs: the past tense and past participle forms are identical (keep-kept-kept, make-made-
made, spend-spent-spent)
- suppletion, 'suppletive forms': two or more forms are completely different (go-went-gone, be-was-been)

Auxiliary verbs and modals

• Auxiliary verbs are also irregular: DO, BE, HAVe
• BE is the most irregular, its forms differ considerably, they can be regarded as suppletive forms (be, am,
are, is, was, were, being, been)
• Vs. replacive forms in DO (do, does, did, doing, done) and HAVE (have, has, had, having)
• (!) Modal verbs do not inflect for person and number and have only two forms: can-could, may-might,
shall-should, will-would
Morphological analysis: verbs
• cooking (word form) = 2 morphs, cook-ing, realizing and physically representing the/two morphemes
(COOK) + (present participle)
• Taken (irregular) = 1 (replacive) morph taken, 2 morphemes (TAKE) + (past participle)
-

• Cut (irregular) = 1 morph (zero morph) cut, different combinations of morphemes (CUT) + (present) or
-

(CUT) + (past) or (CUT) + (past participle)

• Went (irregular) = 1 (suppletive) morph went, 2 morphemes (GO) + (past)
-

• Runs (regular) = 2 morphs run-s, 2 morphemes (RUN) + (3rd person sing present tense)

Inflections in adjectives
• Gradability: most adjectives (and few adverbs) can be graded, they are 'gradable', other adjectives
cannot
This dress is smaller-est, very/extremely/quite small
I am more married, the most married, very/quite married (BUT wordplay)
• Regular (short, 1/2 syllables) gradable adjectives inflect to express degrees (SMALL, three inflected
forms: small, smaller and smallest, representing (positive degree), (comparative degree) and
(superlative degree
• Regular (longer) gradable adjectives do not inflect, but express degrees through periphrastic forms or
constructions, ex. more nervous, most nervous
• Irregular adjectives (adverbs like well, much and litle) present different (suppletive) forms to express
degrees, good-better-best, bad-worse-worst, well-better-best, much-more-most, little less-least

Morphological analysis: adjectives

• Colder (word form and regular) = 2 morphs cold-er, realizing and physically representing the/two
-

morphemes (COLD) + (comparative degree)

• Worst (Irregular form) = 1 morph worst, 2 morphemes (BAD) and (superlative degree)
-
Inflections in other word classes
• Some determiners and pronouns can also inflect
• They present more than one form depending on the grammatical context In which they occur
• Demonstratives (determiners) Inflect to express the category of number (singular and plural forms:
this/that and these/those)
• Pronouns Inflect to express person (Ist, 2nd, 3rd pers.), gender (masc., fem. and neuter in the 3rd
pers. sing.), number (except for the 2nd pers. you for both sing, and plur), subject/object case
(except for 2nd person you and 3rd person neuter it)
• Adjectives and pronouns inflect to express the genitive case: possessive adjectives (my, your, his/
her/its, our, your, their), possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers/its, ours, yours, theirs)

Morphological analysis: other word classes

• Him (word form) = 1 morph him, realizing and physically representing the/five morphemes (HE) + (3rd
-

person) + (singular) + (masculine) + (object)

• Her (personal pronoun) = 1 morph her, 5 morphemes (SHE) + (3rd person) + (singular) + {feminine) +
-

(object)
• Her (adjective) = 1 morph her, 5 morphemes (SHE) + (3rd person) + {singular) + (feminine) +
-

(possessive)
• They = 1 morph they, 4 morphemes (THEY) + (3rd person) + (plural) + (subject)
-
12 3
.

Summary
• Morphology
• two areas physically representing the core of English grammar: morphology and syntax.
• Some morphological aspects which characterize the way the English language works
• Specialized word or ‘term’ in Linguistics
• The rules of a language (English) which govern how words change their structure and form

Summary: Morphology
• An area of grammar and of Linguistics
• The internal structure of words, the form of words
• The grammatical context in which words occur or the grammatical function words carry out
• The grammatical rules which control how words are constructed with roots, prefixes and suffixes, how
morphemes combine to form words
• The ways in which 'morphemes’, small, meaningful elements, can combine to make up words and
contribute to the construction of meaning and to the creation or formation of new words

• Morpheme: the smallest (abstract) unit of meaning or grammatical function, the minimal and Indivisible
element of a word which can carry semantic content and/or which can signal a grammatical function
• Morph: the concrete realization and representation of a morpheme, the physical form or manifestation of
a morpheme
• Root: the core of a word, the morpheme which determines, the meaning of a word, with no affixes
added to it
• Free morphemes and bound morphemes, whose difference depends on whather they can stand alone as
words or not
• Bound morphemes: affixes (prefixes and suffixes)

• Inflectional morphology, changes, in the form of words which depend on the grammatical context in
which they appear and on their grammatical function
• In-depth analysis of English inflectional morphology
• Derivational morphology, changes in the form of words depending on processes of word formation
through affixation, Le, the addition of prefixes and suffixes to the root or base form of a word in order
to modify the meaning of a word or to create a new word

Manca n pezzzo
Derivation
• It represents a tool of lexical creation and productivity in English
• Word-formation: the processes which are Internal to a language, and which contribute to the
building, formation or renewal of vocabulary, of lexis, by modifying already existing words
• Within a language, linguistic processes may operate to allow speakers to coln new words from
those which already exist, which are already in the vocabulary or lexis of that language
• This area of lexical creation is mainly, assochted with derivatoral morphology, the processes of
forming new words from existing ones
• BUT, word-formation is not only derivation, many and diverse processes Internal to English
continuously enrich, its vocabulary (compounding blending, shortening, semantic shift —> creating
new words and meaning of words)

• It is one of the most important word-formation processes

• It is a highly productive mechanism by which new words are coined
• It is based on affixation, that is the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to the root or base
form of a word
• It involves adding a prefix (at the beginning) and/or a suffix (at the end) to an existing form
• Prefixes and suffixes (affixes) are bound morphemes, they only occur in combination with a word
• Affixation is based on the combination between a free morpheme with at least one bound
derivational morpheme
• High number of derivational affixes (prefixes and esp. suffixes) In English

Derivational affixes
• Prefixes are usually class-maintaining BUT meaning-changing
• They don't usually change the class of the word they are added to
• BUT, they usually alter the meaning of words, they add some variant of meaning to the word
• Example: un, in, a- non-, im-, dis- (negative meaning) can be added to adjectives, nouns and verbs
to mean the opposite, unhappy, Incomplete, atypical, non-material, Impatience, disagree
• Suffixes are often cass-changing, they often produce a change in word class
• They are usad to derive a related word in a different word class
• Example: -tion, -ment, -dom, -ness, -hood, -er -ee can be added to different, word classes to form
nouns, relation, wrasment. kingdom, kindness, neighborhood, trainer, trainee
Derivational prefixes
• They typically add and thus change the meaning of the words they are added to
• They are classified according to the meanings they can express:
• pejorative (maltreat, miscalculate, pseudoscientific)
• degree ar size (overconfident, miniskirt, supernatural, hypercritical)
• attitude (pro-European, anti-war, anti-racist)
• spatial relations, both concrete and abstract (intercultural, transatlantic, subnormal)
• time and order (postmodern, ex-president, preschool, recycle)
• numerical values (monolingual, bilingual, polyglot, multilingual, plurilingual, unisex)

Derivational suffixes
• They typically change the class of the words they are added to
• They are classified according to the word class they create:
• nouns
• adjectives
• verbs (small number)
• adverbs (very lew)

Derivational suffixes: adjectives ly or wise

Derivation in Linguistics and language learning

• Recognize and use derivational affixes is very important for students of a foreign language
• BUT, there are exceptions to the rules of word formation

Example: -ment (verbs > nouns), excitement, development agreement

NOT > changement change, v. vs cambiamento (Italian native speakers, contrastive perspective, interference)

Example: early, adjective and adverb (everyday English, language use)

NOT early
Earlily (adverb) rare At an early period or sage
Derivation: a comparative/contrastive perspective
• Speakers of Romance languages (Latin) can find some afixes: more transparent than others
• Many English altices are of classical (Greek or Latin) origin
• Examples: blo-, eco-, mega-, macros-, micros-, multi-, photo-, neuro-, tele-, post- (prefixes) and -crat,
-graphy, -ology, -phile,-phobia (suffixes)
• They have always been and still are very productive in English derivation esp. nouns in the fields of
science and learning.
• ‘Neo-classical combining forms’
• They are usually, shared by Romance languages, BUT they can be found also in English, sometimes spelt
and pronounced diterently (Cyber-/cibers-, techno-/tecno-, photo-/foto-)

• A prefix now commonly, used across languages is euro- or Euro-relating to Europe, as in Eurocentric,
eurozone, Eurosceptic, Eurocrat
• A more recent group of suffixes or combining forms due to cultural developments and sochl trends:
-scape (landscape, cityscape), "a view or scene of", denoting a specified type of scene"
-aholic (worlaholic, shopaholic), "liking something very much and unable to stop doing or using, it",
"denoting a person addicted to something"
-athon (readathon, talkathon, marathon), " forming nouns denotine an action or activity which is carried on
for a very long time or on a very large scale, typically to raise funds for charity", "an event In which a
particular activity ls done for a very long time, especlally one organized to raise money for charity"

• -gate, from the Watergate (1970s)|

• A US political scandal in which an attempt in 1972 to bug the national headquarters of the Democratic
Party (in the Watergate building in Washington DC) led to the resignation of President Nixon (1974)
• Since then, -gate has been used in English, esp. in journalism, to refer to scandals, sexgate, Russiagate,
Irangate, etc
• -GATE "in nouns denoting an actual or alleged scandal, especially one involving a cover-up"
• In Italian, -poli derived from Tangentopoli (1992), widely used to rever to scandals, calciopoli, affittopoli,
vallettopoli, bancoboli.etc

Derivational affixes in dictionaries

• They add grammatical and/or semantic values to the existing forms they are added to
• They are recorded in dictionaries, but what treatment?
• Some dictionaries devote full/separate entries to affixes -

• Other dictionaries group them under one single entry

• This difference concerns print and online dictionaries (space limitations), but also comparable
dictionaries (learner's)
Derivational affixes in dictionaries: Nouns (1)
-ION (also -ation, -Ition, -sion, -tion, -xlon): the action, state, condition of, the result or product of action,
hesitation, competition, confession, relation exploration, plantation, persuasion
-DOM: the condition or state of, freedom, martyrdom, rank or status, kingdom.
-ER: a person or thing that performs the action, lover, computer a person or thing that has the thing or
quality mentioned, two-wheeler, foreigner, a person studying or expert in, astronomer, philosopher, a person
belonging to, New Yorker
-EE: a person affected by an action, employee, trainee; a person described as something or doing an
action, absentee, refugee
-ERY (also -ry): the group or class of, curdery, greenery, an occupation, a sate, a condition, or behavior,
husbandry, bravery, slavery, snobbery; the art or practice of, cookery, dentistry, a place where something is
made, grows, lives, etc.. bokery, brewery, orangery

Derivational affixes in dictionaries: Nouns (2)

-HOOD: the state or quality of, childhood, womanhood, falsehood, a group ol people of the type mentioned,
the priesthood
-ISM: the action or result of, criticism; the state or quality, ol, heroism; the teaching, system or movement ol,
Budchism, unfair treatment or feelings ol hate for the reason mentioned, rocism, a leature ol language of
the type mentioned. Americanism, colloquialism, a medical condition or disesse,
-ITy: the quality or state of, purity, oddity
-LET: a smaller or lesser kind, booklet, starlet; articles of ornament or dress, necklet
-Ness: the quality, state or character of, blindness, silliness
-MENT: the action or result of, development, bombardment
-ship: the state or quality of, ownership, friendship; the status or office of. dizenship, professorship, skill or
ability as, musicanship; the group of membership
Derivational affixes in dictionaries:Adjectives (1)
-ABLE (also -IBLE): that can or must be, subject to, calculable, poyable, toroble audible, defensible; having
the quality of, suitable, comfortable, fashionable, reversible
-AL (also -IAL): connected with, magical, verbal, historical, celestial, typical of, dictatorial; (!) nouns: a
process or state of, denoting verbal action, sunival, arrival
-AR: of the kind specified; relating to, lunar, molecular; (!) nouns: scholar, (alteration of -er/-or)
-ARY: connected with, planetary primary, military: (!) nouns: dictionary
-ED: having/having the characteristics of, oged, dstosed, talented. (!) verbs inflectional suffix - past tense
and past participle of regular verbs
-ESQUE: in the style of, resembling, camivalesque, Dantesque:
-FUL: full of, having the qualities of, tending ta, fearful, groteful, matterfil forgetful; (?) noun: amount that
fills something handful spoonful

Derivational affixes in dictionaries: Verbs

-ISE/IZE: to become, make or make like, fossilize, privatize, Americanize; to speak, think, act, treat, etc. in
the way mentioned, criúcize, theorize, pasteurize: to place in, hospitalize.
(!) nouns of quality, state, or function, expertse, franchise
-ATE: to give the thing or quality mentioned to, nominate, octivate: (!) nouns the status or function of,
doctorate, mandate; a group with the status or function of, electorate; (!) adjectives full of or having the
quality of passionate, separate
-EN: to make or become, fasten, deepen, strengthen; (!) adjectives made of, looking like, golden, wooden
-(1) Fy: to make or become, fosify, amplify, petrify
193 Summary
• Derivational morphology
• An area of English grammar and of English Linguistics
• The rules controlling how words can change their structure and form depending on derivational
patterns and mechanisms
• The ways in which morphemes can combine to (a) make up words, contribute to (b) the
construction of meaning and (c) the creation or formation of new words
• The grammatical rules governing how words are constructed with roots/base forms and
derivational affixes
• How derivational prefixes and suffixes can be attached to (the beginning/end of) words to create
new words (a) with a different meaning and/or (b) of a different word class

Summary: Derivational morphology

• The changes in the form of words depending on processes of word formation through affixation
• The addition of prefixes and suffixes to the root or base form of a word in order to (a) modify the
meaning of a word or (b) create a hew word of another word class
• A word-formation process, a tool of lexical creation or productivity In English
• Processes internal to a language, contributing to the building. formation or renewal of vocabulary/
lexis by modifying already existing vocabulary
• Within a language, linguistic processes operate to allow speakers to create new words from those
which already exist, which are already in the vocabulary or lexis of that language

• This area of lexical creation is mainly associated with derivational morphology

• The area of grammar and morphology covering the processes for forming new words from
existing ones by means of affixation
• Derivation Is based on affixation, the addition of affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to the root or base
form of a word
• It involves adding to a prefix and/or a suffix to an existing word
Can't stand
done •
-- Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are bound morphemes, they cannot stand alone as words, they
only occur in combination with a word
• BUT, they can express semantic and/or grammatical meaning

• Prefixes are meaning-changing but class-maintaining

• They don't usually change the class of the word they are added to
• BUT, they usually alter the meaning of words, they add some, vartant of meaning to the word
• Suffixes are class-changing
• They often produce a change in word class
• They alter the meaning of a word because they change its grammatical status, function
• Based on their typical function, they are classified according to:
• Meanings they can express (prefixes)
• The word class they create (suffixes)
Derivation in word-formation
• It is one of the most important word-formation processes
• It is a highly productive mechanism by which new words are created
• BUT, word-formation is not only derivation
·

• Many and diverse processes internal to English continuously enrich its vocabulary from existing
material

• How can the vocabulary of a language be expanded?

• How do new words originate in the vocabulary of a language?
• How and why are words coined?
• How to enrich the English vocab? Thanks to derivation, borrowing from other languages, bring
back older words

Word-formation
• A word is created from nothing only very rarely
• There is usually some motivation or linguistic process at work behind word-formation
• BUT, it is not always easy to understand the origin of words
• Naming processes
• Example: proper names and esp. product names (John, London, etc. and Amazon, Google, Yahoo,
Facebook)

Coinages: Proper and product names

• They are usually completely new words, 'coinages'
• The specific motivation behind their creation is usually unknown
• Sometimes due to advertisement and marketing reasons
• They are invented by product manufacturers in a more or less creative way
• They enter the vocabulary of a language to represent
• the specific proper name
• the kind of product in general (hypernym of the whole category of similar products)
• (sometimes) also the process and activity associated to it

Proper product names

• Dictionary definitions:
1) All these words represent proper nouns or names (trademarks)
- Initial capital letter, labelled as trademark (full form or superscript TM^)
2) Except ‘biro’, they also represent common words (verbs)
- Initial lowercase letter, meaning the process or activity assoclated to the referent of the propar
noun
3) Too different entries for all of them (except “biro”)
examples :

Word-formation
• Some words (coinages) are invented for a reason
- They enter the vocabulary of a language
- They acquire extended meanings and uses
• BUT, the large majority of words are created by the application of productive linguistic processes
of word-formation (ex. derivation)
- Processes internal to a language, continuously contributing to wide and enrich the English lexicon
- Processes of word-formation operating within the language system
- They played a major role in the development of lexis especially from the 20th century onwards

Derivation in word-formation
• Derivation in English is based on affixation
• BUT, in some cases, derivation does not mean the addition of affixes
• A special type of derivation which does not involve the use of affixes
• It implies the possibility of using a word, the same orthographic word, in a different word class
without any suffixes
• Another derivational process or mechanism
• “Conversion" or "zero derivation"

Conversion or zero derivation

• Changing the class of a word without any change in form
• Using a word in a word class other than, different form, the one to which that word is normally
assigned
• Converting a word from one word class to another without change in form or structure (no
affixation)
• Changing the grammatical function of a word without any formal difference
= The grammatical role of that word will be clear only in context
= The importance of co-text and context to interpret the grammatical function of words correctly
Conversion or zero derivation
• Converting a word from one word class to another without change in form or structure (no
affixation)
• Changing the grammatical function of a word without any formal difference
• = Conversion involves a functional shift, a shift or change in the function of an existing word
• It is very productive in English, it is easier to create new words without any morphological
variation by simply moving a word from a word class to another
• There has been a decline, a reduction of derivational affixation in English

Conversion or zero derivation

• The direction of change is not always easy to identify (etymology, historical info)
• The most common types of change due to conversion include specific word classes
• In order of productivity: (a) noun to verb, (b) verb to noun, and to a lesser extent, (c) adjective to
verb, and (d) adverb to verb

Conversion or zero derivation

• In English, the highest number includes nouns and verbs
• There are many words which occur both as nouns and as verbs
-proper nouns > verbs (hoover, xerox, google)
-common nouns > verbs
• Meaning: the process or activity assoclated with the meaning of the noun (bottle/to bottle, skin/to
skin, catch/to catch, Jump/to jump, download/to download, update/to update, clone/to clone)

Conversion or zero derivation: noun/verb

1. update (noun): "A report or broadcast that gives the most recent Information about something". "A
new version of something containing the most recent information"
2. update (verb, somebody or somebody on something): "To give somebody the most recent
information about something", "To add the most recent information to something"

1. skin (noun): "The layer of tissue that covers the body"

2. skin (verb, something): "To take the skin off an animal, a fruit or a vegetable","To rub the skin off
part of your body by accident"
Conversion or zero derivation
• Possibly, these words were originally either nouns or verbs
• They were later used as either verbs or nouns by conversion
• Without the addition of derivational suffixes typically creating verbs from nouns (-ize, -en, -ate,
-ify) or nouns from verbs (-ation, -ment)
• BUT, sometimes, when noun / adjective > verb, a change of stress in pronunciation - International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), high vertical line
1. record (noun) /ˈrɛkərd/"written account"
2. record (verb) /rɪˈkɔrd/ "keep account of"

1. abstract (ad, and noun) /ˈæbstrækt/

2. abstract (verb) /əbˈstrækt, æb-/
3. Sono una puttana

Exercise: Zero derivation

• Nouns and verbs: bottle, jump, clone, download
• Adjective, noun and verb: blue, dry
• Preposition, adverb, adjective, noun and verb: out, up
Out (noun): "A way of avoiding having to do something", She was desperately looking for an out.
the ins and outs (of something): "All the details, especially the complicated or difficult ones", The ins
and outs of the problem
Out (verb): 1. out somebody "To say publicly that somebody is gay or lesbian, especially when they
would prefer to keep this information private", He is the latest politician to be outed by the media; 2.
out somebody/something (as something) "To say something publicly about somebody/something that
they would prefer to keep secret", The man who claimed to have found the diaries has been outed as
a fraud.

Conversion or zero derivation

• No change in form, no affixes allow us to interpret the class of a word
• BUT, a change or shift in the grammatical function and role of a word
• This change is not visible (no formal or structural difference signaling the grammatical shift)
• Co-text and context are the only elements to be used to interpret grammatical relations in a
sentence
 Back-formation
• A derivation-related, BUT minor, word formation process
• The creation of a new word by removing the affixes it contains
• = A change in word class, mainly from nouns to verbs
babysitter (noun) > babysit (verb)
Double-glazing (noun) > double-glaze (verb)
Editor (noun) > edit (verb)
Automation (noun) > automate (verb)
Choreography (noun) > choreograph (verb)

also in
the exam
E

Widow
-
Noun- widowhood N
-
vidowed V .
26 , .3

Summary:Word-formation
• (Linguistics): The formation of new words in a language, processes of lexical creation or lexical
productivity in a language (English)
• Esp. processes which are internal to a language, and contribute to the building, formation or
renewal of vocabulary or lexis by modifying already existing words
• Wichin a language, esp. the lexical level, word-formation processes exist and work to provide
grammatical mechanisms for the creation of new words from words which already exist, words
which are already in the vocabulary or lexis of that language
1. Derivational morphology (affixation) as a major word-formation process
2. Derivation-related processes, Le, conversion / zero derivation and back-formation

Other processes
• Important but minor word-formation mechanisms
• Less productive than derivation (affixation and conversion) and compounding
1 Semantic shift
2 Blending
• Plus, other processes creating abbreviations or shortenings, linguistic mechanisms allowing
speakers to meet their need for brevity in communication
3 Clipping
4 Acronyms (pronouns as sigle words ex. AIDS) and initialisms (FBI)

Semantic shift or change

• Changing the meaning(s) of an existing word
• It is not a visible word-formation process
• Shifts can be observed only in language use and in dictionaries (word origin and etymology) —>
we can look when the words came in the vocabulary
• A minor word-formation process, BUT important contribution in enriching the semantic values of
existing words
• In English, many polysemic words (esp. everyday language, the most frequently used words) —>
new sense are continually created
• Words presenting many related senses
• New senses are continuously added to existing senses to meet the practical and expressive
needs of communication
* example on Semantic shift
Semantic shift: Zap (verb)
(informal)
1. (transitive) "To destroy, kill or hit somebody/something suddenly and with farce", It's vital to zap
stress fast;
2. (intransitive) + adv/prep. "To do something very fast", I'm zapping through (= reading very fast)
some modern novels at the moment,
3. (transitive/intransitive) "To use the remote cantrol to change television channels quickly". No one is
obliged to watch television and you can always zap between channels. (The most recent sense
added to this verb)
Origin: 1920s (originally US) imitative.
Semantic shift: Moving quickly, doing something very fast —> Using the remote control to change
television channels quickly, keeping changing ty programs (it entered the Italian vocabulary IT zapping)

Semantic shift: IT Zapping

ZAPPING (ipa) s. ingl. [der di (to) zap, propr «eliminare, uccidere», e in usi gergali «muovere o spingere
con forza e rapidamente» o, secondo un'altra
Interpretazione, «eliminare, azzerare»], usato in ital. al masch. -
Cambiamento continuo, rapido passaggio da un canale all'altro della celevisione, premendo quasi
freneticamente i tasti del telecomando per passare in rassegna I diversi programmi, spec. durante le
interruzioni pubblicitarie, alla ricerca di un programma Interessante: fare z. (o lo z.):
smeti di fare continuamente z, mi innervosiscl
Treccani Dictionary of Italian (online)

Semantic shift: Mail (noun)

(British English also post)
1. (uncountable) "The official system used for sending and delivering letters, packages, etc.", Never
send cash through the mail.
2. (uncountable) "Letters, packages, etc. that are sent and delivered", There isn't much mail today.
3. (uncountable and countable) "Messages/a message sent or received on a computer (electronic
mail or email)", You've got mail.
Semantic shift (semantic extension): Traditional mail —> messages sent through the Internet, synonym
of electronic mail (formal, full form) and email (also e-mail, abbreviation)

Semantic shift: Mail (noun)

• Potential problems of interpretation without co-text and context
You've got mail; There isn't much mail today: which mail?
• Semantic shift > new figurative expressions
SNAIL MAIL (noun): (uncountable, informal, humorous) "Used to describe the system of sending letters
by ordinary mail, contrasted with the speed of sending email"
'snail' (slow-moving animal), figurative meaning exploited to humorously criticize the supposed
inefficiency of the traditional mail system
 Exercise (dictionary skills): semantic skills

Queer (adjective)
NO MORE IN USE

1. (old-fashioned) "Strange or unusual, odd", It sounds a bit queer to me.

2. (taboo, offensive, slang) "An offensive way of describing a gay person, especially a man, which is,
however, also used by some gay people about themselves"
3. "Describing or relating to a sexual identity or gender identity that is different from traditional Ideas
about sex and gender, for example if somebody is non-binary, bisexual or transgender", Queer
culture, Queer theory
A queer fish: (old-fashioned, British English) "A person who is slightly strange or crazy","A person whose
behavior is strange or unusual"
Origin: Early 16th cent, considered to be from German quer 'oblique, perverse', but the origin is doubtful.

explanation of the
Shift E
Blending
• Combining two words together by retaining part of each
• Blends or blended words or portmanteau words
• Words created by putting together the beginning of one word and the end of another and keeping
the meaning of each
• Mixing or merging together two longer words to form a new word with a corresponding fusion of
their meaning
• Both words contribute to the meaning of the new word
• IT 'parole macedonia' (Bruno Migliorini 1949)

Blending and semantic shift: Podcast (noun)

• A digital audio file that can be taken from the Internet and played on a computer or a davice that
you can carry with you". To listen to the podcast, click on the link below.
Origin: Early 2/st century from IPod (trademark name) + broadcast
iPodTM: (noun) "A brand of MP3 player that can store information taken from the Internat and that you
carry with you, for example so that you can listen to music"
• Semantic shift: 2004 (ODE online) blended word referring to digital audio file for Apples iPods >
(generalization, category name) hypernym

Word-formation: Podcast (noun)

• Derivation (affixation and zero derivation), derivatives:
- podcast (verb, transitive/intransitive): *To make (a digital audio file) avalable as a podcast", This is a
great way to podcast your lecture or presentation.
- podcaster (noun): "A person who makes an audio or video recording and puts it on the internet", The
US estimated 60 million podcasters.
- podcasting (noun): "The activity of making an audio or video recording and putting it on the
internet", Podcasting could turn into an audio form of blogging.
- podcastable (adjective): "That are or can be podcasted", I could listen to them if they were
podcastable.
Blending and media language (mixed media genres)
• Infotainment: (noun, uncountable) "Television programs, etc. that present news and serious subjects
in a way that entertains you" Origin: 1980s (ariginally US) blend of information and entertainment.
• Docutainment: (noun, uncountable) North American "Entertainment provided by films or other
presentations that is intended both to inform and entertain*
Origin: 1970s (originally US) blend of docu- (documentary) + entertainment.
• Edutainment: (noun, uncountable) "Products such as books, television programs and especially
computer software that both educate and entertain"
Origin: 1980s blend of education and entertainment.

Blending and media language (mixed media genres)

• Mockumentary: (noun, countable) "A documentary designed to criticize Its subject in a humorous
way"
Origin: 1960s blend of mock and documentary
• Magalogue or US malalog: (noun, countable) "A promotional catalogue designed to resemble a
high-quality magazine" Origin: 1970s blend of magazine and catalogue.
• Informercial or US infomercial: "An advertising film that tries to give a lot of information about a
subject, so that it does not appear to be an advertisement"
Origin: 1980s; earliest use found in The Los Angeles Times. Blend Information and commercial.
09 04
.

Summary: Minor word-formation processes

1. Semantic shift or change
2. Blending
• Changing the meaning of an existing word
• Invisible word-formation process, semantic shifts can be observed only in language use and in
dictionaries
• A minor process, BUT it has greatly contributed to enrich the semantic values of existing words
• Many English words (everyday language) are polysemic, presenting many related senses
• New senses are continuously added to existing ones to meet speakers" practical and expressive
needs
• Emples: zap (v.), mail (n.), epic and queer (adj. and n.)

2. Blending
• Combining or merging two words together by retaining part of each
• Blands or blended words result from the merging of two longer words to form a new word with a
corresponding semantic fusion
• Both words contribute to the meaning of the new word
• Mary examples differing in register (neutral, informal), time (origin), ward classes, transparency of
meaning, famillarity wich ltallan countarparts, etc. (smog, motel, modem, podcast, Brexit, botel,
bromance, Chunnel, staycation, sext, Netzen, etc.)
• Words referring to "mixed media genres" (infotonment, docutainment, mockumentary, magalogue,
etc.)

Today's lesson
• Minor word-formation processes
• Common feature, used to create abbreviations
• Linguistic mechanisms allowing speakers to meet their need for brevity in communication
• Forms of shortening, abbreviation
1. (Blending)
2. clipping (n, lit. "a piece cut off something"; clip - v. "to cut something In order to make it shorter")
3. Acronyms
4. Initialisms (pronounced letter one by one)
Clipping
• A form of abbreviation or shortening
• Creating abbreviated or shorter forms of existing words by cutting the beginning and/or the end
of a longer word
• Very commonly used in English, tendency towards short words
• Abbreviations have replaced full forms
• The need for brevity in communication (esp. spoken language)
• BUT, typically adding an informal value to the abbreviation

Clipping: examples and dictionary treatment

• FRIDGE: (noun) (especially British English) (North American English or formal refrigerator) "A piece
of electrical equipment in which food is kept cold so that it stays fresh", There's no food in the
fridge!
Origin: 1920s, abbreviation, probably influenced by the proprietary name Frigidaire.
REFRIGERATOR: (noun) (North American English or formal)
• PHONE: (noun) (also rather formal telephone) "A piece of equipment for talking to people who are
not in the same place as you", Can someone answer the phone?
TELEPHONE: (noun) (rather formal) (also phone)

Acronyms
• Another form of abbreviation, reduction, shortening
• Word-formation process creating new abbreviated forms of words
• Acronyms
• composed of the inicial letters of the words in a phrase or in a complex expression
• usually spelt in capital letters
• pronounced as one word (as a word proper)

Acronyms: examples and dictionary treatment

• RAM: /ipa/ "Computer memory in which data can be changed or removed and can be looked at in
any order (the abbreviation for random-access memory)"
• PIN (also PIN number): /pIn/ "A number given to you, for example by a bank, so that you can use
a plastic card to take out money from a cash machine (the abbreviation for personal identification
number)"
• AIDS: /eidz/ "A serious illness caused by a virus called HIV (ipa) that attacks the body's ability to
resist infection (the abbreviation for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome')"

Acronyms: examples
• They typically represent abbreviated names of organizations
UNESCO: /ju: neskoul (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
NATO / neitau/ (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
NASA: / nasal "National Aeronautics and Space Administration (a US government organization that does
research into space and organizes space travel)"
 ↓

examples :

ARA- also know as

(1980s)
LOL - LAUGHT OUT LOND (exclamation) -
> now is also a verb (intransitive , in hermal) Loved/ded

16 04
.
Today’s lesson
1. Analysis of word-formation, focus on compounding (review)
2. Syntactic phenomenon, i.e.. (noun) phrases

Compounding
• One of the most productive processes of lexical creation in English
• Word-formation, internal to the English language, operating within the language (lexical level) and
providing mechanisms to create new words from existing ones
• Combining two or more existing words in order to form a new word
• Combining two or more independent words or free morphemes to form a new word/lexeme with a
new meaning
• Creating 'compounds' or 'compound words'
• lexical units made up of two or more single words
• Multi-word units representing single lexical units, i.e., single but multi-word lexemes
• Two or more words combine to form a new lexical unit, a new lexeme with a new meaning
• Important aspects of compounds:
1. Spelling
2. Word classes
3. Meaning
Compounding: Spelling
• How words orthographically combine
• The orthographic boundaries of compounds are not clear-cut
• They can be expressed as
- single words (one word), 'timekeeper', timekeeping'
- single words but hyphenated, time-consuming, time-saving'
- separate or distinct words, 'time machine', time bomb"
Compounding: Word classes
• Which words combine and which word classes are formed
• Combinations may include almost all word classes or parts of speech
• Compounds are created by combining two or more words belonging to (a) the same word class
or (b) different word classes
• Compounding creates new words of (a) the same word class or (b) a different word class
• BUT, in Linguistics the classes of the words in the compound describe their pattern, the specific
type of combination

MANCA UN PEZZO
Compounding: Word classes
• Compounding usually creates nouns, most compounds are nouns
• The most frequent combination is N + N = N
• Compounds are typically coined to meet the need to 'name' an object or a thing that was
unnamed (not named before)
Ex: motorway, country house, armchair, notebook, bedroom, blood test, etc.
• NI functions as an adjective and modifies the meaning of N2
 Compounding: Combinations or patterns
• ADJ + N= N (green light, green tea, blackbird, software)
• ADJ + ADJ = ADJ (blue-green, bitter-sweet, African-American)
• N+ ADJ= ADJ (battle green, user-friendly, seasick)
• N +V=V (daydream, stargaze, breastfeed)
• N +V= N (rainfall, haircut)
• Prep + N= ADJ (afterschoal) and N (afterlife)
• V(ing) + N= N (dining room, washing machine but also not -ing, pickpocket, scarecrow)
• V + Prep = N (break-up, fallout, printout) [break up, fall out, print out - phrasal verbs]
• Prep +V =V (outrun, bypass) and N (income)

Compounding: Meaning
• How the meaning of compounds can be described
• Semantic perspective): Compounds represent a linguistic unit expressing a single concept,
designating a single referent (the entity in the real world or in an imaginary world that a word
refers to or denotes)
Ex. travel agency vs blackbird
Travel agency: "A company that arranges travel and/or accommodation for people going on a
holiday or journey". You can book at your local travel agency.
Blackbird (IT merlo): 1. "A European bird: the male is black with a yellow beak and the female is
brown with a brown beak", 2. "A black North American bird, larger than the European blackbird,
related to the starling" (IT storno)

• Compounds are single units of meaning

• Compounding usually creates semantically transparent words
• Meaning can be generally, not always, deduced from the meanings of the words forming the
compound, ex. 'travel agency' vs "blackbird" (not a black bird, but a specific type of bird)
a) Meaning is transparent and compositional, easy to be interpreted thanks to the meaning of the
components
b) Meaning is less transparent and non-compositional (or also figurative and metaphorical)
• A range of transparency and compositionality characterizes the semantics of compounds

Roly
Compounding: Head
• The most important element of a compound
• The primary component of a compound
• It expresses the basic meaning of the whole compound
• It generally determines its word class
• (English) it is usually the right-hand constituent of the compound, the order in word
combination: modifier + head
Examples: Night-fly, Night-flying, fake news, red flag, white elephant, green thumb, honeymoon,
armchair, travel agency. country house
• types compounds
1. endocentric: semantic head in the compouded itself, determining its semantic category
(category name or ‘hepernym’) and its grammatical category (word class)
2. exocentric: the head is not clearly expressed, and the semantic and grammatical properties of
the compound are not determined by the constituents
3. coordinative or copulative: both constituents function as head, they are of equal status, the
elements are on the same level
Endocentric compounds
• Semantic head in the compound itself (referent)
• It determines its semantic category (category name or "hypernym" and its grammatical category
(word class)
Ex. strongbox, travel agency, blood test, armchair, night-flying

Exocentric compounds
• The head is not clearly expressed
• The semantic and grammatical properties of the compound are not determined by the
constituents
Ex. paperback (n.): "A book that has a thick paper cover"
Ex hardback (n.): "A book that has a stiff cover"
Ex. white-collar (adj.): "Working in an office, rather than in a factory. etc.; connected with work in
offices", white-collar workers (fig. shirt collar)
Ex. must-have (n.): [also must-see/must-read] "An essential or highly desirable item"
Ex, highbrow (n.): (often disapproving) "A cultured person, an intellectual"
Coordinative or copulative compounds
• Both constituents function as head
• They are of equal status, the elements are on the same level
Ex. bittersweet (adj.): I. "(of tastes or smells) Bitter and sweet at the same time", 2. "Bringing
pleasure mixed with the feeling of being sad" Ex. African American (adj: "Of or connected with
American people whose families were originally from Africa: (n.) "A person from America who is a
member of a group of people who have dark skin and whose ancestors came from Africa"
Ex. sofa bed (n.): "A sofa that can be folded out to form a bed"
Compounds > Phrases (Syntax)
• Compound (n.): (grammar) "A noun, an adjective or a verb made of two or more words written as
one or more words, or joined by a hyphen"
• Multi-word unit representing a single lexical unit (lexeme) created from the combination between
two or more words
• Different spelling, different word classes, more or less transparent or compositional meaning BUT
• Phrase (n.): (grammar) "A small group of words that together have a particular meaning and that
typically form part of a sentence"

Phrases as syntax
• The area of grammar which govern and control how words interact and combine to form larger
(syntactic) units
• The structure of larger meaningful linguistic units (larger than words).
i.e., phrases, clauses and sentences, and the rules governing word combinations
• Words combine with other words and are arranged into 'phrases' as meaningful chunks or groups
of words with grammatical functions (S, V, Od, oi, C, A)
Ex. (?) The young lady bought an interesting book about renaissance art for her friend
1. The young lady (subj.)+ bought (verb) + an interesting book (direct object) +4. about renaissance
art (complement) + 5. for her friend (complement)

-
Phrase
• A meaningful syntactic unit, made up of one (minimal form of a phrase) or more words and
constructed around the headword or the head of the phrase
• The most important element in a phrase, without which the phrase as a syntactic unit would not
make sense
• It gives the phrase its name, its type and can stand alone as a phrase
• It is the obligatory element in a phrase, while other accompanying words are optional
• Words which accompany the head of the phrase, the "modifiers", divided into pre-modifiers and
post-modifiers

Phrase: Example
Ex. That tall man opened the window.
1. That tall man (subj.) 2 opened (verb), 3. the window (object)
• That tall man, that tall man, that tall man WHAT?
• Without the headword (man), the phrase does not make sense and cannot stand alone as a
syntactic unit
• 'Man' is the headword of the phrase 'that tall man' and since 'man' is a noun, that tall man' is a
noun phrase (NP)

Types of phrases
• Headwords are the most important and obligatory element of a phrase
• Headwords give phrases their name and type
• Each lexical or content word can be the head of a phrase and has a phrase named after it
(noun, verb, adjective, adverb)
• Vs, in grammatical or function words, only prepositions can be the head of a phrase

• Noun phrase (NP), a phrase with a noun (or a pronoun) as its head (Mary, she, my sister, a
beautiful lady, some friends of mine, the man with the umbrella, the woman who crossed the
street, etc.)
• Verb phrase (VP), a phrase having a verb as its head (played, has won, is waiting, has been
listening, is illustrated, might go, etc.)
• Adjective phrase (AdjP), a phrase with an adjective as its head (happy, happy for you, happy to
go, very happy, etc.)
• Adverb phrase (AdvP), a phrase with an adverb as its head (happily, too slowly, very late, etc.)
• Prepositional phrase (PP), a phrase with a preposition as its head always followed by another
element (pre-position) which is usually a NP (in the office, for her birthday, of flowers, etc.)
Noun phrases
• NP, a phrase with a noun as its head
• A noun head alone or a noun head accompanied by other words before (determiners and pre-
modifiers) or after it (post-modifiers)
• Determiners indicate the specific reference of the noun and usually occupy the first position in the
NP: articles, demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers and numerals.
Ex: A car, the book, our friend, some oranges, two sisters
• Modifiers usually express some features or characteristics of the head noun or complete its
meaning (esp. post-modifiers)
Noun phrases: Modifiers
• Pre-modifiers include adjectives or nouns functioning as adjectives
Examples: A new car, an expensive car, the old lady, young students, a large pink handbag, an
extremely important issue, summer clothes, some newspaper articles, first-year university students,
my father's birthday, design and technology MA students
• Post-modifiers include prepositional phrases (the woman with a charming personality), relative
clauses (those students who attend part-time courses), non-finite clauses (the man walking with
his faithful dog, many things to do before Christmas), a that-clause (the false belief that you can
get nich overnight), and "appositive" NPs or NPs "in apposition" (The author of Paradise Lost, John
Milton,… hypertension or high blood pressure) referring to the same entity as the head noun.
adding information about it and usually placed next to it, between commas or brackets in writing

Noun phrases in English

• They can be increasingly long and complex
• Different and many types of words
• Standard premodification, tendency to create lexically dense NPs
• NPs with several pre-modifiers belonging to different word classes, as well as post-modifiers
• Difficult identification of the headword, more than one noun
• Sometimes the meaning of NPs can be unclear or even ambiguous, since the link between the
elements in the phrase is not clear, no grammatical or function words (prepositions) making the
relationship between elements explicit
in the partial test
Noun phrases: Examples
• Ambiguity due to different interpretation
The French history teacher
1. The French history teacher: (s/he teaches French history)
determiner-article + premodifier-noun phrase (premodifier
+ head) + head noun
2. The French history teacher: (s/he is French) determiner-
article + premodifier-adj. + head-noun phrase (premodifier
+ head)
 (1/n
Advp ?
/
in the

up pp partial
NP
[] rest
~

Op

zvp
NP
]
pp or
No wp
/ /
, upy
I

~p t

det
Po head

det head Rost -

det pre had POST

det
-
.

head > Post

-

det Post
.

head

det .

PRE head ROST

-
23 .
04 Summary
• In communication, we combine increasingly large and complex units of grammar; including.
- one or more morphemes to create words
- one or more words to create phrases
- one or more phrases to create clauses
- one or more clauses to create sentences
- one or more sentences to create a text
• Beyond morphology, in syntax words combine with other words and are arranged into larger
syntactic units called 'phrases' in a sentence

• A phrase is a meaningful syntactic unit which is made up of one (minimal form of a phrase) or
more words and which is constructed around a head word, that is the headword or the head of
the phrase
• The most important element in a phrase, the one without which the phrase as a syntactic unit
would not make sense, the one which gives the phrase its name or type and which can stand
alone as a phrase
• It is the obligatory element in a phrase, while other accompanying words are optional
• Accompanying words, accompanying the headword, are modifiers and, depending on their
position, they are divided into pre-modifiers and post-modifiers

• Each lexical or content word can be head of phrase and thus has a phrase named after it, vs.
(grammatical or function words) only prepositions can be head of phrase
1. Noun phrase (NP), a phrase with a noun (or a pronoun) as its head (Mary, she, my sister, a
beautiful lady, some friends of mine, the man with the umbrella, the woman who crossed the
street, etc.)
2. Verb phrase (VP), a phrase having a verb as its head (played, has won, is waiting, has been
listening, is illustrated, might go, etc.)
3. Adjective phrase (AdjP), a phrase with an adjective as its head (happy, happy for you, happy to
go, very happy, etc.)
4. Adverb phrase (AdvP), a phrase with an adverb as its head (happily, too slowly, very late, etc.)
5. Prepositional phrase (PP), a phrase with a preposition as its head always followed by another
element (pre-position) which is usually a NP (in the office, for her birthday, of flowers, etc.)
Verb phrase (VP)
• A phrase with a head verb (alone or with one or more verbs)
• Vs. NPs, VPs are usually short a lexical verb, or a lexical verb + auxiliary(les)
• If VP contains one verb, it is a lexical verb
• If VP contains more verbs, one is lexical and the other(s) is/are auxiliary/modal verbs (go,
went or have gone, are going, might have gone)
• Auxiliary verbs express grammatical categories: tense (present or past forms, future tense is
not morphologically marked but expressed with different structures: willishall, be going to,
present progressive), aspect (perfect, progressive/continuous or perfect progressive), voice
(active or passive) and modality (speakers' point of view or attitude and semantic differences
or nuances: obligation/necessity, ex. must, permission/ability, ex. can; possibility, ex. may), or
signal negation and clause type (declarative or interrogative)

• VPs can be finite or non-finite

1. Finite VPs contain a verb in its finite or tensed form (verb indicating tense, verb + tense
inflection, ex, -s, 3rd person sing present tense, ed past tense)
2. Non-finite VPs contain a verb in its non-finite or non-tensed form (verb not indicating tense, no
Indication of person, number or tense, ex. infinitive, present participle, past participle)
Ex. The goal of this study is to compare some idioms in English and Italian.
Ex. Having completed the test without mistakes, Jane got her driving license.
Ex. Accompanied by their guide, tourists visited Northern Sicily

Adjective phrase (AdjP)

• A phrase with a head adjective, made up of a single adjective or an adjective with pre- and/or
post-modifiers
• Pre-modifiers: frequently an adverb (This is extremely important) or sometimes a NP (He's
fourteen years old)
• Post-modifiers: adverbs (This is not good enough), PPs (preposition + NP. I'm happy with your
decision), preposition + VP (I'm good at playing tennis), that-clause (Im sure that I locked the
door lost night). to-infinitive clause (She's glad to see me), an -ing clause introduced by a
preposition (I'm happy about being in the team)
Adverb phrase (AdvP)
• A phrase with a head adverb, made up of a single adverb or an adverb with modifying
elements, similar to those modifying adjp
• Pre-modifiers: frequently degree adverbs (very badly, quite honestly, extremely late, fairly
beginning end doesn't
often) &
or
matter
• Post-modifiers: usually the adverbs 'enough' and "indeed' (strangely enough, very rudely
indeed)
• Function: Adjp convey information about circumstances (manner, frequency, time, modality,
place, degree, point of view) or link clauses
Ex. She arrived extremely late (modifying the meaning of VP)
Ex. I was sick. Unfortunately I couldn't go to the party (linking clauses)

Prepositional phrase (PP)

• A phrase with a head preposition, usually followed by another element called the complement
of the preposition
• Complement (C): usually a NP but also a clause
- Examples (C NPs): Children are in the garden; I saw her with a beautiful dress; Call me in the
afternoon.
- Examples (C clauses): It's a question of finding somebody able to do it; l look forward to seeing
you; I am interested in buying a new car.
• PPs usually post-modify the meaning of other phrases
- (NPs): A flat in the city center; A book about Linguistics; A sharp increase in the number of jobs
- (Adjp and AdvPs): She's very good at volleyball; Luckily for her

Ambiguity < PPs

• Clause: The policeman stopped the man with the gun.

a) The policeman used the gun to stop the man

The policeman stopped the man with the gun

Analysis = Subject (NP: determiner + head noun), Predicator (VP: head verb). Object (NP: determiner
+ head noun), Adverbial (PP: head preposition + complement NP)

b) The policeman stopped the man who had a gun

The policeman stopped the man with the gun

Analysis = Subject (NP: determiner + head noun), Predicator (VP: head verb), Object (NP: determiner
+ head noun + postmodifier PP) where PP (head preposition + complement NP)
Phrases > Clauses
• Clause elements and grammatical functions
• Phrases are elements in clauses
• Each clause element has a specific grammatical function, corresponding to five major roles:
1. S (subject)
2. V (verb)
3. O (object)
4. C (complement)
5. A (adverbial)

Clause elements: Subject (S)

• The topic of the clause, what the clause is about
• It is obligatory (English)
• Position: it is usually (a) before the V element in declarative clauses. (b) after the auxiliary in
interrogative clauses
• It determines the number of the V element (singular/plural)
• Form: it is usually a NP or a pronoun (nominal case), ex. My friends, She, John and Mark, etc.
• BUT, sometimes also a subordinate clause
- What I can't understand is how you made it (nominal wh-clause)
- That this was their intention is clear from... (nominal that-clause)
- To tell the truth is always right (nominal infinitive clause)
- Helping people is important... (nominal -ing clause)

Dummy subject
• Aka 'empty', 'artificial"
• Without semantic content, it is semantically empty
• A second subject ('extraposed subject') follows the V
• Usually 'it' or 'there'
- It was a big mistake to call him again.
- It's always interesting to find out about your family history.
- There were too many people on the bus
- There has been a delay.
Clause elements: Verb (V)
• It is a VP also 'predicator'
• It is part of the 'predicate, what is said about the S, including V + all the elements required by V
• It is the central element in a clause, controlling and determining whether and which other clause
elements should occur
• The lexical verb in a VP determines, if any, what comes before and after
• The verb combinatory potential, ie., the verb 'valency pattern', determines the clause pattern, slots
to be filled (S, Od, Oi, CS, A)
• Close relationship between lexical verb and preceding/following elements > ‘verb complementation'
• It determines the number and type of other elements complementing the verb to make
grammatically complete clauses
Clause patterns < Verb (V)
• Based on their combinatory potential or valency pattern, lexical verbs are classified into:
- Intransitive (S+V), She's sleeping
- Monotransitive (S+V+Od), I watched a wonderful film
- Distransitive (S+V+Oi+Od), She must tell me the truth
- Complex transitive (S+V+Od+Co or S+V+Od+A): She named John the new manager; She put the car
keys in my bag
- Copular (S+V+Cs or S+V+A): She seems very happy; She lives in London
• NO one-to-one correspondence between verb and valency pattern
• Some verbs allow several patterns, with different meanings

Ex. Change
Intransitive: She has changed (S+V)
Monotransitive: You need to change your shoes (S+V+Od)
Ex. Make
Monotransitive: I made a cake (S+V+Od)
Complex transitive: They make me nervous (S+V+Od+Co)

Clause elements: Object (0)

• It follows V and is affected by it
• It can be direct (Od) or indirect (Oi)
• Od refers to the entity directly affected by the process/action denoted by V
• Oi refers to the recipient, the entity receiving or benefiting from the process/action denoted by V
Clause elements: Indirect object (Oi)
• It is typically found in ditransitive verbs, with two Os, ex. give, tell, buy, bring, show
• Usually placed between V and Od
• Typically a NP, also pronoun (accusative case)
She gave him the book
They bought me a new computer
John showed her sister his new car
I told the manager the truth
• Sometimes a PP (with to or for) or (rarer) a subordinate clause different construction
-o

She gave the book to his brother butsome

noccapito
They bought a new computer for me
She told whoever was listening her truth

Clause elements: Complement (C)

• It characterizes or describes, more information about S or O
• It can be subject complement (Cs) or object complement (Co)
I am very disappointed (S+V+Cs)
I consider my brother a genius (S+V+Od+Co)

Clause elements: Subject complement (Cs)

• It characterizes or describes, more information about S
• Cs typically follow copular verbs like 'be', 'feel', 'seem', 'appear', "look, remain', 'stay', 'become',
'turn', 'sound', 'taste'
• Typically an AdjP, a NP or a PP
She seems happy; She became a lawyer; Mary appeared in good health
• Sometimes a subordinate nominal clause
The important thing is that you feel better (that-clause)
That was exactly what I meant (wh-clause)
My only aim is to find a good job (infinitive clause)
The main problem now is translating this message (-ing clause)

Clause elements: Object complement (Co)

• It characterizes or describes, more information about O
• It typically follows the Od it is linked to
• Usually in complex-transitive verbs like 'make', 'elect', 'consider', "name", 'find', 'regard' (as),'call',
'see', 'get'
• Typically a NP or AdjP
• He considers her a genius; This coffee will keep you awake
• Sometimes a PP or (rarer) subordinate nominal clause
I don't consider myself at risk
She made me what I am today (wh-clause)
I regard her as being the best actress in the movie (ing clause)
Clause elements: Adverbial (A)
• Usually an optional element added to the main (obligatory) elements
• Exception: obligatory As, required by some verbs to complete their meaning
• Vs S, O, C (quite fixed position), As can have different positions
• Different meanings, functions and syntactic forms
• Three types of As: (1) circumstance, (2) stance and (3) linking
1. Adding info about the circumstances of the event/situation or state described (place, time,
manner, process, reason, purpose, condition, degree, etc.)
2. Adding info about speaker's/writer's feelings, attitude and opinion towards what is being said
3. Connecting clauses or parts of clauses, only linking function

Clause elements: Adverbial (A)

1. Circumstance: to London, in the garden, out there (place), tomorrows; for two months, often
(time), happily, in a hurry (manner), by plane, with a pen (process), because I like it (reason),
to improve your English (purpose), if you knew the truth (condition), completely, a little bit
(degree)
2. Stance: to be honest, frankly, surprisingly, in my view, perhaps
3. Linking moreover, nevertheless, however, in conclusion, yet
• Syntactic or grammatically, they can be:
- AdvP (also one adverb), luckly, very quickly
- PPs, for two months, on the sofa
- NPs, every day, a little bit

Clause elements:Adverbial (A)

• Usually an optional element added to the main (abligatory)
elements
• Exception: obligatory As, required by some verbs to complete their meaning, esp. place/
direction, manner, time
• Ex. 'put, last, live', 'go, be' (place), drive', take
The waiter put the bread on the table
The concert lasted three hours
She lives in Sweden
They went to Rome
Jude is in the kitchen
She treated her guests very well
Complement vs Adverbial
• Their difference can be difficult to understand, esp. when they are PPs
• Cs are obligatory elements describing or characterizing $ (Cs) or O (Co), they are linked to 5 or O
and follow copular verbs
John was very quiet
They are in danger
They should stay sober
• As can be optional or obligatory elements, obligatory when describing the circumstances of an
event (place, time) needed to complete the meaning of specific verbs
John was in bed (place)
The concert is tomorrow (time)
They should stay here (place)

Clauses
• A larger grammatical unit, made up of one or more phrases
• Typically with a VP around which other clause elements are added (S, O, C,A)
• Depending on their structure and function, different types:
-Finite vs non-finite < VP (finite/tensed or not, i.e., infinitive. gerund or participle)
-Main vs subordinate: independent (usually finite) or dependent on another clause (both finite and non-
finite)
-Function/form: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative

Main clauses
• Independent clause, able to stand alone as a sentence
1. Declarative: SV structure, other elements (O, C, A) depend on verb combinatory potential or valency,
making statements
2. Interrogative: VS structure, with or without a wh-word, auxiliary in the initial position, asking
questions, making requests, suggestions, offers
3. Imperative: V structure, no overt S, expressing orders, instructions, commands or making invitations,
requests, suggestions (Let's)
4. Exclamative: different structures, typically what/how + S(V). expressing reactions of surprise, shock
Marked structures
• Declarative: SV structure, other elements (O, C, A) depend on verb combinatory potential or valency,
making statements
• Typical 'unmarked' SV OCA structure, BUT
• Possible 'marked' structures (less frequent)
• Markedness: more complex patterns changing the (unmarked) word order to highlight specific
elements
Ex. Clefting, dividing a clause into two parts (each with a verb)

Marked structures: Clefting

• It-clefts: It + verb + "element" + relative clause
The rain spoiled our picnic plans > It was the rain that spoiled... (S)
I want a book for Christmas > It is a book that I want a book (0) > It is for Christmas that I want a
book (A)
• Wh-clefts: wh-word (what) + verb + be + "element"
What spoiled our picnic plans was the rain
What I want for Christmas is a book

Coordination and subordination

• How clauses can combine
• Coordination: link between a main clause and another main clause through 'coordinators' (and, but,
or) > coordinate clauses
The woman left the hotel room and went to the restaurant
This hotel is expensive but it's very good
You can come with me or you can wait for the bus
• Subordination: link between a main clause and a subordinate clause through ‘subordinators' (i, when,
although, who, which, how, because) > main clause and subordinate clause
-Syntactically dependent on the main one they are attached to
-Depending on whether VP is tensed or not > finite or non-finite

Finite subordinate clauses: Nominal

• Subordinate clauses with a tensed VP. marked for tense
• Nominal, functioning as S, O or C in a main clause, thus they are an integral part of the main clause
• Usually introduced by that (that-clauses) or wh-words (wh-clauses), what, how, whether, why
That this was false is clear since the beginning (S)
We believe that young people are the hope of the country (0)
The important thing is that you feel better (Cs)
What I can't understand is why you left (S) I don't see how they could reply like this (0)
That was exactly what l meant (Cs)
He made me what I am today (Co)
Finite subordinate clauses: Relative
• Typically functioning as a post-modifier in a NP
• Expanding the meaning of, adding information about the head noun
• Introduced by wh-words, relative pronouns (who, what, which, where, when, why, whom,
whose, that)
• Defining or restrictive, identifying the antecedent (NP head)
The man who is crossing the road is my father
• Non-defining or non-restrictive, describing the antecedent, giving additional information
We stayed at an excellent hotel, which we booked on the Internet

Finite subordinate clauses: adverbial

• Typically functioning as adverbial clause elements in a main clause
• Describing circumstances (manner, place, time, condition, cause, degree, frequency)
• Like adverbials, usually optional and their position is not fixed
• Linked to the main clause by subordinating conjunctions indicating the meaning of the adv
clause: time (as soon as, before, when), place (where, wherever), concession (although,
however, even if), cause (because, since, as, for), purpose (in order that, so that), result (so,
so that), condition (if, unless, provided that)

Non-finite subordinate clauses

• VP is untensed, NOT marked for tense
• They must be subordinate, they cannot stand alone
• They usually do not have a S (context-dependent interpretation)
• Infinitive clauses, infinitive V, different syntactic roles (S, O, C,A)
• ing clauses, -ing V, different syntactic roles (S, O, C,A)
• -ed clauses, ed- V, syntactic roles (O,A)
30 04
.

Today's lesson
• Introduce and overview the history of English
• Explore the historical development of the language
• When English originated, how it evolved and became what it is today from a historical perspective
• Examine the origin of English and the changes it underwent over the centuries due to external and
internal factors
• Focus on the most important extralinguistic factors contributing to language change
• Physical, military, political, or simply cultural invasions exerting great ùInfluence on the
development of English

The history of English

• Three major periods or events associated to three main stages of the language:
1. the mid-5th century AD > the end of the 11th century, i.e., from the beginning of the English
language history, when Germanic tribes invaded and settled in the British Isles, creating the early
form of English - the Old English period
2. the Norman Conquest (1066) > the late 15th century, i.e., from the French-speaking Normans
invasion - the Middle English period
3. the 16th onward, le. after the Renaissance period, a "cultural" Invasion due to the increasing
influence of Latin on English, as the language of learning and academic life - the Modern English
period (1500-1900)

The origin of English

• The mid-5th century AD, groups of Germanic tribes invaded the British Isles and settled in the
southern and eastern areas
• Before?
- British inhabitants were the Celts, Celtic peoples, Indo-European peoples who lived there since 100 BC
- Invasion > Celtic communities were destroyed or assimilated to the new Germanic tribes, other
groups moved to other regions of England in the West or in the North (Wales, Cornwall, the Scottish
Highlands), while other groups of Celts crossed the sea and moved to the region of Brittany in France
- BUT, small linguistic traces of the Celts can be found in English, ex. names of some rivers (Avon,
Severn, Trent, and Thames) and of some towns and cities (York, Leeds, Dover and London)

• The beginning of the history of English is associated to the invasion of the British Isles by
Germanic tribes during the 5th and 6th century AD
• The etymological origin of the word English: it comes from the Angles, the name of one of the
three Germanic tribes of invaders
1. The Angles, settled in areas to the north of the River Thames
2. the Jutes, settled in the area of today's Kent, the southern part of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight
3. the Saxons, who settled in the remaining areas of southern England
• The Angles, the Jutes and the Saxons spoke mutually understandable dialects and the language
of the country from this period onward was known as "Englisc"
• BUT, in Linguistics, this early form of English is usually referred to as
"Anglo-Saxon" English and the words created in this period entering the English vocabulary are
called "Anglo-Saxon" words
• This stage of the English language, from mid-5th century (invasion by Anglo-Saxon tribes) until
the 11th century (Norman invasion) is traditionally named the "Old English"

The origin of English: Language families

• In terms of derivation from a common parental language or protolanguage
• Like many other languages of Europe and North India, English belongs to the family of "Indo-
European languages", divided into subgroups or subfamilies
• Germanic subfamily, including three branches
1. East-Germanic branch disappeared
2. North-Germanic branch developed Into today's Scandinavian languages (Danish, Swedish,
Norweglan and Icelandic)
3. West-Germanic branch developed Into languages such as German, Dutch, and English

The origin of English

• English is essentially a Germanic language
• Some words now belonging to the English vocabulary originated from the languages of the
invading Anglo-Saxon tribes (5th and 6th centuries). they derive from Old English and are Anglo-
Saxon words
• BUT, a large number of words entered the English vocabulary coming from other languages by
borrowing
• The process by which words from a language are incorporated into another language: borrowed
or loan words, or borrowings
• The most important source languages for borrowing into English were Latin and French
Borrowing
• Borrowed or loan words frequently become nativized in the course of time
• They are adapted to fit the rules of spelling, pronunciation and grammar of the target language
• They lose their foreignness, their appearance as foreign words
• BUT, as speakers of Italian or Romance languages, we can identify more easily borrowed words
in English due to our knowledge of French and Latin, we can recognize similar sounding and
similarly spelt words in our language
• Most borrowed words originated from Latin and entered English via Old French

Borrowing: examples
• Gratify: "(formal) to please or satisfy somebody" (from French gratifier or Latin gratificari "give or
do as a favour", from gratus "pleasing. thankful")
• Gratitude: "the feeling of being grateful and wanting to express your thanks" (from Old French, or
from medieval Latin gratitudo, from Latin gratus "pleasing, thankful")
• Gratis: "done or given without having to be paid for" (from Latin, contraction of gratii "as a
kindness", from gratia "grace, kindness")
• Gratuitous: (disapproving) "done without any good reason or purpose and often having harmful
effects" (from Latin gratuitus "given freely, spontaneous")

Anglo-Saxon words < OE origin

• In present-day English, they represent the majority of the vocabulary used in everyday
conversation
• BUT, their number is smaller if compared to the number of loan words in the whole vocabulary
• Everyday language words, have, take, or to, are typically used in normal daily conversion and
thus, they are more frequently occurring than loan words
• If mostly used in everyday communication, typically linked to a particular stylistic level (informal
or colloquial language)
• Associated to plain language, straightforward and direct speaking/writing, sometimes meaning
unpolite or vulgar language

Anglo-Saxon: Dictionary definitions

• (noun): I."A Germanic inhabitant of England between the 5th century and the Norman Conquest", I.
"A person of English descent"; 1.2 mainly North American "Any white, English-speaking person"; 2.
"The Old English language"; 2.1 informal "Plain English, in particular vulgar slang"
• adjective): I. "Relating to or denoting the Germanic inhabitants of England from their arrival in the
5th century up to the Norman Conquest"; I. "Of English descent"; 1.2 "Of, in, or relating to the Old
English language", 1.3 informal (of an English word or expression) "Plain, in particular vulgar"
• SYNONYMS: understandable, comprehensible, intelligible, easy to understand, plain, direct,
uncomplicated, explicit, lucid, coherent, logical, distinct, simple, straightforward, clearly expressed,
unambiguous, clear-cut, crystal clear, accessible, user-friendly
Anglo-Saxon vs loan words
a. Informality vs formality
• Typical informality of Anglo-Saxon words
• Typical formality of borrowed words, the use of
words coming from Latin, Greek or French tends to
be perceived as more formal or associated with
more formal contexts
b. Length
• Anglo-Saxon words tend to be short, made up of
one or two syllables, shorter than words of foreign
origin
• Borrowed words tend to be longer, usually made
of at least two, three or more syllables
Borrowed or loan words
• English has continuously borrowed words from many languages, of all the peoples and cultures
which came into contact with English peoples
• Since the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon tribes in the 5th and 6th centuries, three major phases
of borrowing, corresponding to three periods of political or cultural invasion:
1. late 8th century to 11th century, Viking invaders
2. the Norman Conquest in the 11th century (1066)
3. after the Renaissance period in the 16* and 17th centuries, the cultural invasion of Latin

The Vikings and Old Norse

• From the late 8th century to the 11th century
• Waves of Viking invaders settled in England coming from Scandinavia
• They established themselves especially in the eastern (East Anglia, Yorkshire, etc.) and north-
western areas (Cumbria) of the country
• They were mainly Danes and Norwegians who spoke a dialect called "Old Norse", the parent
language of Scandinavian languages
• A Germanic language of the North-Germanic branch, linguistically related to Old English, the
language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons
• A sister German language of Old English: Old Norse and Old English had many similar words,
many words in common
 • The first major polítical invasion
• BUT Scandinavian peoples never achieved cultural dominance over the Anglo-Saxons and
eventually became absorbed and assimilated
• Their linguistic influence was relatively small, i.e., words borrowed from Old Norse:
- beginning with sk (skill, skin, skirt, sky, etc.)
importantf
most
- 3* person plural pronouns (they, them) and possessive adj. (their)
- mostly endings in place names (like the Celts), ex. -by ("village") in Whitby (North Yorkshire, north-
eastern England) and Derby (Midlands),-thorp(e) ("small village") in Mablethorpe (Lincolnshire)

Borrowed or loan words

• The times with the highest number of loan words, or with "large-scale" borrowings into English
were the centurles following two pivotal historical events:
1. the Norman Conquest In the 11th century (1066), I.e., Norman French (variety of French spoken by
Norman conquerors) became the language of the dominant culture
2. the Renaissance period in the 16th and 17th centurles, I.e., Latin became the language of learning
and academic life, thus gaining Increasing importance

The Norman conquest (1066)

• The second major political invasion under William the Conqueror
• It had important and long-lasting effects on the society and language
• Normans were of Viking origin but of French language, they had inhabited Normandy in the north-
west of France since the early 10th century
• They spoke the northern French dialect of Normandy
• They established a cultural, social and political elite which dominated the whole public life
(government, law, church and the life of the court) > their language variety became the dominant
language of writing
• Anglo-Saxon English did not completely disappear, it continued to be spoken and written but its
use was significantly reduced
• BUT the language of public life was Norman French
• The new dominant French-speaking nobility substituted the Anglo-Saxon court, noblemen and
bishops
• They progressively marginalized the Anglo-Saxon social and cultural system
• BUT, over time, esp. since the mid-14th century, English gradually reacquired its status of
language of the law and culture
• An increasing number of legal and literary documents started to be re-written in the vernacular,
ex. (1362) English was the official language of the Parliament and of law-court proceedings
Borrowings from Norman French
• Many loan words in areas of life characterized by a strong influence of the Norman elite
- government and law: justice, jury, judgement, estate, equity, legacy, perjury
- the social and cultural habits of the Norman nobility: grill, fry, stew, boil, roast (gastronomic terms),
chase, quarry, scent, track (the hunt), prince, duke, viscount, baron (titles of nobility), enemy, lance
(combat), courtly, amiable, favour, generous (chivalry, the medieval knightly system with its religious,
moral, and social code)

• To native speakers of Latin-based languages (Romance languages)

• Loan words from Norman French are more transparent than words of Anglo-Saxon origin
• Examples: royal, strange, malice, gentle, etc.
• They present some typical patterns as regards spelling
• Some suffixes -ity (felicity, equity, liberty, dignity, -our (favour), -ant (infant)

After the Renaissance period

• The third major period of invasion
• NOT physical and political like the Vikings' and the Normans'
• A cultural invasion, with the major influence of classical languages and cultures of Greece
(Greek) and Rome (Latin)
• Latin especially, for centuries the language of the church in western Europe (from the 6th
century with the Christianization of the island)
- Many ecclesiastic borrowings also in Old English: monk, bishop, priest, altar
- Many borrowings for theological concepts during the Middle Ages: salvation, resurrection,

• In the 15th and 16th centuries, Latin became the language of learning. regarded as superior to
vernacular languages like English
• Borrowings from Latin (and Greek) started to be assimilated into the "learned" vocabulary of
English, long-lasting process continuing to the present day (esp. scientific English)
• Loan words from Greek (directly or via Latin) or from Latin: athlete, catastrophe, agnostic,
diagnosis, encyclopedia, climax, explicit, index, major, minor, simile
• Some are recognizable from typical endings: (Latin) -um (quorum, referendum, symposium), -us
(campus, chorus), -a (diploma, drama, formula), and -ex/-ix index, appendix, matrix): (Greek) -is
(analysis, crisis, synopsis) and -on (phenomenon)
Borrowing from the 17th century onward
• Three main source or donor languages (Old Norse, Norman French and Latin)
• Three main periods of "large-scale" borrowings into English
• BUT borrowing has always continued on a smaller scale from many other languages
• The process by which words from other languages, "borrowed words" or "loan words", enter the
vocabulary of a language, due to contact between languages and cultures
• A very large number of words in the English vocabulary have been incorporated from other
languages through the centuries
• A word-formation process?

Borrowing
Borrome
• NOT a word-formation process, internal to a language, involving the creation of new words from
existing words (derivation, compounding. and other minor processes)
• It means bringing foreign words into the vocabulary of a language, words coming from different
languages
• IF deeply connected with contact between different peoples, languages and cultures > many loan
words in English over time
1. Borrowings of a small extent, due to incidental/limited contact
2. Borrowings of a large extent, due to political conquest or invasion, still limited in time
3. Borrowings of a significant extent resulting from cultural invasion

• The number varies depending on (a) the source languages and (b) the relationship between the
two cultures in contact
• Mostly due to the political strength and cultural prestige of the donor language vs the target
language
• The Crusades (11th - 16th centuries), in the Holy Land contact between medieval knights and
Islamic cultures (Arabic language): emir (the title given to some Muslim rulers), mohair (soft wool
or cloth made from the fine hair of the angora goat, used for making clothes) and mufti (a Muslim
who is an expert in legal matters connected with Islam)
• During WWII, borrowings from German: blitz (a sudden military attack intended to win a quick
victory) and Gestapo (the German secret police under Nazi rule)

English as "donor" language

• The influence of English on the vocabulary of other languages considerably increased after WWlI
• A high number of Anglicisms in Italian and in many other languages
• "Anglicisms" across different domains
• The language of sports (mountain bike, trekking, windsurf), arts (film, flashback, location, comedy,
horror), economy (customer care, startup, stakeholder, non-profit), music (jazz, pop, folk music,
heavy metal), technology (mouse, desktop, laptop, smartphone, decoder, pay-tv), medicine
(checkup, bypass, pet therapy)
 Borrowing
• How loan words enter the vocabulary of another
language
• Whether and how they are adopted/adapted
- in their original form
- 'nativized', adapted to fit the rules of the target
language system, ex. English pronunciation, spelling,
grammatical inflections (plural form, medium-media/
mediums)
• In present-day English many loan words exist and
their spelling, if not the pronunciation, may be or not
the original
Features of Old English (mid-5th cent - end 11 th cent)
• vs today's English (analytic language), OE was a highly inflected or synthetic language; language
functions, grammatical categories and relations, verb conjugations (person, number, mood and
tense) were expressed by inflections
• OE distinguished case, number and gender for nouns, adjectives and pronouns and grammatical
agreement characterized their syntactic relations
• vs today's English, word order in OE was freer, different word orders were used: SVO was
prevalent, but also SOV, OVS, VSO
• OE vocabulary, the core lexis was inherited from:
- Germanic dialects
- Latin, words coming from the conquest of the British Isles by the Romans in 54 BC, ex. boxum > box,
campus > camp, scola > scol > school
- Scandinavian languages (Vikings), technical terms for warfare. toponyms ending in -by or -thorpe,
and also several words of everyday use: anger, cake, dream, fellow, kid, get, give, egg, take, sky,
window, etc.

• Three main languages were spoken in the British Isles:

1. Norman French, the language of power and bureaucracy
2. Latin, the language of learning, education and the Church
3. English, the language of the majority of the population BUT some dialects were also used
(Scottish Gaelic)
• A stage of language characterized by (a) language contact, (b) dialect variation and, later (c) a
tendency towards standardization
• From the 14th century on, English started to reacquire its status of language of the law and
culture
• Language changes, vs OE, in the ME variety:
- the levelling of the OE inflectional system (case), reduction of Inflections
- the development of new verb tenses, le. future (today's 'shall' and will) and progressive/
continuous (today's 'be' + -Ing form)
- the fixing of the SVO word order (today's English), as a consequence of the grammatical
reduction
- a marked foreign influence on vocabulary, especially of French origin

Features of Modern English (1500-1900)

• Britain became a united and powerful country, esp. In terms of colonial power: from the reign
of Elisabeth | (1559-1603) to 20ch century (when colonies started to gain their independence
from the British Empire)
• 16th century: the Church of England separated from the Catholic power of the Roman Church
• 17th century: the first English version of the Bible, "King James Bible", was published inevitably
influencing the everyday language of English speakers
• 16th and 17th centuries: works of very important authors writing in English, ex. William
Shakespeare (1564-1616), profoundly affecting the language

• 18th century: the first English newspapers, the first grammars and the first monolingual
dictionaries
• Samuel Johnson's A dictionary of the English Language (1755)
• English was increasingly used as the language of literature, culture and intellectual
communication
• Industrial and economic growth of Britain (Industrial Revolution) > use of English in scientific
communication (specialist terminology)
• 20th century: English is the global language of science and technology

• The early phase of the ModE period is characterized by a new consciousness about linguistic
matters and the need to standardize the language, to fix and codify a variety that could be
used as standard
• Standardization was associated to the variety spoken in the London area (very influential city,
where the powerful emerging upper-middle classes dominated the political, social and
cultural domains)
• BUT, due to the Renaissance period, the renewal of interest in classical works and languages,
esp. in humanities and in science, standardization was strongly influenced by Latinate
vocabulary
• Linguistic changes, vs Middle English
• a further reduction of inflections: (a) the genitive was the only case (today's -s form), (b)
adjectives, only comparative and superlative degree markers, (c) pronouns, you' used in both
formal and informal contexts (vs. informal thou/thee and formal/polite ye/you)
• Reduced inflectional system > more standard use of SVO
• Plus, macro-change: increasingly powerful colonial presence of GB > language contact between
British colonizers and colonized peoples > different (colonial) varieties of English co-existing
with vernacular languages (used by local people)
LT Inglese 2B 01. October
Cercare discorsi di trump e khamela alle rispettive conventio9n
 07 october
discourse analysis
• Text analysis
• Language use in texts, or language is see in texts
• Language as a creative resource for human communication
• Texts as instance of human communication
• Communication as the activity or process, and the text resulting from it

Text dictionary definition:

Noun and verb, Any written material but oral text is also a thing - spoken communication
• word origin: late Middle English: from old northern French texte, from Latin textus ‘tissue,
literary style’ (…) from text ‘woven’, fro the verb texture (weave)
(Www.etymonoline.com)

Metatexual metaphor: weaving

• thread: thin string of cotton, wool, silk etc. 2.an idea or a feature that is part of something
greater; an idea tat cvcnneegts the different parts of something
• Spin: a yarn
• Yarn: a long story exaggerated or invented
• (tie up) loose end: a part o smut such as a story that has not been completely finished or
explained ,
• Cotton on (to something) (inf) to being understand or realize something without being told
• Everyday

Discourse: dictionary definitions

• noun and verb
• Communication in speech or writing, a speech or piece of writing about a particular, usually
serious, subject (Cambridge)
• (technical) in linguistics , discourse is natural spoken or written language in context, especially
when complete texts are being considered (collins cobuild)
• Linguistics written or spoken language, especially when it is studied in order to understand how
people use language (Macmillan)
• The use of language in speech and writing in order to understand

Word origin: late middle eng (denoting the process of reasoning) from French discours, from Latin
discursus "a running about," in Late Latin "conversation," in Medieval Latin "reasoning," noun use of
past participle of discurrere "to run about, run to and fro, hasten," in Late Latin "to go over a subject,
speak at length of, discourse of,"
Text and discourse
• used as synonyms, interchangeably
• But, there are some differences
• Origin: ‘text’ emerged in, and has been used more in the Humanities; Discourse originated in
social sciences
• Text single single artifact; discourse tends to refer to more extensive communication, of greater
length and substance
• Example: sms usage
• sms or ‘text messages’ to mean one digital writing. If i say the discourse of an sms i mean a
large scale phenomenon, bc what i mean is sms as form of communication.

• glossary or index of terms in both books

• No entry for text, while discourse is defied as (look books)
• The reasons for this in that text is included in discourse, and the perspective is larger

• reference: text traditionally referred primarily to written communication; discourse to spoken

communication, including conversations,
• But today, in linguistics, DA refers to the analysis of both spoken and written texts
• due to technology, new forms of digital communication have emerged, this broadening the focus
on dA
• Multimodal: multiple “mode” of communication a message , multiple semiotic systems or
languages

Multimodal texts (ex. Comics)

• a texts that combines two or more semiotic systems, either print or digital, to communicate infos
or message
• Example; linguistics, visual, audio, gestural, spatial
• In multimodal DA, semiotic channels must be examined because they represent an integral part of
any multimodal from of communication
• BUT, here the focus in on language in the verbal sense

globalization has increased ethic representation in multimodal texts.

Text and texts types or genres
• text as an instance of communication, a concrete realization or manifestation of
communication purpose (rll important), a fundamental unit of linguistic communication,
presenting a message to conveyed, being more or less complex, either written or spoken,
characterized by semantic and morphosyntactic unity, with a global communicative function
and meaning
• Text types as the types or genres of texts classified according to common (but different)
criteria
• Examples: function, target user, medium, formality/informality, etc.

Examples:
• each with its own subtypes, on content function, medium, etc.
• Novels, reports, short stories, biographies, essays, poems
• Speeches (are usually written to be spoken, so they are to really spontaneous), TED talks,
conversations, song lyrics
• Newspaper, magazines
• Diaries, letters, e-mails, SMSs, dms, social media post
• Comics, documentaries, movies, tv series, video games (most multimodal texts)

Model of discourse or texts analysis

• basic model
• The wh+ question words: what, who, where, when. Why, how
• Answering these questions is good practical exercise
• but, their relevance or usefulness may vary depending on the texts and on the research
questions
• A flexible model to later decide hat questions should take priority and determine te focus
and/or scope of research: whaat to concentrate on and to what extent (inclusion and
exclusion)
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