CLIMATE

- Weather: refers to the atmospheric conditions (temperature, rainfall, humidity,

and pressure) of a place over a short period of time.
- Climate: generalization of the day-to-day weather conditions over a long
period, usually 30 years.
- The climatic zones of Pakistan are divided into 4: Highland Climate, lowland
climate, coastal climate, and arid climate.
- Highland climate – northern, north-western, and western mountains
- Lowland climate – the whole of Indus plain
- Coastal climate – Makran coast, Karachi coast, and Indus delta to the Rann of
Kutch.
- Arid climate – south-eastern desert and south-western Balochistan
- Climatic zones don’t experience the same conditions throughout the zone.
Highland Zone
- Northern, north-western, and western mountains
- Rainfall and temperature in such zones are related to altitude.
- Rainfall is highest in the Northern Mountains. From south of Kohat and
Waziristan, rainfall decreases and occurs in winters.
- Rainfall by relief, monsoon, thunderstorms, western depressions
- Summers are short and mild in Northern mountains but dry and warm in
Western Mountains.
- Quetta is a provincial capital city that regularly has the lowest temperatures in
Pakistan.
Lowland Zone
- Indus plain, except coastal areas.
- Arid, extreme climate
- Hot summers, cool winters, summer monsoon rainfall (south-east monsoon)
- Rainfall by convectional rainfall in northern Punjab, western depression
in northern Punjab, monsoon rainfall
Coastal climate
- Southern coastal strip comprising the Indus delta to the Rann of Kutch,
Karachi, and the Makran coast
- Rainfall by monsoon rainfall (Sindh coast), western depression (makran
coast), tropical cyclones
- The climate faces martime influence
- Humidity level is moderately high, exceeding 50% from April to September
- Mean monthly temperature: 32 degrees
- May, June, October are the hottest months
Arid Climate
- South-western Balochistan and the south-eastern desert
- Hot dusty winds prevail from mid-May to mid-September
 - Extreme heat, dryness, and dust storms are the main features of this arid
climate
- Little rainfall by Monsoon winds and western depressions
Describe four impacts of low temperatures on people who live and work in
mountain areas
1. Danger of death from cold and diseases like hypothermia, especially elderly
2. Loss of telecommunications/electricity due to heavy rainfall
3. Difficulty travelling by road due to snow/fog/landslides, etc.
4. Unable to farm/grow crops, resulting in low income by agricultural activities.
Pakistan: the Seasons
- Pakistan has four seasons
- Winter (mid-Dec to March)
- Early summer (April to June)
- Late summer (monsoon) (July to September)
- Post-monsoon (October to mid-Dec)
Climatic elements
- Temperature, rainfall, wind and pressure
 Temperature
o Depends on latitude (24 degree North to 37 degree North) and
diversity of relief
o Jacobabad (lower Indus Plain) – thermal pole of the subcontinent
with temperatures reaching 53 degrees in June
Factors affecting temperature of Pak
1. Latitudinal effect and angle of Sun
o Temperature is dependent either directly or indirectly on the influence
of the sun.
o As it is evident the Polar Regions or regions far away from the Equator
are generally cooler than the ones nearer the Equator. This is because
for solar radiation to reach the poles and heat them it has to travel a
larger distance in space and covers a greater surface area, thus it
loses its intensity (energy).
o Also near the poles the radiation arrives at an oblique angle so solar
energy spreads over a large area. Since Pakistan lies in subtropical
areas it does receive most of intense solar radiation concentrated on a
small area thus the temperature in general is warmer. So, in general
terms, Faisalabad will be cooler than say Hyderabad
o In summer, the northern hemisphere (Pak) is tilted towards the Sun;
therefore, the land absorbs more heat because of the high angle of
the sun and because it faces the sun for longer duration (long days,
short nights, vice versa in winter).
Explain the effect of latitude on temperature and length of day
 Temperature
1) Lower latitudes, more direct rays of the sun
2) High latitudes, more insolation, more rays spread over a large area

Length
1) High latitudes, days shorter in winter and longer in the summer
2) N hemisphere points towards sun in summer and away from sun in winter,
so in summer days are longer and nights shorter, and vice versa in winter
2. Continental effect
o Refers to the climate of areas protected from or unaffected by martime
influence (the influence of the sea on temperatures).
o If an area doesn’t experience moderating affect of sea then it has a
continental climate, which is characterized by hot summers and cold
winters usually as it doesn’t experience the moderating effect of
prevailing winds and ocean currents. Most of the rainfall in these
continental climate areas occurs in the winters.
3. Altitude
o Air is densest at sea level because that is where it absorbs most water
vapour, dust particles, and solar radiation.
o Air is least dense at high altitude because less solar radiation is
absorbed at that level due to low air pressure. Hence, there is an
average drop of 6.5 degrees for each 1000 metre increase in altitude.
4. Valley
o Most of the sun’s rays are blocked from reaching the lower parts of
valleys due to the presence of mountains, which surround the valley.
o This lowers the average temperatures of these valleys, as less solar
radiation reaches the surface of the valley to be reflected and then
absorbed.
5. Cloud cover
o In daytime, it reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation as most
of it is reflected back into space, reducing temperature.
o In nighttime, it prevents solar radiation from leaving the land, helping to
keep the temperature warm.
o Hence days with no cloud cover are generally warmer, and nights with
no cloud over are generally cooler.
Rainfall
- Sources of rainfall in Pakistan are:
1. Monsoon winds
2. Western depressions
3. Convectional currents causing thunderstorms
4. Relief rainfall
5. Tropical cyclones

1. Monsoon winds
 o Summer monsoon winds called south-west monsoon
o Winter monsoon winds called north-east monsoon
o Karachi receives (secondary) monsoon in the south-west direction.
o Monsoons are seasonal winds that blow from sea towards land from
July to August (summers).
o After it they reverse their direction and blow from land towards the sea
(winters).
o During the summers due to the high angle of sun, Punjab and Sindh
plains get heated up, thus an area of very low pressure develops here
as the hot air rises.
o There are two monsoon systems, one originating from the Bay of
Bengal and other from the Arabian Sea.
o During summer low air pressure is developed over Pakistan.
o While high air pressure prevails over sea (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean
and Arabian Sea) so moist (humid/wet) wind from Indian Ocean and
Arabian Sea blow towards land to fulfill the low air pressure.
o Wind from Indian Ocean reaches Pakistan after crossing India called
primary monsoon.
o Monsoon winds from Arabian Sea are called secondary Monsoon
which causes less rain.
o These winds cause rain from July to September.
o The amount of rain decreases from northern area to Southern areas.
o Monsoon of Bay of Bengal affect northern Punjab, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir
o On the other hand, another monsoon system that originates in Arabian
Sea also travels inland but doesn’t bring significant rainfall to areas of
Sindh because of a temperature inversion layer. However, sometimes,
an overactive monsoon system brings heavy rain to Karachi and the
Sindh coast, damaging infrastructure.
Describe the route of main monsoon across Pakistan
- East to West
- From Bay of Bengal
- Across Punjab
- Towards the Northern Areas
Importance of the arrival of monsoon to people who live and work in urban
areas
Benefits
1) Makes the environment cool – better working and living conditions
2) Fresher environment – less dust, air pollution, cleaner air
3) Water supply – for drinking, factories, etc.
Disadvantages
1) Flooding
 2) People cannot get to work
3) Loss of production
Explain why there are differences in amounts of rainfall caused by monsoon in
different areas of Pakistan
1) Depends on moisture content
2) Loses moisture as it moves across the land
3) More rain as it rises over hills
4) Condensation caused by cooling of rising air
5) Rain shadow effect on areas lying leeward e.g. Gilgit and Chitral
6) Climate change e.g. global warming, ozone layer

2. Western Depressions
o Cyclones which originate in the Mediterranean Sea, cross Afghanistan
and Iran, then reach western Pakistan.
o During the winters (Late November to March) they bring rainfall
because during winters the Arabian Sea retains its warmth and thus
cold air from coastal areas flows towards sea.
o The flow of air from coastal areas creates a low pressure, thus dry
colder air from interior Sindh and Punjab flows towards the coast.
o To replace the low pressure formed in Punjab and Sindh plains, these
western depressions move from high pressure area (Mediterranean
Sea) towards the low pressure area (Indus Plains).
o These winds cause rainfall during winters from December to March.
For example, Quetta receives most of its rainfall in winter.
3. Convectional current
o Convectional currents cause rainfall in the form of thunderstorms.
Strong winds accompanying the storms may pick up dust as well.
o Convection rainfall occurs when the sun heats up the land.
o The air near the land absorbs heat by conduction, and thus gets less
dense and rises.
o The moisture in air condenses to form clouds, and when this air is
cooled to a certain minimum level rainfall occurs.
o Only Northern and north-western Pakistan receive rainfall from
convectional currents.
o Southern Pak does not receive rainfall by these due to temperature
inversion layer which prohibits condensation at the height of 1600m.
Hence, Karachi and adjoining areas don’t receive rainfall by these
currents.
o Occurs in Rawalpindi and Peshwar.
4. Relief rainfall
o Related to altitude. It occurs where moist unstable air moves up a
mountain or scarp edge and is chilled.
 o Because of this, condensation and then precipitation occurs on the
windward side of the slope, and the leeward side receives sinking,
warm air.
o Areas that lie leeward and are ‘rainshadow’ are: Gilgit and Chitral.
5. Tropical cyclones
o Occur from April/May
o Bring few hours of very heavy rainfall with destructive winds to coastal
areas.
o They orginate over the Arabian Sea quite often, but only reach coast of
Pakistan every few years.
o Unreliable form of rainfall.
o Cyclones are formed when the average temperature of large water
body exceeds 27° C, thus forming an area of very low pressure.

Describe the effect of cyclones on cities like Karachi

1.
Cause of floods/blocked drains/sewers
2.
Damage to buildings, homes, slums, etc.
3.
Damage to services like schools/hospitals/clinics
4.
Damage to workplaces e.g. industries, offices, factories, etc.
5.
Loss of local economy e.g. through damaged industry, infrastructure,
cost of rebuilding
6. Loss of communications e.g. telephone lines, internet, social media
6. Thunderstorms
o Northern and north-western Pakistan
o Summer (april to june) and post-monsoon (sept to oct)
o Thunderstorms occur in the same fashion as convectional rainfall with
the main difference being that the air here rises very quickly forming
Cumulonimbus clouds, which are very tall and big.
o This is followed by strong winds, lightning and heavy rainfall.
o Hailstones may also be formed, when the water vapours are cooled
multiple times (to form water first and then ice)
Pressure and winds
o When, during the summer, hot air rises and the cooler air over the seas
and oceans moves towards the land, bringing heavy rainfall to the
upper and lower Indus Plain in July and August. (summer monsoon)
o Reverse in winters. The winds in winter are generally light and dry
(winter monsoon)
Effectiveness of Rainfall
- Rainfall in Pakistan is mainly from western depressions.
Why is rainfall from monsoon winds of limited value?
1. They vary in amount, timing, and distribution. Crop planning is very difficult
if the amount and timing of rainfall have normal fluctuations.
 2. High temperature conditions from June to September over the Indus Plain,
which increases the rate of evapotranspiration
3. Falls in large amounts which is not useful to farmers as most of the
rainwater drains away, causing floods in low-lying areas.
- In comparison, winter monsoon rainfall is more effective, but it is insufficient
and unreliable, and only occurs in the western and northern region.
- Rainfall in Pakistan is not adequate or reliable, so much of farming depends
on irrigation.
Advantages and disadvantages of winter rainfall
Advantages
1. Light showers, absorbed by soil increase moisture content of soil and help to
prevent soil erosion.
2. Supplies water for HEP generation
3. Provides water for rabi crops such as wheat, barley, oilseeds and pulses
4. Snowfall forms glaciers in Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Himalayas that feed
the Indus system.
5. Barani crops in Northern Pakistan depend on winter rainfall
Disadvantages
1. Crop planning becomes difficult because of the difference in amount every
year
2. Transport gets blocked by accumulated snow
3. Rain falls as snow which lowers the temperature, making crop cultivation
impossible
4. Might cause health problems such as frostbite, asthma, lung infections, and
other respiratory problems for people in highland areas.
Reasons why temperatures are higher in summer in Quetta than winter:
1. Longer hours of daylight
2. Less cloud cover
3. Sun higher in the sky
Effects of climate on life and economic activities of people in diff. zones
1. Highland zone
- Severely cold winters and mild to warm summers characterize the climate in
northern and northern-western areas.
- Since farming is not possible during winters, most of the people are involved
in indoor activities like carpet-weaving, embroidery, pottery, etc.
- Transhumance is practiced. People move with their flocks to the plains to
escape the harsh winters, and during summer, move upland for cooler
temperatures.
- In the extreme north, many roads are inaccessible due to accumulation of
snow and landslides. Job opportunities and generally most economic activities
are difficult to carry out.
 - Western Highlands and barren mountains of Balochistan are sparsely
population because of harsh conditions.
- Annual rainfall: 125-500mm (mainly in winter)
- Apples, mangoes, apricots, and grapes grown in high valleys
In what ways does the winter climate make life difficult for people who live in
mountainous areas?
1) In winter, water freezes and there is a water shortage.
2) No farming done in winter, and fishing is also not possible, leading to a
shortage in food and raw material supplies.
3) Damage done to buildings by avalanches, landslides, frozen pipes, etc.
4) Loss of lives and death of people by severe temperatures and health risk by
smog.
5) Air travel made difficult by presence of smog and fog.
6) There is less trade and economic activities, leading to a loss in income.

2. Arid Zone
- Extreme climate – low annual rainfall, cool-mild winters and hot summers.
- Not ideal for cultivation and habitation due to lack of water and intensity of
temperature
- Crop grown in areas with low rainfall: dates.
- Mostly inhabited by nomadic herders belonging from groups like Brahuis,
Balochis, and Pathans.
- Underground irrigation called Karez carried out due to excessive
evapotranspiration and scarce rainfall.
- Suitable for growing fruits like grapes, apples, peaches, and melons. Other
crops include millet, wheat, and barley.
- Only receives 100mm of annual rainfall, average monthly temperature is 38
degrees.
- People wear thick clothes to protect themselves from the hot winds and also
wear turbans.
- Most people are nomads and move from place to place in search of water.
What is ‘karez’?
o Narrow subterranean canal which starts from the base of the hills and
mountains where subsoil water is present.
o On reaching the surface, it irrigates the orchards and fields.
o Prevents the water from being evaporated by the heat of the sun or
absorbed by the thirsty land.
- Climates affects the way houses are built. In Tharparkar, houses are often
built with fixed ventilatiors on the roof to attract any breeze that blows from the
southwest into the window-less interior. The walls are made of sun-dried
bricks plastered over with mud. The roof is of thick straw or reed supported by
beams and mud-plastered.
What are the challenges faced by people living in desert areas?
1. High temperatures during the day, low temperatures at night, leading to
uncomfortable living conditions.
2. Lack of fertile soils which makes crop cultivation quite difficult.
3. Lack of rainfall, leading to water shortage for consumption and usage in
agricultural activities.
4. Danger of frequent dust and sandstorms.
5. Most deserts are isolated and far from urban areas, so people’s needs can’t
be met on a short-term basis.
What are the difficulties faced by people living in low rainfall areas?
1. There is very little pasture, and most people have a nomadic lifestyle
2. Lack of water for usage in everyday activities like cleaning, domestic use,
drinking etc.
3. Lack of water for agricultural use, leading to difficulty in crop cultivation
4. Risk of problems like dust and sandstorms, as well as droughts.
5. There are few rivers and water has to be supplied from great distances.

3. Lowland Zone
- In daytime, summers are extremely hot, while winters are cool to mild.
- In view of the varied and irregular rainfall, there is a well-developed canal
irrigation system to raise crops like wheat, millet, cotton, and sugarcane.

4. Coastal Zone
- Karachi has a mild climate with a low average precipitation (approximately
250 mm per annum).
- The proximity to the sea maintains humidity at a high level (60-70%) and cool
sea breezes relieve the heat of summer months.
- Climate of Makran coast is dry and hot. The maximum temperature in June
remains between 31 degrees and 40 degrees and in the coolest month of
January it varies from 18 degrees to 19 degrees.
- Humidity prevails all along the coast and average annual rainfall is below 250
mm.
- The moderate climate is the predominant reason for the development of the
Gwadar port as it would allow economic activities to be carried all year long
- The moderate climate allows for: (Advantages)
 Farming to be possible all year
 Seaports to be open all year, allowing international trade to be carried out
 Roads and transport links to inland areas are never closed
 Air flights are rarely cancelled
 All types of industries ranging from cottage and small-scale to large-scale
manufacturing are operational in all seasons.
- Disadvantages:
 During summer, tropical cyclones sometimes cause coastal flooding in
low-lying areas, damaging infrastructure, homes and farmland in the Indus
Delta.
  Fishing is nearly impossible in rough seas, hence fishing communities
suffer.
Floods
- Flood is a temporary covering of land by water which is not usually under
water.
- They can be caused by variety of natural factors like heavy monsoon rainfall
accompanied with melting of snow and ice in glaciers, unusually high tides in
coastal areas and by a tsunami.
- However, their effects can be exacerbated by human factors like
deforestation, failure to heighten or strengthen embankments, dam failure to
store extra water due to less capacity, poor medical and communication
facilities in aftermath of disaster and inadequate warning systems to allow
people time for escape.
- Examples for 6 marker:
1. In 1973, floods inundated 3.6 million hectares, killed 1600 people and
demolished three million homes.
Why does the River Indus flood?
1. Heavy monsoon rainfall
2. Rapid snow melt in Himalayas
3. Melting of glaciers in Himalayas/Karakoram/Hindu Kush, etc.
What measures can we take to reduce the flood risk?
1. Planting trees on foothills to check the flow of running water
2. Enlarging the river channel so that it can hold more water
3. Building embankments on either side of the channel to prevent the spread of
floodwater.
4. Buildings reservoirs on the river to store water and control peak discharge.
5. Publicizing flood warnings through radio, television, newspapers, and the
internet.
6. Preventing buildings in areas where flooding is most likely.
7. Local residents should be moved to higher areas and alternative
arrangements should be made for them.
8. During monsoon, livestock and precious belongings could be moved to higher
places.
9. The transport authorities could prepare a plan to introduce diversion signs and
warning signs as quickly as possible. Repair of roads and railways should be
done on an emergency basis.
What are the benefits of floods?
1. Floods return nutrients to the land and contribute to the health of wetlands as
in the Indus delta, which allow floods to spread over a large area and cause
little damage.
2. Floods spread a layer of alluvium, which increases the fertility of the land.
3. Recharge groundwater supply
 4. Distribute rich sediment and refresh streams.
5. Allowing rivers and streams to overflow their banks naturally can prevent
more serious flooding downstream.
What are the effects of floods?
1. Casualties - People and livestock die due to drowning. It can also lead to
epidemics and waterborne diseases.
2. Suspension of Trade – Airports can be closed (businessmen can be affected),
roads and railway lines severed causing disruption to supplies of raw
materials and products etc.
3. Water supplies can be contaminated, making it unsuitable for consumption.
4. Spread of water-borne diseases. This could pose a serious danger to health
of people who are affected.
5. Crops can be washed away, thus leading to food shortages.
6. There could be a shortage of supplies to agro-based industries, like shortage
of raw cotton to cotton factories. These factories thus won’t be able to fulfil
their orders and will lose customers. To reduce their operating costs, they will
lay off workers causing unemployment and their own profits will decrease
7. Silt deposited by floods adds nutrients to the flooded soil.
8. Trees die as their submerged roots can’t absorb oxygen.
9. There could be a decline in tourism, rebuilding costs could soar etc.
Solutions to problems caused by foods
1. Dams could be built to contain and regulate the flow of water and prevent
flash floods.
2. Advanced warning systems should be installed in flood prone areas to warn
people to get out before it’s too late.
3. Medical and transport facilities be regularly updated and checked
4. Embankments and levees should be heightened and strengthened
5. Also afforestation and re-afforestation projects should be carried out in
Northern Mountains to reduce run-off and thus reducing chances of flash
floods
6. Mangrove plantations should be protected and allowed to grow, which protect
from damaging rise in tide level during a tsunami
Explain the effects of flooding on local economy and transport links
Local economy:
1. Loss of livestock, crops, farm equipment, fisheries, etc. leading to a loss of
income.
2. Electricity supply disturbed which can lead to factories shutting down.
3. Factories and industries temporarily shutting down causing unemployment
and loss of production.
4. Build-up of silt behind dams, leading to less water storage and affecting HEP
production.
Transport
 1. Bridges washed away, limiting the ability to trade
2. Rivers become unnavigable, due to which communications may be cut off.
3. Telecommunications affected
4. Roads and railways may be destroyed, posing a threat to human life.
Storms
- Types of storms: thunderstorms, dust storms, windstorms, and tropical
cyclones.
Droughts
- A drought is a period extending over several months or years when a region
suffers a deficiency in its water supply.
- This occurs when a region receives below than average precipitation over a
period of time.
- Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged period with
less than average precipitation.
- Agricultural droughts are droughts that affect crop production. This condition
can also arise independently from any change in precipitation levels when soil
conditions and erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavours.
These cause a shortfall in water available to the crops.
- Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available in
sources such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical
average.
Causes
- Natural causes of draughts:
 Unreliable nature of monsoon winds
 Hot, dry winds reduce moisture content of sandy soil by lowering humidity
level
 Change in global climate
- Human causes of droughts:
 Deforestation which increases soil erosion and decreases rainfall
 Mismanagement of water resources – seepage of unlined canals
 Disputed and unfair distribution of water between the provinces may lead
to drought situation in province deprived of its share
 Overgrazing  soil erosion
 Global warming  climate change
Effects of droughts
1. Crop yields can be dramatically reduced and livestock production could fall
(milk, eat etc). This can raise prices of goods and affect price of exported
goods making them uncompetitive in international markets thus harming
national interests. This will also lead to shortage of raw materials; hence,
decreasing exports and increasing imports.
 2. Dust storms can occur, when drought hits an area suffering from
desertification and erosion. This can lead to siltation in reservoirs of dam,
hampering electricity generation and weakening dam’s foundation
3. Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife
4. Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases could affect millions
5. Mass migration causing the increase in internal refugees or international
refugees. This will also lead to break-up of rural social set up, leading to a
nomadic lifestyle.
6. Reduced electricity production could occur as reduced water flow through
hydroelectric dams leads to low industrial production and less exports
resulting in less foreign exchange
7. There will be a drop in water table due to which there will be less water
available to plants and humans from ground water sources. There will be
shortages of water for industries like (juice, etc.), which affects employment
and GDP
8. Social unrest may follow leading to instability, which can discourage foreign
investment thus local sectors may suffer from outdated machinery techniques
etc. resulting in low production
9. War could occur over natural resources, including lakes and fertile areas etc.
10. Wildfires can become common and can cause health hazard to people
Types of droughts
1. Permanent droughts – when crop cultivation not possible without irrigation
e.g. Thal, Cholistan, etc.
2. Seasonal droughts – in areas with well-defined rainy and dry season e.g.
Potwar Plateau, southern Punjab
3. Invisible droughts – result of water deficiency that reduces crop yields but
not severe enough to destroy them
4. Unpredictable droughts – result of abnormally low rainfall and occurs in
areas which have humid climates
Examples for 6 markers:
- In 2001, the 26 districts of Balochistan suffered from severe famine as a result
of drought. The lives of 20,000 families and more than a million cattle were
severely affected.
- Pakistani officials have reported the following facts about droughts affecting
Sindh and Balochistan:
 Over 3.3 million people have been affected
 About 30 million livestock have been affected
 Most areas have had no rain for three to eight years
Solutions to problems caused by droughts
1. Water storage schemes like reservoirs and traditional water tanks for irrigating
crops and forest areas. By a perennial canal system, areas monsoon rainfall
can utilize rainwater during dry seasons.
2. Using new technology such as using sea water through a desalination
process (the removal of salt), converting waste water into clean water through
filtration and chemical treatment, planting drought-resistant crop varieties, etc.
3. Lining canals to avoid wastage and uneconomical use of existing water
resources in Pakistan. Unlined canals cause waterlogging and salinity,
rendering the soil unsuitable for crop cultivation.
4. Government should ensure that priority is given to the allocation of water
resources for the basic needs of the people and of the economy i.e. for
agricultural and industrial uses.