Indian J. Genet.

, 74(3): 271-285 (2014)

DOI: 10.5958/0975-6906.2014.00845.1

Review paper

History of post-rainy season sorghum research in India and strategies

for breaking the yield plateau

J. V. Patil, P. Sanjana Reddy*, Prabhakar, A. V. Umakanth, Sunil Gomashe and K. N. Ganapathy

Directorate of Sorghum Research, Rajendranagar 500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India

(Received: July 2013; Revised: April 2014; Accepted: June 2014)

Abstract (SAT) of Asia. In India, it is grown during both kharif

Post-rainy (rabi) sorghum grows under residual soil
(rainy season from June-October) and rabi (post-rainy
moisture conditions and is important for food and fodder season from October-January) seasons for multiple
security especially during dry seasons in semi-arid regions uses as a food, feed, fodder and fuel crop. The cultivar
of India. Unlike rainy sorghum being dominated with requirements for these two seasons are quite diverse
hybrids, post-rainy sorghum growing areas are cultivated due to different agro-climatic conditions [2]. Sorghum
with varieties especially landrace selections. Much of the
grown in rainy season is mainly utilized as feed as the
area is covered by M 35-1, a landrace selection developed
seven and half decades ago. Post-rainy sorghum research grain is often caught in rains and the quality is affected
did not receive much emphasis until nineties and the due to grain molds. However, rabi (post-rainy) sorghum
varieties or hybrids bred and released could not match M is primarily used as food owing to its good grain quality
35-1 in yield or quality. Some progress has been made and also serves as a main source of fodder especially
recently with the release of varieties for specific soil depths
during dry seasons. It is grown in receding soil moisture
viz., shallow, medium and deep soils. Efforts made to
develop hybrids with wider adaptability to varied production conditions during winter season and without irrigation.
environments did not fetch much success. The hybrids Post-rainy sorghum is grown predominantly in 6
lacked significant heterosis, grain quality and shoot fly districts of Maharashtra (Solapur, Ahmednagar, Pune,
resistance comparable to M 35-1. Also, low temperatures at Beed, Osmanabad and Aurangabad) and 3 districts of
anthesis caused poor seed settings in hybrids. Strategic
Karnataka (Bijapur, Gulbarga and Raichur) apart from
research is required to develop new varieties and hybrids
for post-rainy season to break the yield plateau. parts of Andhra Pradesh (Prakasham, Kurnool,
Anantapur, Cuddapah, Ranga Reddy, Medak,
Key words: Sorghum, post-rainy, varieties, hybrids, Nizamabad, Mahabubnagar, and Adilabad) and
M 35-1, yield plateau Tamilnadu (Coimbatore, Dindigal, Thiruchirapalli,
Salem, Perambalur, Karur, Dharmapuri, Erode, Vellore,
Theni and Namakkal) states of India [3] as there is no
Importance of post-rainy sorghum
alternative cereal grown during this season, when only
Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], a gifted grass 8% of the annual rainfall is received [4]. The rabi
genera of the tropics, is the fifth most important cereal sorghum crop accounts for 45% of the total sorghum
crop by area after wheat, rice, maize and barley in the area under cultivation and 32% of the total sorghum
world with India ranking first in area [1]. Having a C4 production in India [5]. Although rabi sorghum is highly
photosynthetic pathway, it is adapted to a wide range valued due to its good grain quality, its yields are lower
of environmental conditions. Traditionally, it is a staple (750 kg/ha) compared to kharif sorghum (1100 kg/ha)
food crop for millions of poor in the semi-arid tropics [6].

*Corresponding author’s e-mail: sanjana@[Link]

Published by the Indian Society of Genetics & Plant Breeding, F2, First Floor, NASC Complex, PB#11312, IARI, New Delhi 110 012
Online management by [Link]
272 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

Characteristics of post-rainy sorghum breeding lines. On the other hand rabi sorghum
landraces form an important source of genetic
Rabi sorghums grow well in short day length variation.
(photoperiod sensitivity), flower and mature
irrespective of temperature fluctuations and sowing Natural selection and domestication over
dates (thermo-insensitivity within the rabi varieties), thousands of years have resulted in the development
are tolerant to terminal moisture stress and resistant of numerous varieties highly local in their adaptation.
to stalk rot/charcoal rot, produce high biomass (grain Cultured under different seasonal, soil and climatic
and stover) and have large lustrous grain with semi- conditions, Indian sorghums exhibit a wide range of
corneous endosperm. They are tolerant to shoot fly, variability in respect of duration and grain quality. The
lodging (mechanical) and rust [7-9], unlike kharif variety M 35-1 has been ruling most of the rabi tracts
sorghum rapid progress has not been achieved in rabi since seven and half decades. The reason for lack of
sorghum improvement program. More than 80 percent significant genetic improvement calls for the detailed
of the rabi sorghum area is still dominated by two study of the release process of this variety. The
important cultivars; Maldandi, a local landrace; and M Maldandi, originator for M 35-1, is the popular landrace
35-1, a selection from Maldandi released in 1937 [10]. grown by farmers mostly in the regions of Maharashtra
However, a few varieties released in 2000s for specific during rabi season since many decades. The Maldandi
soil depths are recording some yield improvement in variety was observed to contain mainly two kinds of
farmer’s fields in the Maharashtra state of India. As variants, one with large and other with short internodes.
the rabi sorghum is an important source of food and Plants with shorter internodes were shorter in height,
fodder, there is a pressing need to develop high-yielding had leaf sheaths overlapping each other and covering
sorghum cultivars with superior grain and fodder the stem fully, grew slowly and were generally late in
quality. The quality bench mark is that of the popular flowering and did not thrive well in shallow soils. Those
land race, Maldandi 35-1 (M 35-1). Hence, there is a with long internodes had rapid growth and were early
need to study the history of these selections and the in flowering. However, the rate of growth in the both
progress made in strategic research as it will help to types was same in the first month. Later the plants
formulate suitable breeding strategies for rapid genetic with long internodes recorded a rapid growth utilizing
enhancement as in kharif sorghum and to break the the available moisture and also expressed good
existing yield plateau. Despite the fact that much of earhead emergence percentage (Table 1). Hence the
the research done in rabi sorghums has remained short internode types in Maldandi sorghum were
unpublished, a sincere attempt is made to pool all the removed as 75% of the soils in the place of its
available literature to discuss the eight decades of cultivation were shallow in nature. The selection 35-1
rabi sorghum improvement program in India. evolved from this was a long internode type. The variety
M 35-1 proved its merit by earliness, high yield and
Advances in breeding strategies in post-rainy larger grains. The grain of M 35-1 also fetched a
sorghums premium price of 11.5 to 15.5% over local for two
Developing high-yielding variety/hybrid is the main consecutive years of testing. The variety M 35-1 was
objective in almost all the crop improvement programs. released in 1969 from Mohol station in Maharashtra
Also, improvement of rabi sorghum did not receive as for cultivation in rabi sorghum tracts across the country.
much emphasis and effort as the kharif sorghum until The variety spread rapidly in the farmers fields and
the nineties. Advances in breeding strategies are has also become the check variety under the All India
discussed under varieties and hybrids in the ensuing Coordinated Sorghum Improvement Project trials on
sections. rabi sorghum improvement.
Most of the present-day improved varieties are
Varieties
the result of pure-line selection practised among the
Unlike in the case of kharif sorghum, rabi sorghum local/popular varieties. The popular varieties have
varieties have better preference over hybrids for lustrous, bold and globular grain distinct from the
reasons of adaptability and grain quality. Most of the improved cultivars. Some of the popular landraces
rabi sorghum varieties are only of Durra type where as emerged in various regions include Giddi Maldandi,
kharif sorghum cultivars belonged to Caudatum and Yennigar jola, Bilichigan, Fulgar white, Fulgar yellow,
Kafir races [11]. Genetic improvement of rabi sorghum Kanki Nandyal, Hagari and Dagadi types from
is hindered by lack of phenotypic variability among Karnataka, Barshi joot, Saoner, Ramkhe, Aispuri,
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 273

Table 1. Comparison of short and long internode variants of Maldandi

Genotype Block I (Deep black soils) Block II (Fairly deep soils) Block III (Shallow soils)
No. of No. of % of No. of No. of No. of % of No. of % of
plants plants plants plants plants plants plants plants plants
bearing with bearing with bearing with
earheads ears earheads ears earheads ears
Maldandi check 91 60 65.8% 90 50 55.5% 100 40 40%

30-3(short internode type) 66 38 57.7% 82 35 42.6% 78 6 7.7%

35-1(long internode type) 90 72 80.0% 96 69 72.0% 101 59 58.4%

Maldandis (M 35-1, M 47-3 and M 31-2) and Dagadi Parbhani Moti/ SPV 1411 from Parbhani center, NTJ
types of Maharashtra [12], Budhperio, Sundhia and 2 and NTJ 3 from the Nandyala station of Andhra
Chasatio of Gujarat, the selections of Gwalior and Pradesh state [13]. Sorghum program of Karnataka
Indore of Madhya Pradesh, the RS selections of state released varieties DSV 4 and DSV 5. The
Rajasthan and a few others. Limited intervarietal Maharashtra state sorghum improvement program
hybridization, followed by selection, has primarily released varieties like Swati, Selection 3, CSV 216/
contributed to the combining of the then existing levels Phule Yashoda/ SPV 1359, RSLG 262/ Phule Maulee,
of grain yield with juicy stems to improve forage quality. Phule Anuradha, Phule Revati, Phule Vasudha, Phule
Changes in yield levels were not marked even in Chitra and Phule Suchitra (Table 3).
experimental plots.
Participatory varietal selection
In the early 1960s, the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), with Rockefeller As a part of DFID project on participatory plant
Foundation’s assistance, initiated research on hybrid breeding (PPB) and varietal selection, six local
sorghum. All India Sorghum Improvement Project landraces and a total of eight modern varieties were
(AICSIP) was formed in 1969 to look after the sorghum tested in trials. Among the landraces, Barsi zoot local
research activities at national level. These programs with lustrous seed and high agronomic desirability was
initiated public research and conducted multi-location the highest grain yielding genotype. The rabi hybrid
testing for improved characteristics of sorghum hybrid CSH 15R, did not have lustrous seed, and its grain
and varieties with support from state agricultural and fodder yields were less than others. From the PPB
universities and other research stations in India. trials it was concluded that farmers preferred tall
Notable among the varieties developed during this sorghums with long and large leaves without lodging
early period and which are still under cultivation are at maturity and with globular, bold and lustrous grain
the Co-series in Tamil Nadu, the Nandyal, Guntur and on a semi-compact ear head with little exertion for
Ankapalle series of Andhra Pradesh and the PJ rabi cultivation in rabi [14].The integrated production
series of Maharashtra. technologies tested as a part of PPB revealed that
the moisture conservation practice of compartmental
Focussed breeding on rabi sorghum was initiated bunding increased grain yield and fodder yield by 14%
in the early seventies which over the years led to the and 19%, respectively. The increase in grain and fodder
release of several state and central release varieties. yield due to integrated nutrient management practice
At the national level, the variety CSV 7R was released was up to 28% and 35%, respectively. The variety
in 1974, CSV 8R in 1979, Swati in 1984, CSV 14R in CSV 216R was found to be superior to CSH 15R and
1992, Sel 3 in 1995, Phule Yashoda in 2000, CSV 18 M 35-1 both for grain and fodder yield [15].
in 2005, CSV 22 in 2007 and CSV 26 in 2012 and
CSV 29 in 2013 (Table 2). The released post-rainy Breeding for grain yield
sorghum varieties, CSV 8R, CSV 14R, CSV 18 and Among the yield component traits, long panicles,
Swathi, were better received than the post-rainy hybrids number of grains per panicle, 100-seed weight
such as CSH 7R and CSH 8R. Several varieties were contributed for grain yield and most of these traits
released at the state level which included Mukti, have high heritability enabling the plant breeder to
274 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

Table 2. Pedigree and origin of post-rainy season adapted sorghum varieties released at national level

[Link]. Variety Year Pedigree Pedigree of parental lines Centre which

developed the
variety
1 M 35-1 1937 Selection from - Mohol
local maldandi landraces
2 CSV 7R 1974 IS 2950 × M35-1 IS 2950 = Guinea durra (USA) NRCS
3 CSV 8R 1979 R24 × R16 R 24 = IS 3687 (kafi r-USA) × M 35-1
R 16 = IS 2950 (Guinea-durra, USA) × M 35-1 NRCS
4 Swati 1985 SPV86 × M 35 -1 SPV 86 = R 24 × R 16 Rahuri
R 24 = IS 3687 (kafi r- USA) × M 35-1
R 16 = IS 2950 (Guinea-durra , USA) × M 35-1
5 CSV 14R 1992 (M 35-1 × (CS 2947 × CS 2947 = IS 2947 (kafir - USA) NRCS
CS 2644) × M 35-1 CS 2644 = IS 2644 (durra -India)
6 Sel 3 1995 Sel. from Bidar It is a reselection from Maldandi local Rahuri
Postrainy local
7 CSV 216 2000 Landrace Sel. from Pure line Sel. from Tapi river valley; Rahuri
postrainy germplasm RSLG 112-1-6
Dhulia
8 CSV 18 2005 A selection from cross A selection from cross (CR 4 × IS 18370) Parbhani
(CR 4 × IS 18370)
9 CSV 22 2007 SPV 1359 x RSP 2 SPV 1359 = CSV 216 Rahuri
10 CSV 26 2012 SPV 655 x SPV 1538 (SPV-655: Selection from cross M35-1 x M-148 Directorate of
SPV-1538: Selection from Phul Mallige, Sorghum
Chandakpur village, Aland Tq, Research
Gulbarga dist, Karnataka)
11 CSV 29 2013 [GRS 1 x CSV 216R] x GRS-1: Selection from Natte maldandi of Regional
(SPV CSV 216R Gulbarga, CSV-216R: Landrace [Link] Agricultural
2033) postrainy germplasm Dhulia, Pure line Sel. Research
from Tapi river valley; RSLG 112-1-6 Station, Bijapur

improve these traits through simple selection. The gap specified for soil depths.
between flag leaf sheath and panicle base should be
minimum to have good grain filling and the glume Breeding for soil depth specific varieties
coverage on grains is to be less for higher threshability. Productivity of rabi sorghum depends not only on the
Grain size and grain color can be selected as per the moisture availability but also on the soil types under
consumer /market preference in the given adaptation which it is grown and the genotypes [19]. Much of the
[16-17]. Majority of the high yielding crosses had atleast post-rainy season sorghum is grown on residual and
one good general combiner and average gca effect of receding soil moisture on shallow and medium-deep
both the parents showed significant positive soils. In order to bring in new genetic variability, an
relationship with yield [18]. Several varieties such as exhaustive work of landrace exploration was taken up
CSV 7R, CSV 8R and CSV 14R were developed using at MPKV, Rahuri under ICAR funded project on
selections from segregating populations derived from “Exploration of post-rainy sorghum landraces for
the crosses among Indian locals, M 35-1 and IS 2644 superior substitute to M 35-1” from 1998 to 2002 and
with American germplasm lines. Marginal improvement designated as Rahuri Sorghum Local Germplasm
was achieved for grain yield over the most popular (RSLG). A total of 307 landraces collected from post-
landrace variety M 35-1 until 2000. Most of these rainy sorghum growing area of Satpura ranges and
varieties could not become popular as they did not Tapi, Purna and Godavari river basins along with 1175
match shoot fly resistance level and grain quality of local types were evaluated. Wide variability was
M 35-1. The varieties released after 2000 were recorded among the germplasm accessions (Table 4).
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 275

Table 3. Pedigree and origin of post-rainy season adapted sorghum varieties released at state level

[Link]. Variety Year of Pedigree of variety Area of adaptation Centre which

release developed
the variety
1 GJ 9 1979 Pur line selection from local Gujarat Surat
Broonch district
2 NTJ 2 1990 Pureline sel. From E-1966 Andhra Pradesh Nandyal
3 N 14 1990 Pureline sel. From Prodatur local Andhra Pradesh Nandyal
4 NTJ 3 1995 NJ2092 x POD 24 Andhra Pradesh Nandyal
5 DSV 4 1998 E 36-1 x SPV 86 Karnataka Dharwad
6 DSV 5 1996 Pure line selection from the local Karnataka Dharwad
variety “Natte Maldandi” of Gulbarga
region
7 Phule Maulee 1999 RSLG 262 Maharashtra Rahuri
8 Parbhani Moti 2004 Sel. From ICRISAT population Maharashtra Parbhani
9 Phule Chitra 2006 SPV 655 x RSLG 112 Maharashtra Rahuri
10 Phule Vasudha 2007 RSLG 206 x SPV 1047 Maharashtra Rahuri
11 Phule Revati 2010 CSV 216 x SPV 1502 Maharashtra Rahuri
12 Phule Anuradha 2010 RSLG 559 ??RSLG 1175 Maharashtra Rahuri
13 Phule Suchitra 2012 SPV 1359 x SPV 1502 Maharashtra Rahuri
GD 31-4-2-3

The characteristics of the germplasm collected from Table 4. Range among the post-rainy sorghum
a district resembled with each other for certain germplasm lines for agronomic and quality
characteristics (Table 5). traits

From these landrace selections, Phule Yashoda [Link]. Characters Range

(pureline selection from RSLG 112) was released at
1. Plant height (cm) 40-220
national level as CSV 16 in the year 2000. It had a
grain yield superiority of 18.2% and fodder yield 2. Days to 50% flowering 71-94
superiority of 8.3% over M 35-1. It had less shoot fly 3. Number of internodes 6-14
incidence, was tolerant to charcoal rot and had more
4. Internode length (cm) 9.5-25.9
adventitious roots compared to M 35-1. The quality of
roti (Bhakari) was superior to M 35-1 in sweetness 5. Number of leaves 5-15
and softness. The variety contained 10% protein as 6. Leaf width (cm) 4.5-9.5
against 9.73 in M 35-1. This variety was a parent for 7. Grain yield/plant (g) 5.5-115
the varieties released later on such as CSV 22, Phule
8. Fodder yield/plant (g) 24-172
Revati and Phule Suchitra. Germplasm lines suitable
to both the soil conditions and also to specific soils 9. Earhead width (cm) 2.5-11.5
were identified by Pawar et al. [20]. Under shallow 10. Earhead length (cm) 6.5-25.5
soils, the genotypes were shorter, flowered and 11. 1000 grain wt. (g) 24.0-49.5
matured early while in medium-deep soils, mean leaf
12. Dead heart (%) 00-85
area, grain number and 1000 grain mass, grain and
fodder yields were higher [21]. Breeding varieties 13. Protein content (%) 5.6-13.5
suitable for varying soil depths was emphasized at 14. Total sugar (%) 0.45-1.65
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri,
15. Starch (%) 49.5-75.0
Maharashtra. The variety RSLG 262/Phule Maulee was
276 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

Table 5. Characteristics of post-rainy sorghum landraces collected from different tracts of Maharashtra

Name of district Name of No. of Special features

taluka collections
Ahmednagar Ahmednagar 68 Semi-compact elliptic panicles, charcoal rot tolerant, wide
Parner 14 variability for grain yield, fodder yield, number of internodes,
Newasa 12 leaf length and leaf width
Karjat 30
Rahuri 28
Pathardi 2
Jamkhed 12
Solapur Solapur 2 Pearly white bold grains (36 to 48g per 1000 grain), compact
Mangalvedha 55 panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Karmala 34
Pandharpur 3
Madha 5
Barshi 20
Mohol 13
Sangola 1
Pune Pune 9 Landraces tall (1.4 to 2.3 m) and late flowering, suitable for
Haveli 3 medium to heavy soils
Shirur 5
Bhor 7
Indapur 10
Aurangabad Aurangabad 32 Landraces of M 35-1 type and not much diversity observed
Gangapur 4
Satara Mann 1 Compact panicles variable for grain yield, fodder yield and 1000
Satara 8 grain weight
Karad 60
Sangali Sangali 21 Compact panicle, grain with more flour recovery
Nasik Nasik 11 Not much variability but variable for plant height, number of
Yawala 9 internodes and peduncle length
Dhule Dhule 26 Wide variability existed in qualitative traits such as colour and
Shirpur 42 coverage of glumes, grain colour, internode length, leaf orientation
Shindkheda 192 etc.
Nardana 5
Nandurbar Nandurbar 2 Wide variability as in Dhule regon. Landraces with high protein
Akkalkuwa 15 content, starch and sugar
Shahada 9
Navapur 4
Jalgaon Jalgaon 169 Diverse from M 35-1, medium in height, resistant to charcoal rot
Nashirabad 22 and shoot fly
Bhusawal 11
Chopda 20
Yarandol 1
Yawal 33
Osmanabad Osmanabad 6 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Tuljapur 15
Bhum 7
Latur Latur 5 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Beed Beed 15 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Ashti 4
Buldhana Buldhana 3 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Amravati Amravati 2 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Nagpur Nagpur 5 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
Bijapur Bijapur 14 Compact panicles, early flowering, drought tolerant
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 277

released for shallow to medium soils of Maharashtra yield, harvest index, leaves dry matter, stem dry
in 1999, Phule Chitra (SPV 655 x RSLG 112) was matter, panicle dry matter, leaf area index, grain and
released for medium soils in 2006, Phule Vasudha biomass productivity, water use efficiency, relative
(RSLG 206 x SPV 1247) was released for deep soils water content and yield attributes were significantly
in 2007, Phule Anuradha (RSLG 539 x RSLG 1175) correlated with grain yield, whereas chlorophyll stability
was released for shallow soils in 2008. These were index and stomatal frequency were negatively
either purelines or developed by pedigree breeding associated with grain yield [26].
method from the crosses made involving the RSLG
collections. The variety Phule Revati was released Yield contribution of temperate × tropical crosses
for medium to deep soils in 2010 and Phule Suchitra Studies on genetic analysis of exotic × Indian
was released for medium soils in 2012. These varieties (temperate × tropical) crosses in sorghum have
have been performing well in specific soil situations. revealed that the dominant genes for yield are present
Therefore, there is a need for the development of in the tropical sorghums [27]. When there is no stress,
specifically adapted varieties adapted in post-rainy the tropical sorghums are no doubt individually
season to enhance production and productivity levels. superior, but their community performance is inferior
to relatively dwarf types. It was also indicated that
On comparison of yield attributes and
certain derivatives of exotic × Indian crosses in the
physiological traits of Phule Chitra, a variety adaptable
intermediate height and maturity range probably
to medium soils with M 35-1, the ideotype was
represented optimal production peaks [28]. Compared
reflected in the higher per day grain and fodder
to kharif where significant progress has been made,
productivity, higher harvest index, greater earhead
recombinant genotypes with less risk and higher levels
exertion, higher relative water content and slow leaf
of production are yet to be developed for rabi. Crossing
senescence [22]. The factors leaf area index,
the temperate ‘104 B’ with the tropical ‘ICSB-36209 B’
chlorophyll content, relative water content, and panicle
resulted in the development of an early maturing male
dry weight favoured higher yields in shallow soils [23]
sterile line, 1409A [29]. Male sterile 1409 A was the
and also in medium soils [24]. The high yield of cv.
most photo-thermo-insensitive genotype for all the
Sel-3 TL in shallow soils was attributed to its higher
seasons [30]. Among the 31 rabi sorghum genotypes
grain number/panicle, 1000-grain weight, better spike
(local varieties of northern Karnataka from Bidar,
and grain setting percentage and high leaf area
Gulbarga, Bijapur and Dharwad and 8 African lines
duration [25]. At the Regional Agricultural Research
from ICRISAT) evaluated at Dharwad over 3 seasons,
Station, Bijapur grain yield decreased in shallow soils
AGP182 was identified as the highest yielder, with
compared to medium black soils (51.6%) which was
yield being significantly higher than that of the popular
contributed by traits total dry matter (TDM), leaf area
variety of northern Karnataka, M 35-1 [31]. Another
index (LAI), grain number per panicle and 1000-grain
variety which became very popular, SPV 462 (from
weight. In shallow soils, the lowest reduction in yield
Coimbatore) was developed from multiple cross
was recorded in Sel-3 and RSLG 262, and the highest
involving IS 2947 and IS 3687 from USA and IS 1151
reduction was recorded in RS29. In medium black
and BP 53, locals of Maharashtra and Gujarat in India,
soils, genotypes M 35-1, RSLG-262 and RSP-3
respectively [32].
performed better. The reduction in grain yield under
shallow soils was due to reduction in LAI, TDM, grain Yield contribution of kharif × rabi crosses
number per panicle and 1000-grain weight. RSLG-262
In kharif × rabi sorghum crosses, high heritability
recorded higher grain yield than Sel-3 and CSV-14R
coupled with high genetic advance was observed for
under both types of soil conditions due to the higher
grains per panicle, grain yield per plant and panicle
TDM and grain number per panicle, indicating its
weight [33]. As against the earlier concept of low
suitability under both soil types. Genotypes RSLG 227,
genetic variability in rabi genotypes, the rabi × rabi
RSLG 241, RSP-3 and M 35-1 possessed a wide range
progenies were reported to have relatively higher
of adaptability to stress conditions and offer greater
variability than kharif × rabi progenies of sorghum [34].
scope for use in breeding programmes for developing
The R × K type of crosses were good for days to 50%
drought-resistant genotypes since the percent
flowering and plant height, while the R × R type of
reduction in most of the characters were less in shallow
crosses were better for 100-seed weight. Similarly,
soils over medium black soils [19].
the K × K type of hybrids showed better performance
Overall, the physiological traits such as biological for panicle length, panicle width, number of primary
278 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

branches, number of grains per panicle and grain yield sorghum is very much limited [41].
per plant [35]. Thus involving kharif genotypes in the
crossing program contributes towards yield Although efforts were made to introgress farmer
enhancement in the rabi sorghum. preferred traits such as bold, lustrous and semi-
corneous grain type and juicy stalks into the hybrids
Breeding for grain quality targeted for post rainy season cultivation by crossing
improved Indian landraces as pollinators with the
Post-rainy season sorghum is known for its quality
established exotic and elite female parent, CK 60A
due to which it is mostly preferred for human
(milo or A1 cytoplasm), the resulting hybrids lacked
consumption by the masses and is characterized by
‘marked’ heterosis, had threshing difficulties, and were
lustrous, pearly white, attractive grains. Developing
too tall, a habit not amenable for increasing plant
genotypes with high yield potential coupled with
population per unit area. Several studies in the past
nutritionally superior quality grains is the prime
have indicated only modest levels of heterosis for
objective of the breeding program. Studies on F 2
economic traits in post rainy season sorghum as most
segregation pattern in the post-rainy × rainy cross CSV
of the parents utilized in post-rainy hybrid programs
216R × 401 B indicated that seed luster was under
were related by descent. The hybrids, CSH 7R and
the influence of recessive epistasis and intensity of
CSH 8R developed from the improved parents and
seed luster depends on the recessive homozygous
released in 1977, though had high heterosis, were not
alleles at both loci (or) at one locus, while in the F2
acceptable to farmers, for they lacked grain luster,
segregation pattern in the post-rainy × post-rainy cross
resistance to shoot fly and lodging [7]. Later CSH
CSV216R × 104B, polymeric gene interaction was
12R was released in 1986. Two important aspects
noted and further based on the both the crosses it
emerged after the release of these hybrids. Primarily,
was interpreted that seed luster was controlled by two
none of these cultivars succeeded in gaining consistent
pairs of genes [36]. For the mesocarp thickness
acceptability from farmers at a scale to effect a
dominant gene was attributed to the expression of thin
discernible impact. Also, the breeders came to realise
mesocarp and recessive gene to the thick mesocarp
the complexities in the genetic up-gradation of yield in
[37]. M 35-1 [38], Phule Vasudha (RSV 423), CSV 22,
rabi sorghum. Following were the lessons learnt out
and Phule Chitra (SPV 1546) were found to be most
of these programmes,
promising for roti quality [39]. Proximate composion
i.e. moisture, protein, fat, ash, crude fibre and total  The traditional and widely preferred land races
carbohydrates of post-rainy sorghum genotypes are ineffective as donors of favourable gene
differed significantly (P<0.01) and ranged from 6.64 complexes and as parents in heterosis breeding,
to 8.58, 8.73 to 12.81, 1.22 to 2.36, 1.14 to 1.72, 1.21
to 2.48, 81.82 to 87.58 per cent, respectively[38].  The kharif genetic diversity though very effective
in achieving quick yield increase is bedeviled
Hybrids with low adaptability and grain quality, and
Hybrid vigour and its commercial exploitation have  Critical elements of rabi sorghum adaptability are
paid rich dividends in kharif sorghum leading to resistance to shoot fly, charcoal rot, moisture
quantum jump in sorghum production [2]. However, stress and low temperature.
the progress in rabi sorghum is limited. Although
several hybrids have been developed and released The second phase of rabi sorghum breeding with
for rabi season cultivation, the area covered with hybrids emphasis on hybrid cultivars was initiated in the late
is almost negligible. Lack of appropriate hybrids with eighties. During this period 250 experimental hybrids
acceptable grain quality adapted to different agro- were evaluated in the AICSIP Initial Hybrid Trials.
ecological situations of rabi season characterized by These trials resulted in the identification of two hybrids,
terminal drought, low temperatures and biotic stresses SPH 504 and SPH 677 for central release as CSH-
like shoot fly infestation is a major constraint for higher 13R and CSH-15R (Table 6). CSH-13R has significant
productivity [2, 40]. Genetic diversity of post rainy yield superiority over M35-1 but is highly vulnerable to
season sorghum is very much narrow as postrainy shoot fly and low temperature and had inferior grain
season sorghum is grown in only a few parts of the quality. CSH-15R based a rabi MS line (104A)
world unlike rainy season sorghum. As a result, developed at Mohol Centre had a marginal yield
exploitation of hybrid vigour in postrainy season advantage over M35-1. It was felt that rabi hybrids
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 279

will have a tangible impact only when the parental lines on Maldandi cytoplasm and KR 198 and PVR 350 to
have rabi adaptability and desired combining ability be restoring on A2 cytoplasm. At Bijapur, the lines
[42]. viz., BRJ 62, BRJ 67, SPV 1491 and SPV 1556, CR
9, Jewaragi Local and SPV 1452 have been identified
A mission mode project on development of as restorers on Maldandi cytoplasm. At Dharwad,
hybrid crops under National Agricultural Technology Barshizoot local, Dagdi local, Hagari local, SPV 570
Project (NATP) funded by World Bank was in operation and IS 4582 were identified as restorers on M 31-2A.
specifically to develop rabi sorghum hybrids at NRCS During 2001-02, around 33 restorers on non-milo
and 7 AICSIP centres working on rabi sorghum at cytoplasm have been identified at NRCS, Rahuri and
National level from 1999 to 2005 [43]. The objective Bijapur. During 2003-04 period five stable restorers
of the project was to develop high yielding, shoot fly on Maldandi cytoplasm were identified viz., IS 29411,
resistant rabi sorghum hybrids of early to medium IS 29406, IS 4587, Raichur Local and Ramke at Bijapur
duration suitable for variable soil depths and develop centre.
suitable parental lines with resistance to shoot fly,
charcoal rot, drought and low temperature by utilizing Strategic research in rabi hybrids
milo and non-milo cytoplasms to diversify the hybrid Though the released rabi hybrids could not progress
base. As a part of the project, more than 4900 new well as compared to the varieties studies by Rana et
hybrids were developed and tested during 1998 to 2005 al. [2] which have indicated appreciable levels of
across seven centers. SPH 1010 bred at Akola centre heterosis for grain yield and other agronomic traits.
was released as CSH 19R in 2000 (Table 6). While Large heterotic response for grain yield and harvest
CSH 15R was suitable for general cultivation, CSH index were accompanied by stalk rot and shoot fly
19R was ideal for favourable locations [44]. New susceptibility [7]. For increasing the grain yield within
drought tolerant, early rabi sorghum hybrid DSH 4R the limits of the available water supply, the choice of
was developed and released for Karnataka during 2001. female parent for hybrid production should be made
New CMS lines developed across Rahuri, Dharwad, for both leaf area and photosynthetic rate and the
Bijapur, Parbhani, NRCS and Akola were 104A, 116A, selection of pollinators should be made for maximum
117A, 1409A early, 1409A medium, PMS 20A (tan seed number per panicle [45].
type), 41A, 49A, 59A, 67A, 89A, 95A, 109A, 127A,
133A, 147A, 163A, 169A, 185A, 187A, 203A, 215A, Greater yield heterosis was observed in
237A, DNA1, DNA2, DNA4, DNA5, BJMS 1A, BJMS derivative x tropical (African) varietal crosses due to
2A, BJMS 3A, BRJ 204 A, RS 20 A, RS 70A, RS diversity of genes [8]. Rana and Murty [46] have also
132A, RS 137A, RS 159A, RS 412A, AKRMS nos.– reported that increase in number of seeds per panicle
14A, 43A, 46A, 47A, 63A, 67A, 68A, 72A and 82A. branch in short compact headed varieties (tropical)
Several lines on A2 CMS were developed that included and increase in the panicle branches in the long panicle
RS 530 A2, ICSV 8603 A2, SPV 932 A2, RS 71 A2 at type (temperate) by introgression of genes from African
Rahuri, and PMS 12 A2, PMS 13 A2, PMS 15 A2, germplasm result in yield heterosis. The combining
PMS 23 A2, PMS 14 A (M 35-1), PMS 18 A (M 35-1) ability of compact-headed Indian landraces was found
at Parbhani. At NRCS Hyderabad, 19 pairs of A2 to be relatively poor than very long panicle types of
based CMS lines were developed. Lines with bold- exotic origin. It was hypothesized that lack of
seed (MBMS 7B and SB 101 B), charcoal rot reinforcement between genes responsible for primary
resistance (DCCR 1) and rust resistance (IS 3443) axis length and those contributing to girth resulted in
were utilized on M 31-2B at Dharwad to develop new lack of marked heterosis for ultimate grain yield [27].
B lines. Rabi locals viz., Barshi Prakash, Muddihalijola, Pollinators and female lines from exotic germplasm
Honnutagi Local, RS 585 and SPV 570 which are contributed to poor grain quality. The derivatives durra-
maintainers on M 31-2A were advanced to BC 2 at caudatum (zera zera) crosses as pollinators developed
Bijapur. New MS lines viz., PMS 47 A (A2) and PMS for post-rainy season and CMS lines developed for
49 A (A2) were developed at Parbhani centre. kharif season from kafir-caudatum (zera zera) crosses
did not attract the attention of the farmers as they
For developing restorers on alternate lacked grain luster, size and shape and fodder yield
cytoplasms, 11 A2 restorers have been identified at comparable to M 35-1, despite their superiority under
Hyderabad. At Parbhani MR 11, MR 13, MR 15, MR late sowings in post-rainy season with yield heterosis
27 and MR 29 were identified as capable of restoring of 45-64%.
280 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

Table 6. Pedigree and origin of post-rainy season adapted sorghum hybrids released at national level

[Link]. Hybrid Year of Pedigree Pedigree of the parental lines of the hybrid Centre which
release developed
the hybrid
1 CSH 7R 1977 36A × 168 36A = CK 60B × PJ8K CK 60B-kafir (USA) NRCS
168 = PJ8K-Parbhani jowar (rainy)
2 CSH 8R 1977 36A × PD 3-1-11 36A- CK 60B × PJ8K PD 3-1-11 = temperate Parbhani
US dwarf × BP 53 (Gujarat rainy local)
3 CSH 12R 1986 296A × M 148-138 296A = IS 3922 × Karad local Dharwad
IS 3922-kafir durra
Karad local- rainy local from Maharashtra
M 148-138 = mutant of Maldandi
4 CSH 13R 1991 296A ×RS 29 RS 29-SC 108 × SPV 126 SC 108-Purdue (USA) NRCS
SPV 126-tall mutant of CS 3541
5 CSH 15R 1995 104A × RS 585 104A = 296B × Swati NRCS
296B = IS 3922 × Karad local
IS 3922-kafir durra -yellow endosperm
Karad local- rainy local from Maharashtra
Swati = SPV86 × M 35-1
RS 585 = (CS 3541 × M 35-1) × Nandyal
postrainy local
6 CSH 19R 2000 104A× R354 104A- = 296B × Swati Akola
R 354 = [(SPV-504 (20 KR) × (SPV 504 × R 263)] ×
R-67-4

Landrace pollinator-based hybrids, where many superiority over maldandi hybrids for most of the
of the desirable attributes of landraces are inherited characters in desired direction [48]. The studies by
favorably in their hybrids possess moderate levels of Jayanthi [49] has shown that shoot fly resistance in
shoot fly resistance and desirable grain quality traits. both the parents or at least in seed parents in order to
However, they lack lodging resistance and have realize higher frequency of shoot fly resistant hybrids
moderate yielding ability [47]. Most of the landraces, in post-rainy season. Several rabi restorers were
including M 35-1, showed segregation for fertility identified for diversified uses (Table 7)
restoration/sterility maintenance ability indicating the
Significant positive heterosis for grain yield was
need to select for restoration ability within the
observed to range from 10.1 to 54.9% over checks
landraces. This also explains the partial restoration
CSH-15R and CSV-22 in multi-environment trials.
observed when bulk pollen of M 35-1 was used by
Some promising new combinations included 185A x
many workers.
SLR-59, 104A x SLR-47, 104A x SLR-67, SL9A x
Upto 100% better-parent heterosis using SLR-57, 104A x SLR-79 and 104A x SLR-57, BJMS-
landraces as pollinators over the A-lines 104A and M 2A x SLR-13, AKR-45A x SPV-570, AKR-45A x SLR-
31-2A were obtained [5]. Fertility restoration by 28, AKR-45A x SLR-10, 1409A x RS-585, 104A x SLR-
l a n d r a c durra-derived A1 CMS lines
e s w a s p o o r e r o n
28, 104A x BRJ-358, 1409A x JP-1 1-5, 1409A x SLR-
than on caudatum-derived A2 CMS lines. When both 13 and 1409A x SLR-27 [50].
A1 and A2 CMS lines were based on caudatum, fertility
Cold tolerance
restoration was higher on A1 than A2. This finding has
a bearing on developing CMS lines involving caudatum- Current speculation about global climate change is
based germplasm lines adapted to post-rainy season that most agricultural regions will experience more
and testing for fertility restoration in hybrids. The extreme environmental fluctuations [51]. Bringing in
hybrids involving caudatum-based female parents and tolerance to cold temperatures in post-rainy season
durra-based landraces showed high heterosis for grain can bring in more area under cultivation of high yielding
yield but grain quality was poor. Milo hybrids exhibited hybrids and also lead to sustainable production in the
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 281

Table 7. Promising restorers with diverse traits identified for rabi season

Traits Restorers
Shoot fly resistance RSFR 9530, RSFR 9517, RSFR 9509, RSE 3, RSE 9715, RSV 207 and RSV 145
High yielding RR 9822 (CS3541 × CSV15), RR 9823 (RSLG1770), RR 9825 (CSV15 × IS2312),
RR 9826 (SPV655 × SPV1090), RR 9827 (SPV1316), RR 9828 (Selection from
Tandoor local), RSLG 871 (Local land race selection) and RSLG 971 (Local land
race selection); RS 585, RS 586, RS 615, RS 645, RS 647, RS 653 and RS 654
Yield and foliar diseases SVDR 9678, SVDR 9662, SVDR 9672, SVDR 9693, SVDR 9749, SVDR 9750, SVDR
9740, SVDR 9646-1, SVDR 9751, SVDR 9752 and SVDR 9746
Restorer on M 31-2A cytoplasm BRJ 62, Barsizoot local, Dagadi local, Hagari local, SPV 570 and IS 4582
Restorer on M 35-1A cytoplasm MR 15 and MR 29

current cultivated areas. When minimum temperatures need for the development of stable B lines for rabi
o
go below 10 C during flowering, hybrids that are season. The lines viz., 296B, AKMS14B, C43,
otherwise male fertile show male sterility as evidenced AKR150 and B35 were not stable for any of the
by partial to complete absence of seed set under characters indicating their sensitivity to rabi
bagging. Therefore, greater attention is required to environment as a whole [52]. A total of 76 A, B and R
ascertain the differences among the landraces for their lines were evaluated for synchrony at actual seed
ability to restore fertility in hybrids, especially under production sites at Nandyal in Andhra Pradesh and
low temperatures, normally observed in post-rainy Bellary in Karnataka and it has been observed that
season. By eliminating temperature sensitivity (in photoperiod and agro-ecology influence the synchrony
relation to development) in both male and female of parental lines.
parents, greater success could be achieved in breeding
Leaf sugary melady (Chikta) occurs when
hybrids for post-rainy season. However, male sterile
morning humidity is between 54 to 74% and minimum
lines bred from landraces adapted to post-rainy season, o
temperatures below 18 C. It was observed on sorghum
showed temperature-induced restorer inefficiency.
grown during rabi in Karnataka and Maharashtra. The
Also, the hybrids developed from landraces crossed
disease was characterized by an extensive leaf
to female lines derived from M 35-1 did not show high
chlorosis followed by oozing of sugars. It was first
heterosis. While the use of the durra race directly
observed at the flag leaf stage (2%) and it increased
introduces high sensitivity to low temperatures, the
until harvest (72%). A steep increase in disease
direct use of guineas in developing hybrid parents,
incidence was observed from full bloom (7%) to the
produce hybrids with clasped glumes, an undesirable
hard dough phase (51%). Due to oozing of sugars, the
trait. Hence durra (bold grain lines) and guinea (grain
last few leaves (11th, 12th and 13th (flag leaf)) stuck
mold resistant restorers) materials have to be
to each other, not allowing the inflorescence to emerge
introgressed into high yielding caudatum background
from the boot. The affected plants attracted a variety
to enhance the yield potential of elite sorghum B-lines.
of insects and supported an extensive bacterial and
Reddy et al. [12] observed significant and fungal colonization. The greater importance of non-
positive correlation between low temperature during additive gene action was reported for the trait. SPV-
flowering and seed setting in rabi sorghum hybrids. 504 demonstrated least incidence of the disorder
As far as pollen fertility is concerned, M31-2B, sugary disease (chikata).
BJMS2B, 27B, 101B, BJMS204B, SPV570, BRJ62,
Phenotyping rabi sorghum for post-flowering
RS29, AKR 150, BRJ 358, DSV5, DSV4, M35-1,
drought and heat stress in stored soil moisture
DSH4, and CSH14 were stable in all the dates of
conditions
sowing. The genotypes 1409B, 116B, M31-2B, 101B,
R354, C43, DSV5, DSV4, M35-1, DSH4 and BRJH Post-flowering stress is due to inadequate soil moisture
129 were stable in seed setting behavior across the during the grain filling stage, especially during the later
dates of sowing. Among the hybrid parents R lines portion of grain fill. Symptoms of post-flowering
exhibited stability for many characters across the dates drought stress susceptibility include pre-mature plant
of sowing while B lines were less stable indicating the (leaf and stem) death or plant senescence, stalk
282 J. V. Patil et al. [Vol. 74, No. 3

collapse and lodging, and charcoal rot (caused by genotypes (M35-1) depleted more moisture than
Macrophomina phaseolina), along with a significant staygreen dwarf and semi-tall. This greater depletion
reduction in grain size, particularly at the base of the from M35-1 was indicative of deep-rootedness of rabi-
panicle [53]. Genotypes such as IS1104, IS4576, adapted tall types than staygreen dwarf and semi-tall
IS5470, NTJ 2, Swati and CSH13R that maintained (E35-1). The genotypes E36-1, CRS4 recorded
superior RLWC also produced higher biomass and yield relatively low 13C values (4.86 and 4.92‰) under
components under terminal drought conditions. The terminal heat stress, besides producing relatively higher
varieties produced high biomass (25-28%) and grain yield. Rabi adapted sorghums showed 19-12%
maintained high RLWC (90-91%) than hybrids (86-88%) more root length over staygreen ones [54].
at anthesis, while the post-anthesis assimilate
production were higher in hybrids (8%). Photosynthetic Resistance to charcoal rot (Macrophomina
rate (Pan), transpiration rate, and stomata resistance phaseolina) was polygenic, moderate to lowly heritable
at flowering differed significantly and ranged from 30 and partially dominant [55]. Tenkouano et al. [56]
–2 –1
to 43 mol CO2 m S , 0.51-1.23 m mol H2O m S
–2 – reported that charcoal rot resistance is controlled by
1 2 –1
and 20-42 m S mol , respectively and showed two dominant genes that are modified by a third locus.
significantly positive correlations with panicle mass, They also noted that charcoal rot and non-senescent
biomass and grain yield, while stomata resistance phenotypes were controlled by independent loci even
showed negative correlation indicating the scope for though these traits are often associated. Variability
utilization of these traits in breeding. Hybrids recorded study among 6 isolates of M. phaseolina obtained from
16% more Pan than varieties, while varieties superior major rabi sorghum areas of Maharashtra (Sholapur)
by 19.0% in transpiration efficiency (TE). Biomass and Karnataka (Dharwad and Bijapur), India, in respect
production has declined by 54.0 % in stress under of cultural characters showed that each isolate was
medium soil depth conditions. WUE on grain and distinct from each another. Irrespective of genotypes,
biomass basis decreased by 36 and 19% respectively Sholapur isolate showed the most virulence [57].
in stress situations and the genotypes PHR 4, Sel.3 However grouping of isolates was not related to the
and RSLG 35-2 had higher WUE across the moisture regions of collection [58].
regime. Both photosynthesis and transpiration rate
have reduced by 41% and 12% resp. in shallow soil Future strategies
depth over medium [54]. The absence of any alternative to post-rainy sorghum
has in fact resulted in increased area over last two
Rabi landrace germplasm RSLG 262 had 4.0 % decades due to the ever increasing demand for fodder/
and 20.7 % higher photosynthetic rate than M35-1 and stover and also due to the resultant stability achieved
Sel.3, respectively and it gave 11% and 36% higher for grain prices. The stagnation of sorghum productivity
grain yields than M35-1 and Sel.3 in medium soil and in post-rainy season is due to various edaphic, abiotic
17 and 35% in shallow soil, respectively in twenty and biotic constraints that need to be highlighted in
multi-environment trials from 1996 to 1999. RSLG262 mositure limiting environments. Infact, many of these
was released as Phule Maulee for shallow to medium limitations can be managed to harness better
soil regions Maharashtra state and had desirable productivity in post-rainy season by better contingency
drought and heat tolerant traits. planning and adoption of newly released high yielding
Foliar sprays of ‘K’ at 45DAS, and at boot stage cultivars released at the national and state levels.
had increased the grain yield by 21-32% over control Further improvement of sorghum needs to target grain/
in rabi sorghum. Ethanol foliar spray @ 2% on rabi fodder quantity and quality. For post-rainy sorghum,
sorghum resulted an increase in photosynthesis and where water is limited to that contained in the soil
TE by 25% and 31% respectively. Mean grain yield profile, improved water-use efficiency (WUE) is a prime
increase was 19% and 24% at 1% and 2% of ethanol target. Genetic differences for WUE exist in sorghum
spray over control. CSH 15R yielded 10% more than but these have not been used extensively in breeding.
M 35-1. These studies indicate that ethanol as a carbon This has to be targeted for specific soil depths.
source has strong role in inducing drought tolerance Improved grain/stover yield and stover quality under
in rabi sorghum especially in dry climatic conditions terminal drought conditions have only recently been
such as at Bijapur and Solapur. Soil moisture depletion obtained through early generation marker assisted
pattern in staygreen and rabi adapted sorghum selection using a combination of stay-green QTL.
indicated that at hard-dough stage, rabi-adapted tall Efforts to increase genetic diversity at the level of
August, 2014] History of post-rainy sorghum research in India 283

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