Photosynthesis
Summary & Notes
Introduction
The primary source of energy within Earth's ecosystems is derived from the Sun and is
transferred among organisms through intricate food webs. At the core of these webs are
photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, which establish the foundation by
converting sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into usable energy.
This energy becomes available for the photosynthetic organisms and can be passed
along as they are consumed by other organisms to fulfill their own energy needs. This
document will concentrate on elucidating the steps of the most prevalent form of
photosynthesis, referred to as C3 photosynthesis.
The aim of the diverse anabolic redox reactions inherent in photosynthesis is to produce
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), a crucial precursor to the carbohydrate glucose
(C6H12O6), a type of sugar, and various other biomolecules. For every two G3P
molecules generated, one molecule of glucose can be synthesized.
The subsequent equation and illustration offer a concise summary and a general outline of
the processes and components involved in photosynthesis.
Location of Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts serve as the sites for photosynthesis. They are composed of stacked
thylakoid membranes called grana. These grana provide an extensive surface area for the
attachment of chlorophyll, electrons, and enzymes. The grana also contain a network of
proteins that hold chlorophyll in a specific manner to maximize light absorption.
Additionally, the grana membrane features ATP synthase channels for ATP synthesis and
is selectively permeable, establishing a proton gradient. Chloroplasts, containing DNA
and ribosomes, enable the synthesis of proteins required in the first stage of
photosynthesis.
Chloroplast Structure
Chloroplasts, organelles enclosed by membranes, possess internal divisions that
segregate and facilitate the necessary reactions for photosynthesis. Within each
chloroplast, the light-dependent reactions occur within membrane-bound sacs
known as thylakoids. A collection of thylakoids is termed a granum, while multiple grana
may collectively be referred to as grana.
The internal cavity of each thylakoid is interconnected with neighboring thylakoids and can
be designated as either the thylakoid space or lumen. Enveloping the thylakoids is a
fluid-filled region called the stroma, where light-independent reactions transpire.
Exercise:
Light-dependent Reactions
Reactions that necessitate the presence of light are termed photosystems and occur
within the membrane of the thylakoids. This is the site where various pigments, typically a
combination of chlorophylls and carotenoids, are situated to absorb energy from
sunlight. Photosystem II (PS II) initiates the photosynthetic process by breaking down
water molecules into hydrogen ions (H+), electrons (e-), and oxygen. The released
oxygen exits as a gas, while the H+ and e- are retained. Subsequently, the electrons from
Photosystem II enter a reaction center in the thylakoid membrane containing chlorophyll,
capturing energy from sunlight. The absorbed sunlight energy prompts electrons in the
reaction center to transition to a high-energy state, and this energy is gradually
released as the electrons traverse an Electron Transport Chain (ETC) within the thylakoid
membrane. This process results in the concentration of H+ from the stroma into the
thylakoid lumen.
As electrons reach the end of the ETC and progress to be utilized in Photosystem I, the
accumulation of H+ establishes a concentration gradient, facilitating chemiosmosis
through the enzyme ATP synthase. The flow of H+ through the internal structure of the
enzyme and back into the stroma leads to the binding of ADP with phosphate, forming
ATP. This synthesized ATP will later be utilized in the subsequent stages of the
photosynthetic process, particularly during the Calvin cycle.
Photosystem I (PS I) marks the second phase of photosynthesis, commencing with
the electrons (e-) from Photosystem II entering another chlorophyll reaction center. Once
again, these electrons are energized by sunlight within the reaction center before
proceeding to the enzyme NADP-reductase. At this point, the enzyme combines the
electrons from Photosystem I with hydrogen ions (H+) sourced from the stroma to the
coenzyme NADP+. The incorporation of electrons and hydrogen ions leads to the
reduction of NADP+, transforming it into NADPH. With the completion of both
photosystems, the ATP and NADPH generated and situated in the stroma are now poised
for utilization in the Calvin cycle, the subsequent stage of photosynthesis.
Light-independent Reactions (Calvin cycle)
The Calvin cycle, a series of light-independent reactions, unfolds within the stroma
and does not rely on sunlight. This cycle initiates with the assimilation of atmospheric
CO2, which combines with RuBP, establishing the initial metabolite in a sequence
leading to the production of G3P. Upon the completion of each Calvin cycle iteration,
one G3P molecule is reserved for glucose synthesis, while the remaining five are
transformed back into RuBP, restarting the cycle. The phases of the cycle can be
delineated into three steps as outlined below. It is essential to note that C3, C5, and C6
signify the number of carbon atoms within each type of molecule during the Calvin
cycle. For instance, 3 RuBP C5 indicates the presence of three RuBP molecules, each
comprising five carbon atoms.
1. Carbon Fixation: As three molecules of CO2 enter the stroma, an equal number
of five-carbon RuBP molecules are present. These are enzymatically combined
by RubisCO, resulting in three unstable six-carbon intermediate metabolites. These
intermediates rapidly break down into six
three-carbon molecules of 3PG (or 3-
PGA in some sources).
2. Reduction: In this phase, the six molecules of 3PG are subjected to reduction
using the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADPH, which were previously
generated by the photosystems. The 3PG is first transformed into six molecules of
BPG and subsequently into G3P. During this process, one G3P molecule exits the
cycle to contribute to glucose production. The departure of this three-carbon
G3P molecule aligns with the initial incorporation of the three carbon atoms derived
from the three molecules of CO2 during the carbon fixation phase.
3. Regeneration: In the final phase, the
five remaining molecules of G3P are
converted back into RuBP with the
utilization of three ATP molecules. This
regenerative process ensures that a
sufficient amount of RuBP is generated
to initiate a new cycle, allowing the
Calvin cycle to sustain continuity.
The Calvin cycle needs to
undergo two complete cycles to
yield enough G3P for the
synthesis of a single molecule
of glucose.
Consequently, this process
aligns with the equation
representing photosynthesis,
as initially stated in this
document: 6CO2 + 6H2O +
Sunlight = C6H12O6 + 6O2.
