Department of Education

QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Quarter 2 WEEK 4 – General Chemistry 1

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic elements of the representative block.
Draw Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds.
Describe the geometry of simple compounds.
Determine the polarity of simple molecules.

The covalent bond, also called molecular bond is the result of the sharing of a pair of electrons between two or
more atoms. It is the force of attraction that holds together two atoms that share a pair of valence electrons. To understand
how sharing a pair of electrons can hold atoms, together, let us look at the simplest covalent bond of a H 2 molecule.
Hydrogen cannot give away its only electron to the other hydrogen atom because there would be no more electrons
left for it. The same is true of the other hydrogen atom. So, the best possible way for both to become stable is to share their
electrons, forming a covalent bond. Note that bonded electrons may be represented by either dots (•) or dash.
H• + •H → H:H or H – H
There are three types of covalent bonds depending upon the number of shared electron pairs: the single covalent
bond, the double covalent bond, and the triple covalent bond.
Single Covalent Bond
A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of one electron pair between two atoms is called a single covalent
bond. It is denoted by a single short line ( ). In single bond formation, each atom provides one electron.
Example:

Double Covalent Bond

A covalent bond formed between two atoms by the mutual sharing of two electron pairs is called a double covalent
bond. It is denoted by a double short line ( ).
Example:

Triple Covalent Bond

A covalent bond formed by the mutual sharing of three electron pairs is called a triple covalent bond. It is denoted
by a triple short line ( ).
Example:

Now, let us discuss some examples to demonstrate the procedure for writing correct
Lewis electron dot structures. Below is the Lewis structure for ammonia (NH3). Three hydrogen
atoms are covalently bonded to the central nitrogen atom. The bonding electrons are
indicated by the dashes between the nitrogen and each hydrogen. The other pair of electrons
that constitutes the nitrogen’s octet are called nonbonding electrons or lone pairs, as they
are not involved in a covalent bond.
Figure 7.1 Covalent bond
formation
Steps:
1. Identify the central atom in the molecule. The central atom is usually the first element in the formula.
2. Add the total number of valence electrons of the atoms in the molecule.
Example: Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Element No. of Valence X No. of Atoms = Total No. of
Electrons Valence
Electrons
Carbon (C) 4 X 1 = 4
Oxygen (O) 6 X 2 = 12
16 valence
electrons
3. Connect the central atom to the other atoms in the molecule with single bonds.

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M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
O–C–O
4. Complete the octet of the outer atoms in the molecule.

5. If the number of electrons is incomplete, place any remaining electrons on the central atom. (There are no more
electrons available in this example.)
6. If the valence shell of the central atom is complete, you have drawn an acceptable Lewis structure. Carbon is
electron deficient; it has only 4 electrons around it. This is not an acceptable Lewis structure.

Carbon has only 4

valence electrons

7. If the valence shell of the central atom is not complete, use a lone pair on one of the outer atoms to form a double
bond between that outer atom and the central atom. Continue this process of making multiple bonds between the
outer atoms and the central atom until the valence shell of the central atom is complete.

becomes

Example 7-1 Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds

Draw the Lewis structure for phosphorus trichloride, PCl3.

Plan
a. First, we get the sum of the valence electrons. Phosphorus (group VA) has five valence electrons, and each
chlorine (group VIIA) has seven. The total number of valence electrons is therefore
(5 X 1) + (3 X 7) = 26
b. Second, we arrange the atoms to show which atom is connected to which, and we draw a single bond between
them. There are various ways the atoms might be arranged. In binary compounds, however, the first element in
the chemical formula is generally surrounded by the remaining atoms. Thus, we begin with

a skeleton structure that shows a single bond between the P atom and each Cl atom:
(Note: It is not crucial that the Cl atoms be left of, right of, and below the P atom—any structure that shows each
of the three Cl atoms bonded to P will work
c. Third, we complete the octets on the atoms bonded to the central atom. Placing octets around each Cl atom
accounts for 24 electrons (remember, each line in or structure represents two electrons):

d. Fourth, recalling that our total number of electrons is 26, we place the remaining two electrons on the central
atom, completing the octet around it:

This structure gives each atom an octet, so we stop at this point. (In checking for octets, remember to count
both electrons in a single bond twice, once for each atom in the bond.)

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QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Example 7-2 Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds

Draw the Lewis structure for hydrogen cyanide, HCN.

Plan
a. Hydrogen has one valence electron, carbon (group 4A) has four, and nitrogen (group 5A) has five. The total
number of valence electrons is, therefore:
1 + 4 + 5 = 10
In principle, there are different ways in which we might choose to arrange the atoms. Because hydrogen can
accommodate only one electron pair, it always has only one single bond associated with it. Therefore, C – H –
N is an impossible arrangement. The remaining two possibilities are N – H – C and H – C – N. The first is the
arrangement found experimentally.
You might have guessed this because (a) the formula is written with the atoms in this order and (b) carbon is
less electronegative than nitrogen. Thus, we begin with the skeleton structure
H–C–N
The two bonds account for four electrons. The H atom can have only two electrons associated with it, and
so we will not add any more electrons to it. If we place the remaining six electrons around N to give it an octet,
we do not achieve an octet on C:

We therefore try a double bond between C and N, using one of the unshared pairs we placed on N. Again,
we end up with fewer than eight electrons on C, and so we next try a triple bond. This structure gives an octet
around both C and N:

The octet rule is satisfied for the C and N atoms, and the H atom has two electrons around it. This is a
correct Lewis structure.

Representative elements usually attain stable noble gas electron configurations when they share electrons. In the
water molecule, eight electrons are in the outer shell of the oxygen atom, and it has the neon electron configuration; two
electrons are in the valence shell of each hydrogen atom, and each has the helium electron configuration. Likewise, the
carbon and oxygen of CO2 and the nitrogen atom of NH3 and NH4+1 each share two electrons.
Many Lewis formulas are based on the idea that in most of their compounds, the representative elements
achieve noble gas configurations.

This statement is usually called the octet rule because the noble gas configurations have 8 electrons in their
outermost shells (except for helium, which has 2 electrons).
For now, we restrict our discussion to compounds of the representative elements. The octet rule alone does not let
us write formulas. We still must decide how to place the electrons around the bonded atoms – that is, how many of the
available valence electrons are present as bonding pairs (shared) and how many are as unshared pairs (associated with
only one atom). A pair of unshared electrons in the same orbital is called a lone pair. A simple mathematical relationship is
helpful here:
S=N–A
where:
S - is the total number of electrons shared in the molecule or polyatomic ion.
N - is the total number of valence shell electrons needed by all the atoms in the molecule or ion to achieve
noble gas configurations.
N = (8 X no. of atoms that are not H) + (2 X no. of H atoms)
A - is the number of electrons available in the valence shells of all of the (representative) atoms. This is
equal to the sum of their periodic group numbers. We must adjust A, if necessary, for ionic charges. We
add electrons to account for negative charges and subtract electrons to account for positive charges.
Let’s see how this relationship applies to some species whose Lewis formulas we have already shown.

Example 7-3 Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds

Write the Lewis formula for the nitrogen molecule, N2.

Plan
a. We follow the stepwise procedure that was just presented for writing Lewis formulas.
Solution
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a. The skeleton is N N.
b. N = 2 X 8 = 16 electrons needed (total) by both atoms.
A = 2 X 5 = 10 electrons available (total) by both atoms.
S = N – A = 16 – 10 = 6 electrons shared
c. 6 electrons (3 pairs) are shared; a triple bond.
d. The additional 4 electrons are accounted for by a lone pair on each nitrogen atom. The complete Lewis formula
is

Example 7-4 Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds

Write the Lewis formula for carbon disulphide, CS2, a foul-smelling liquid.

Plan
a. Again, we follow the stepwise procedure to apply the relationship S = N – A.
Solution
a. The skeleton is S C S.
b. N = 1 X 8 (for C) + 2 X 8 (for S) = 24 electrons needed by all atoms.
A = 1 X 4 (for C) + 2 X 6 (for S) = 16 electrons available
S = N – A = 24 – 16 = 8 electrons shared
c. 8 electrons (4 pairs) are shared; two double bonds.

d. Carbon already has an octet, so the remaining 8 electrons are distributed as lone pairs on the sulfur atoms to
give each sulfur an octet. The complete Lewis formula is

Check: 16 electrons (8 pairs) have been used. The bonding picture is similar to that of CO2; this is not surprising,
because S is below O in Group VIA.

Example 7-5 Lewis Structure of Covalent Compounds

Write the Lewis formula for the carbonate ion, CO3-2.
Plan
a. The same stepwise procedure can be applied to ions. We must remember to adjust A, the total number of
electrons, to account for the charge shown on the ion.
Solution
a. The skeleton is O C O -2
O
b. N = 1 X 8 (for C) + 3 X 8 (for O) = 32 electrons needed by all atoms
A = 1 X 4 (for C) + 3 X 6 (for O) + 2 (for the -2 charge) = 24 electrons available
S = N – A = 32 – 24 = 8 electrons (4 pairs) shared
c. 8 electrons (4 pairs) are shared.
d. The Lewis formula is

Check: 16 electrons (8 pairs) have been used. The bonding picture is similar to that of CO 2; this is not surprising,
because S is below O in Group VIA.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

The octet rule is useful in predicting the structural formulas for millions of molecules; however, even in chemistry
there are often exceptions to the rules. Here are the three general ways in which the octet rule breaks down:

A. Molecules with an odd number of electrons

Molecules in which one or more electrons are unpaired are called free radicals. These are molecules that has an
odd number of electrons that cannot follow the octet rule. For example, nitrogen monoxide (NO). There are currently

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QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
five valence electrons around the nitrogen. A double bond would place 7 around the nitrogen, and a triple bond would
place 9 around the oxygen. The Lewis structure for the molecule NO.

B. Molecules in which an atom has less than an octet (most often encountered with elements of boron and
beryllium)
Most covalent compounds of the Group IIIA elements, especially boron, B and Beryllium, Be of Group IIA. The
Group IIIA elements contain only three valence shell electrons, so they often form three covalent bonds when they
bond to three other atoms. On the other hand, beryllium contain only two valence shell electrons, so they form two
covalent bonds when they bond to two other atoms. For example, boron trifluoride (BF 3) and beryllium hydride (BeH2).

C. Molecules in which an atom has more than an octet

Compounds or ions in which the central element needs a share in more than eight valence shell electrons to hold
all the available electrons. We say that the central atom in such species has an expanded valence shell. When we
draw the Lewis structure for PF5, for example, we are forced to place ten electrons around the central phosphorus
atom:

Molecules and ions with more than an octet of electrons around the central atom are often called hypervalent.
Other examples of hypervalent species are SF4, AsF6-1, and ICl4-1.
Hypervalent molecules are formed only for central atoms from period 3 and below in the periodic table. The
principal reason for their formation is the relatively larger size of the central atom. For example, a phosphorus atom is
large enough that five (or even five chlorine) atoms can be bonded to it without being too crowded. By contrast, a
nitrogen atom is too small to accommodate five atoms bonded to it. Because size is a factor, hypervalent molecules
occur most often when the central atom is bonded to the smallest and most electronegative atoms - fluorine, chlorine,
and oxygen.
The notion of a valence shell containing more than an octet of electrons is also consistent with the presence of
unfilled nd orbitals in atoms from period 3 and below. By comparison, elements of the second period have only the 2s
and 2p valence orbitals available for bonding. Detailed analyses of the bonding in molecules such as PF 5 and SF6
suggest that the presence of unfilled 3d orbitals in phosphorus and sulfur has a relatively minor impact on the formation
of hypervalent molecules, and the general current belief is that the increased size of third-period atoms is the more
important factor.

Formulas of Covalent Compounds

It is easy to predict the chemical formula of simple covalent compounds if you know the group number of the
elements. The group number indicates the number of valence electrons, which in turn tells how many additional electrons
it needs to achieve an octet. Using Table 8.1 as reference, you can arrive at the following answers for the preliminary activity
as mentioned earlier: CH4, H2S, and SiBr4.
Table 7.1 Valence Electrons versus Covalent Number
Group Number/ Elements Valence Electrons Number of Electrons to Achieve 8 (Covalency Number)
IA H 1 1
IVA C, Si, Ge 4 4
VA N, P, As, Sb 5 3
VIA O, S, Se, Te 6 2
VIIA F, Cl, Br, I 7 1
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QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”
At times, you can infer from a chemical formula the simple ratio of atoms in a compound. This is called the simplest
formula or empirical formula. The formula of a compound that tells the whole number multiple of its empirical formula is
called molecular formula. Covalent compounds have formulas that show the actual number of atoms that have combined
to form a molecule that refers to molecular formula. Some examples are:
Carbon monoxide CO
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Butane C4H10
Benzene C6H6
Below are examples of covalent compounds with their molecular and empirical formula.
Compound Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
Acetylene C2H2 CH
Ethane C2H6 CH3
Propene C3H6 CH2
Hydrazine N2H4 NH2
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Caffeine C8H10N4O2 C4H5N2O

Covalent compounds classified as organic compounds are better identified by writing their structural formula
where the positions of the atoms in relation with each other are shown.

Butane (C4H10)
Covalent compounds are composed of two or more different nonmetal atoms. It is also possible for the same two
elements to form more than one kind of covalent compound. A successful system for naming covalent compounds must
provide a means of identifying different compounds made of the same elements.
Carbon-containing compounds classified as organic compounds are given names following other rules of nomenclature.
They are discussed in the chapter on organic compounds.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

Your observations in the Activity 24 suggest that there are compounds that do not conduct electricity in all states
(solid, melt, and solution). Among the materials you have tested are sucrose or table sugar (C 12H22O11) and candle.
Molecular compounds like sugar and the hydrocarbons in candle remain in molecular form whether solid or liquid. Thus,
these compounds are nonconductors in both phases. We can summarize what you observed in Activity 24 by the following:
Molecular or covalent compounds do not conduct electricity whether solid, melted or in solution.

Recall that covalent compound results from the sharing of valence electrons between two atoms. Covalent bonds
influence the properties of covalent compounds.
Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. A relatively small amount of energy is required to
overcome the weak attraction between covalent molecules, so these compounds melt and boil at much lower temperatures
than metallic and ionic compounds do. In fact, many compounds in this class are liquids or gases at room temperature.
Covalent compounds are soft or brittle solid forms. The weak intermolecular forces make the solid form of covalent
molecular compounds easy to distort or break.
Covalent compounds are less soluble in water but are often soluble with other covalent compounds. In solutions,
they do not appreciably conduct electric current.
Some compounds have poor electrical and thermal conductivity. Aqueous solutions of covalent compounds do not
conduct electricity because neutral molecules are released into the solution, which cannot carry an electric current.
Some properties usually associated with many simple ionic and covalent compounds are summarized in the
following list. The differences in these properties can be accounted for by the differences in bonding between the atoms or
ions.
Table 7.2 Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds
They are solids with high melting points They are gases, liquids, or solids with low melting points
(typically > 400°C). (typically < 300°C).

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Many are soluble in polar solvents such as Many are insoluble in polar solvents.
water.
Molten compounds conduct electricity well Liquid and molten compounds do not conduct electricity.
because they contain mobile charged particles
(ions).
Aqueous solutions conduct electricity well Aqueous solutions are usually poor conductors of electricity
because they contain mobile charged particles because most do not contain charged particles.
(ions).
They are often formed between two elements They are often formed between two elements with similar
with quite different electronegativities, usually a electronegativities, usually nonmetals.
metal and a nonmetal.

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds may be either polar or nonpolar. In a
nonpolar bond such as that in the hydrogen molecule, H2 the
electron pair is shared equally between the two hydrogen nuclei.
We defined electronegativity as the tendency of an atom to
attract electrons to itself in a chemical bond. Both hydrogen
atoms have the same electronegativity. This means that the
shared electrons are equally attracted to both hydrogen nuclei
and therefore spend equal amounts of time near each nucleus.
In this nonpolar covalent bond, the electron density is
symmetrical about a plane that is perpendicular to a line between (a) (b)
two nuclei. This is true for all homonuclear diatomic molecules, Figure 7.1 Water (a) and ethanol (are examples of
such as H2, O2, N2, F2, and Cl2, because the two identical atoms
polar solvents
have identical electronegativities. We can generalize:
The covalent bonds in all homonuclear diatomic molecules must be nonpolar.

Let us know consider heteronuclear diatomic molecules. Start with the fact
that hydrogen fluoride, HF, is a gas at room temperature. This tells us that it is a
covalent compound. We also know that the H – F bond has some degree of polarity
because H and F are not identical atoms and therefore, do not attract the electrons
equally. But how polar will this bond be?
The electronegativity of hydrogen is 2.1, and that of fluorine is 4.0. Clearly,
the F atom, with its higher electronegativity, attracts the shared electron pair much
Figure 7.2 Hydrogen fluoride is
more strongly than does the H atom. We can represent the structure of HF as shown
in Figure 25.3. The electron density is distorted in the direction of the more an example of a polar covalent
electronegative F atom. This small shift of electron density leaves H somewhat compound
positive. Covalent bonds, such as the one in HF, in which the electron pairs are
shared unequally are called polar covalent bonds.
The δ- over the F atom indicates a “partial negative charge.” This means that the F end of the molecule is somewhat
more negative than the end H end. The δ+ over the H atom indicates a “partial positive charge,” or that the H end of the
molecule is positive with respect to the F end. We are not saying that H has a charge of +1 or that F has a charge of -1! A
second way to indicate the polarity is to draw an arrow so that the head points toward the negative end (F) of the bond and
the crossed tail indicates the positive end (H) as shown in Figure 8.2.
The separation of charge in a polar covalent bond creates an electric dipole. We expect the dipoles in the covalent
molecules HF, HCl, HBr, and HI to be different because F, Cl, Br, and I have different electronegativities. This tells us that
atoms of these elements have different tendencies to attract an electron pair that they share with hydrogen. We indicate
this difference as shown here, where ΔEN is the difference in electronegativity between two atoms that are bonded together.
Covalent H–F H – Cl H – Br H–I
molecules
Electronegativity 2.1 and 4.0 2.1 and 3.0 2.1 and 2.8 2.1 and 2.5
ΔEN 1.9 0.9 0.7 0.4

Most polar Least polar

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A homonuclear molecule contains only one kind of atom. A molecule that contains two or more kinds of
atoms is describe as heteronuclear.
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QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Predicting Bond Types

Is it possible to predict the kind of bonding between two atoms from their positions in the Periodic Table? When an
element from Group IA or IIA combines with an element from Group VIA or VIIA, the bond will be largely ionic. Considering
that Groups IA and IIA elements have low ionization energies, they will easily form positive ions during a chemical reaction.
Groups VIA and VIIA elements have higher electron affinity. They will easily attract electrons and become negative ions.
Therefore, we can predict the formation of an ionic compound when the two ions meet.
How about the bonding of the two elements from the same group, say, Group VIA? Both elements will tend to share
the valence electrons but the sharing will not be equal. In sulfur dioxide, for example, the shared electrons will be nearer
oxygen than sulfur because of the smaller size and greater electronegativity of the oxygen atom. With unequal sharing, we
can predict that the bond will be polar covalent.
Table 7.1 gives the electronegativity differences between pairs of elements and the corresponding bond types that
may result. If the electronegativity difference of the bonding atoms is from 0 to 0.5, the bond will be nonpolar covalent. A
metal with another metal will always form a metallic bond. If it is from 0.6 to 2.0, it will be polar covalent. If higher than 2.0,
the bond is ionic.
Table 7.1 Electronegativity Differences (ΔEN) and Bond Types
Difference in Electronegativities of Combining
Atoms Type of Bond
0 to 0.5* Nonpolar covalent
0.6 to 2.0** Polar covalent
Higher than 2.0 Ionic
*not true to a metal with another metal **metallic halides are ionic with difference of 0.6 to 2.0
Predicting the bond type using electronegativity difference is shown below.
Na and Cl in NaCl
(3.0 eV) – (0.9 eV) = 2.1 eV (ionic bond)
H and O in H2O
(2.1 eV) – (3.5 eV) = 1.4 eV (polar covalent bond)
N and O in NO2
(3.0 eV) – (3.5 eV) = 0.5 eV (nonpolar covalent bond)
H and H in H2
(2.1 eV) – (2.1 eV) = 0 (nonpolar covalent bond)

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QUEZON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
M.L. Tagarao St. Brgy. Ibabang Iyam, Lucena City
“Center for Excellence”

Figure 7.3 Pauling’s Table of electronegativities of Elements in Electronvolt (eV)

Valence
Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
The shapes of molecules are established by experimental evidences. However, qualitative theories may be
considered to predict the geometries of molecules and polyatomic ions. These predictions usually agree with experimental
results.
The valence-shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) focuses on pairs of electrons in the valence shell.
Electron pairs attain positions around the atom to minimize repulsions. This results in particular shapes for molecules.
A good analogy for the concept of minimum repulsions or maximum separations of electron pairs involves balloons.
Imagine two balloons tied together. The balloons would stay as far apart as possible, each angle between balloons is 180°,
and is linear in shape. If we add a third balloon, the balloons would arrange themselves toward the vertices of an equilateral
triangle and the angle between balloons is 120° to form trigonal planar. If we add a fourth balloon, they would arrange
themselves naturally to adopt a tetrahedral shape. Each angle between balloons is 109.5°.
The analogy between electron pairs and balloons is so close that the geometries in both cases are the same. The
arrangement of five balloons or five electron pairs is a trigonal bipyramid. Six balloons or six electron pairs will have an
octahedral arrangement.

a b c d e

Figure 7.1Balloons tied together naturally adopt minimum repulsion or lowest energy arrangement

Molecular Geometry
In a methane molecule, CH4, the central atom is C acquires a Ne
configuration by forming four covalent bonds with H atoms. Applying the VSEPR
theory, the molecule attains a tetrahedral shape as shown in the figure….
Let us consider NH3 and H2O where the central atoms N and O are also
surrounded by four pairs of electrons. Using the VSEPR theory, the four electron
pairs are arranged in a tetrahedral shape around the central atom. However, NH 3 Figure 7.2 Bond angles in
and H2O do not have a tetrahedral shape. What determines the molecular shape methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3)
or the molecular geometry are the positions of the atomic nuclei. and water (H2O),
In the Lewis structure of NH3, there are three bonding pairs and one lone
pair around the N atom. Since there are four electron pairs around the N atom, the electron pair repulsions will be minimized
when the electron pairs assume a tetrahedron. The bond angles between bonding atoms are found to be 107°, which is a
little less than 109.5° tetrahedral bond angles. This is because the lone pair is held closer to the nitrogen and it pushes the
bonding electron pairs closer together. The shape of a molecule is described in terms of the bonding pairs. So, the shape
of the molecule is a trigonal pyramid.
In an H2O molecule, there are two bonding pairs and two lone pairs around the
central atom, O. Four electron pairs form a tetrahedron. Experiments show that the bonding
atoms form a bent or V-shape with a bond angle of 104.5°. This is due to the strong
repulsive forces between lone pairs that tend to compress the angles between bonding
pairs.
In PCl5 the only way to minimize the repulsive forces among the five PCl bonds is
the form of a trigonal bipyramid. The atoms above and below the trigonal plane are the Figure 7.3. Bond angles in
axial positions and those in the triangular plane are the equatorial positions. The angle phosphorus pentachloride
between any two equatorial bonds is 120° while that between an axial and an equatorial (PCl5)
bond is 90°

Let us state the rules of VSEPR theory as follows:

a. Only valence electrons take part in molecule formation.

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b. There are electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom that do not take part in the bond. These
are called lone pairs or nonbonding electron pairs.
c. When molecules form, orbitals or electron clouds overlap, and valence electrons of one atom pair up
with valence electrons of other atoms. One pair of electrons shared by two atoms is a bonding
electron pair making up a single bond, two pairs a double bond and three pairs a triple bond.
d. Electron clouds repel each other.
e. Repulsions between charged clouds affect the shape of the molecule. The decreasing order of
repelling power is:
triple bond > double bond > lone pair > single bond
(The symbol “>” means “greater than”).

Predicting the Shapes of Molecules

The number of bonding clouds determines the geometry of molecules with corresponding bond angles. In a
molecule, the atom that holds all other atoms is called the central atom (A) while the atoms attached to it are called bonded
atoms (X). Valence electrons of the central atom that do not participate in molecule formation are called lone pairs (E).
Lone pairs of electrons affect the geometry of molecules. For example, the general representation of AX4 may be
tetrahedral but, if there is a lone pair, it becomes AX3E molecule. See Table 26.2. This molecule is a triangular pyramid with
bond angles of less than 109.5° because the lone pair pushes against the three bonding clouds. Lone pairs have a greater
repelling power than bonding pairs because they are nearer the nucleus of the central atom.

Example 7.5 Predicting Molecular Geometry

Use the VSEPR theory to predict the molecular geometry of ClF 3.

Solution
a. Determine the valence electrons of the central atom Cl and write the Lewis structure of the molecule. The
Cl atom has seven valence electrons plus one electron from each F atom.
b. There are five electron pairs around the Cl atom, three bonding pairs, and two lone pairs.

c. The geometry of five pairs is trigonal bipyramid.

d. From Table 26.2, the five pairs are not equivalent. The pattern is AX3E2 since it has one central atom, three
bonding pairs and two lone pairs. The lone pairs repel more than single bonds do; thus, the lone pairs occupy
the equatorial position (trigonal planar) and the geometry of ClF 3 is T-shaped.

Let us predict the shapes of some molecules. See examples below.

a. Methane (CH4)
Central atom C (Group IVA)
Bonded atoms 4H (Group IA)
Possible Shape

General Pattern AX4

Geometry Tetrahedral
Angle 109.5°

b. Ammonia (NH3)
Central atom N (Group VA)
Bonded atoms 3H (Group IA)
Possible Shape

General Pattern AX3E

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Geometry Trigonal pyramid
Angle <109.5°

c. Water (H2O)
Central atom O (Group VIA)
Bonded atoms 2H (Group IA)
Possible Shape

General Pattern AX2E2

Geometry Bent
Angle <109.5°

d. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Central atom C (Group IVA)
Bonded atoms 2O (Group VIA)
Possible Shape

General Pattern AX2

Geometry Linear
Angle 180°

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