8
Gravitation
Each object in the universe attracts every other object with a force,
which is called the force of gravitation.
Gravitation is one of the four classes of interactions found in nature.
These are
(i) the gravitational force
(ii) the electromagnetic force
(iii) the strong nuclear force (also called the hadronic force).
(iv) the weak nuclear forces.
Gravity is the force by which earth attracts the body towards its
centre.
Although, of negligible importance in the interactions of elementary
particles, gravity is of primary importance in the interactions of large
objects. It is gravity that holds the universe together.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Gravitational force is a attractive force between two masses m1 and m2
separated by a distance r.
The gravitational force acting between two point objects is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
r
m1 m2
Gm1m2
Gravitational force, F =
r2
where, G is universal gravitational constant.
The value of G is 6.67 ´ 10-11 N-m 2 kg-2 and is same throughout the
universe.
Gravitation 75
The value of G is independent of the nature and size of the bodies as
well as the nature of the medium between them.
Dimensional formula of G is [M-1L3T -2 ].
Note Newton’s law of gravitation holds good for object lying at very large distances
and also at very short distances. It fails when the distance between the objects is less
than 10-9 m i.e. of the order of intermolecular distances.
Important Points about Gravitational Force
(i) Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.
(ii) It is the weakest force in nature.
(iii) It is 1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and 1038 times
smaller than nuclear force.
(iv) The law of gravitational is applicable for all bodies, irrespective
of their size, shape and position.
(v) Gravitational force acting between sun and planet provide it
centripetal force for orbital motion.
(vi) Newton’s third law of motion holds good for the force of
gravitation. It means the gravitational forces between two
bodies are action-reaction pairs.
Following three points are important regarding the gravitational force
(i) Unlike the electrostatic force, it is independent of the medium between
the particles.
(ii) It is conservative in nature.
(iii) It expresses the force between two point masses (of negligible volume).
However, for external points of spherical bodies the whole mass can be
assumed to be concentrated at its centre of mass.
Central Forces
Central force is that force which acts along the line joining towards the
centres of two interacting bodies. A central force is always directed
towards the centre as away from a fixed point.
Acceleration Due to Gravity
The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling object due to the
gravitational pull of the earth is known as acceleration due to
gravity. It is denoted by g and its SI unit is m/ s2. It is a vector
quantity and its direction is towards the centre of the earth.
The value of g is independent of the mass of the object which is falling
freely under gravity.
76 Handbook of Physics
The value of g changes slightly from place to place. The value of g is
taken to be 9.8 m/ s2 for all practical purposes. The value of
acceleration due to gravity on the moon is about one sixth of that on
the earth and on the sun is about 27 times of that on the earth.
Among the planets, the acceleration due to gravity is minimum on the
mercury.
GM
Relation between g and G is given by, g = 2
R
where, M = mass of the earth = 6.4 ´ 1024 kg
and R = radius of the earth = 6.38 ´ 106 m.
Gravitational mass M g is defined by Newton’s law of gravitation.
Fg w Weight of body
Mg = = =
g g Acceleration due to gravity
(M1) g Fg1g2
\ =
(M2 ) g Fg2g1
Inertial mass (= Force/Acceleration) and gravitational mass are equal
to each other in magnitude.
Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass
Force
(a) Inertial mass =
Acceleration
Weight of body
(b) Gravitational mass =
Acceleration due to gravity
(c) They are equal to each other in magnitude.
(d) Gravitational mass of a body is affected by the presence of other
bodies near it. Inertial mass of a body remains unaffected by the
presence of other bodies near it.
Factors Affecting Acceleration Due to Gravity
1
(i) Shape of Earth Acceleration due to gravity g µ .
R2
Earth is elliptical in shape. Its diameter North pole
at poles is approximately 42 km less than
Equatorial line
its diameter at equator. Rp
Therefore, g is minimum at equator and Re
maximum at poles.
South pole
Gravitation 77
(ii) Rotation of Earth about Its Own Axis If w is the angular
velocity of rotation of earth about its own axis, then acceleration
due to gravity at a place having latitude l is given by
g¢ = g - Rw2 cos2 l
Z
w
P FC
Q B
l mg
mg
A C
l
O R E
Z¢
At poles l = 90° and g¢ = g.
Therefore, there is no effect of rotation of earth about its own axis
at poles.
At equator l = 0° and g¢ = g - Rw2
The value of g is minimum at equator.
If earth stops its rotation about its own axis, then g will remain
unchanged at poles but increases by Rw2 at equator.
(iii) Effect of Altitude The value of g at height h from earth’s
surface
B g¢
h
A g
g
g¢ = 2
æ hö
ç1 + ÷
è Rø
78 Handbook of Physics
For h << R
æ 2h ö
g¢ = g ç 1 - ÷
è R ø
Therefore, g decreases with altitude.
(iv) Effect of Depth The value of g at depth h from earth’s surface
A
d
B
R
(R–d)
æ hö
g¢ = g ç 1 - ÷
è Rø
Therefore, g decreases with depth from earth’s surface.
The value of g becomes zero at earth’s centre.
Gravitational Field
The space in the surrounding of any body in which its gravitational
pull can be experienced by other bodies is called gravitational field.
Intensity of Gravitational Field
The gravitational force acting per unit mass at any point in
gravitational field is called intensity of gravitational field at that point.
It is denoted by E g or I.
Earth
M F m
O P
r
F
Eg or I=
m
Intensity of gravitational field at a distance r from a body of mass M is
given by
GM
E g or I = 2
r
It is a vector quantity and its direction is towards the centre of gravity
of the body. Its SI unit is N/m and its dimensional formula is [LT -2 ].
Gravitation 79
Gravitational Field Intensity for Different Bodies
1. Intensity due to a Point Mass
Suppose a point mass M is placed at point O, then gravitational field
intensity due to this point mass at point P is given by
M F
P
O r
GM
I=
r2
2. Intensity due to Uniform Solid Sphere
Outside the
On the surface Inside the surface R
surface
r =R r <R
r >R
GM GM GMr I
I= I= I=
r 2 R2 R3
GM/R2
O r
r=R
3. Intensity due to Spherical Shell
Outside the
On the surface Inside the surface R
surface
r =R r <R
r >R
GM GM I
I= I= I= 0
r2 R2
r
O r =R
4. Intensity due to Uniform Circular ring
At a point on its axis At the centre of the ring
a
GMr I= 0 P I
I= 2 2 3/2 O
(a + r ) r
Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential at any point in gravitational field is equal to
the work done per unit mass in bringing a very light body from infinity
to that point.
It is denoted by V g .
80 Handbook of Physics
W GM
Gravitational potential, V g = =-
m r
Its SI unit is J/kg and it is a scalar quantity.
Its dimensional formula is [L2 T -2 ].
Since, work W is obtained, i.e. it is negative, the gravitational potential
is always negative.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy of any object at any point ¥
in gravitational field is equal to the work done in
bringing it from infinity to that point. It is denoted by U . m
P
GMm dx
Gravitational potential energy, U = - Q
r
The negative sign shows that the gravitational potential
energy decreases with increase in distance. A
Gravitational potential energy at height h from surface
of earth x
r
GMm mgR
Uh = – = R
R+ h 1+ h
R O M
Earth
Gravitational Potential Energy of a
Two Particle System
The gravitational potential energy of two r
particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by m1 m2
Gm1m2
a distance r is given by U = -
r
Gravitational Potential Energy for a System
of More than Two Particles
The gravitational potential energy for a system of particles (say m1 , m2 ,
m3 and m4) is given by
ém m m m m m m m m m m m ù
U = -G ê 4 3 + 4 2 + 4 1 + 3 2 + 3 1 + 2 1 ú
ë r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 û
n ( n - 1)
Thus, for a n particle system there are pairs and the
2
potential energy is calculated for each pair and added to get the total
potential energy of the system.
Gravitation 81
Gravitational Potential for Different Bodies
1. Potential due to a Point Mass
Suppose a point mass M is situated at a point O, the gravitational
GM
potential due to this mass at point P is given by V = -
r
O r P
M
2. Potential due to Uniform Ring
At a point on its axis At the centre
a
GM GM P
V =- V =- r
a2 + r 2 a
3. Potential due to Spherical Shell
Outside the surface On the surface Inside the surface
r >R r =R r <R R
-GM -GM -GM
V = V = V =
r R R V
r=R
O r
–GM/R
4. Potential due to Uniform Solid Sphere
Outside the surface On the surface Inside the surface
r >R r =R r <R
-GM -GM -GM é ærö ù
2
V = Vsurface = V =
r R ê3 - ç ÷ ú
2 R êë è R ø úû
At the centre (r = 0)
-3 GM 3
Vcentre = max = V
2 R 2
V
surface
O r=R
r
–3GM/2R
82 Handbook of Physics
Relation between Gravitational Field and
Potential
If change in gravitation potential at a points is dV, gravitational field
intensity is E, then during displacement dr in the field
dV = - E × dr
$
where, E = E i$ + E $j + E k
x y z
$
dr = dx i$ + dy $j + dz k
\ dV = - Ex dx - E y dy - Ez dz
- ¶V - ¶V - ¶V
Also we can write Ex = , Ey = and Ez =
¶x ¶y ¶z
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
(i) Law of orbit Every planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit and sun is at its one focus.
Planet
S Aphelion
Perihelion
or Perigee a or Apogee
(ii) Law of area The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time, i.e. the areal
velocity of the planet around the sun is constant.
dA L
Areal velocity of a planet = = constant
dt 2m
B
C
l A
lI
where, L = angular momentum and m = mass of the planet.
(iii) Law of period The square of the time period of revolution of
a planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of
semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.
Gravitation 83
2 3
æT ö æ a ö
T 2 µ a3 or çç 1 ÷÷ = çç 1 ÷÷
è T2 ø è a2 ø
where, a = semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.
Satellite
A heavenly object which revolves around a planet is called a satellite.
Natural satellites are those heavenly objects which are not man made
and revolves around the earth. Artificial satellites are those heavenly
objects which are man made and launched for some purposes and
revolve around the earth.
2pr
Time period of satellite, T = ,
GM
r
Here, r = radius of orbital of satellite.
r3 2p ( R + h )3 é GM ù
After simplifying, T = 2p = êQ g = R 2 ú
GM R g ë û
where, R = radius of earth,
and h = height of satellite above surface of earth.
Near the earth surface, time period of the satellite
R3 3p
T = 2p =
GM Gr
R
T = 2p = 5.08 ´ 103 s = 84 min » 1.4 h
g
where, r is the average density of earth.
Artificial satellites are of two types
Geostationary or Parking Satellites A satellite which appears to
be at a fixed position at a definite height to an observer on earth is
called geostationary or parking satellite.
N
Equator Geostationary satellite
Earth
Equatorial
orbit
S
84 Handbook of Physics
Height, from earth’s surface = 36000 km
Radius of orbit = 42400 km
Time period = 24 h
Orbital velocity = 3.1 km/s
2p p
Angular velocity = = rad/h
24 12
These satellites revolve around the earth in equatorial orbits.
The angular velocity of the satellite is same in magnitude and direction
as that of angular velocity of the earth about its own axis.
These satellites are used in communication purpose.
INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C are geostationary satellites of India.
Polar Satellites These are those satellites which revolve in polar
orbits around earth. A polar orbit is that orbit whose angle of
inclination with equatorial plane of earth is 90°.
Polar orbit
N
Equator
O
Height from earth’s surface » 880 km
Time period » 84 min
Orbital velocity = 8 km/s
2p p
Angular velocity = = rad/min
84 42
These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits.
These satellites are used in forecasting weather, studying the upper
region of the atmosphere, in mapping etc.
PSLV series satellites are polar satellites of India.
Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of a satellite is the minimum velocity required to put
the satellite into a given orbit around earth.
Orbital velocity of a satellite is given by
GM g
vo = =R
r R+h
where, M = mass of the planet, R = radius of the planet and h = height
of the satellite from planet’s surface.
Gravitation 85
If satellite is revolving near the earth’s surface, then r = ( R + h ) » R.
Now, orbital velocity,
vo = gR » 7.92 km/h
If v is the speed of a satellite in its orbit and vo is the required orbital
velocity to move in the orbit, then
(i) If v < vo , then satellite will move on a parabolic path and
satellite will fall back to earth.
(ii) If v = vo , then satellite will revolve in circular path/orbit
around earth.
(iii) If vo < v < ve , then satellite will revolve around earth in
elliptical orbit.
• The orbital velocity of jupiter is less than the orbital velocity of
earth.
• For a satellite orbiting near earth’s surface
(a) Orbital velocity = 8 km/s
(b) Time period = 84 min approximately
2p
(c) Angular speed, w = rad/min = 0.00125 rad/s
84
Energy of a Satellite in Orbit
Total energy of a satellite, E = KE + PE
GMm æ GMm ö GMm
= + ç- ÷=-
2r è r ø 2r
Time Period of Revolution of Satellite
The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution around the
earth, is known as time period of revolution of satellite.
The period of revolution (T ) is given by
2pr 2p( R + h )
T = =
GM v0
r
Height of Satellite
As it is known that the time period of satellite,
r3 ( R + h )3
T = 2p = 2p …(i)
GM gR 2
By squaring on both sides of Eq. (i), we get
86 Handbook of Physics
( R + h )3
T 2 = 4p2
gR 2
gR 2T 2
Þ = ( R + h )3
4p2
1/ 3
æ T 2gR 2 ö
Þ h = çç 2 ÷
÷ -R
è 4p ø
By knowing the value of time period, the height of the satellite from
the earth surface can be calculated.
Binding Energy
The energy required by a satellite to leave its orbit around the earth
(planet) and escape to infinity is called binding energy of the
satellite. Binding energy of the satellite of mass m is given by
GMm
BE = +
2r
Escape Velocity
Escape velocity on earth is the minimum velocity with which a body
has to be projected vertically upwards from the earth’s surface, so that
it just crosses the earth’s gravitational field and never returns.
Escape velocity of any object (the earth’s surface)
2GM 8pr GR 2 8
ve = = 2gR = =R pGP
R 3 3
Escape velocity does not depend upon the mass or shape or size of the
body as well as the direction of projection of the body. Escape velocity
at earth is 11.2 km/s.
Some Important Escape Velocities
Heavenly body Escape velocity
Moon 2.3 km/s
Mercury 4.28 km/s
Earth 11.2 km/s
Jupiter 60 km/s
Sun 618 km/s
Neutron star 2 ´ 105 km/s
Relation between escape velocity and orbital velocity of the satellite
Gravitation 87
ve = 2 vo
A missile is launched with a velocity less than the escape velocity. The
sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy is negative.
Maximum Height Attained by a Particle
When projected vertically upwards from the earth’s surface,
v2
h=
2g - v 2 / R
(i) If velocity of projection v is equal the escape velocity ( v = ve ),
then1v < ve , the body will attain maximum height and then may
move around the planet or may fall down back to the planet.
(ii) If velocity of projection v of satellite is greater than the escape
velocity ( v > ve ), then the satellite will escape away following a
hyperbolic path.
(iii) If v < ve , the body will attain maximum height and then may
move around the planet or may fall down back tothe planet.
Weightlessness
It is a situation in which the effective weight of the body becomes zero.
Weightlessness is achieved
(i) during freely falling body under gravity.
(ii) inside a space craft or satellite.
(iii) at the centre of the earth.
(iv) when a body is lying in a freely falling lift.
