Hydropower Engineering

(3-2-1)
• Solution:-
• Annual sediment = 13.3333*104 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 13.3333 ∗ 104 ∗ 103 𝐾𝑔 = 13.3333 ∗ 107 𝑘𝑔
13.3333∗107
• Volume of annual sediment = = 60605.909 𝑚3
2.2∗1000
• Stage- I (20 % of reservoir filling )
20
• 20% of reservoir capacity = 20% *20 Mm3 = ∗ 20 = 4𝑀𝑚3
100
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20
• Initial, capacity inflow ratio = = = 0.5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 40
• Corresponding Trap Efficiency (ɳ𝐼 ) = 96% = 0.96
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20−4
• Capacity –inflow ratio at the end of the interval (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐹 = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20
0.4
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐹 ) = 95% = 0.95
(0.96+0.95)
• Therefore, average trap efficiency, at 20% of reservoir filling (ɳ20% ) = = 0.955
2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
• We know, trap efficiency (ɳ) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
•
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
• 0.955= ⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 =
60605.904
57878.6431
4∗106
• No of years to fill 20 % of capacity or 4 Mm3= = 69.11 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
57876.6431
Hydropower
• Hydropower is the power generated from force of moving water.
Energy involved in moving water is kinetic energy, pressure energy
and potential energy, which are used to produce rotational mechanical
energy thigh turbines in power house.
• The mechanical energy is used to rotate shaft of generator to produce
electricity. Hence hydropower is generated from flowing water by
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy through turbine
and generators
• The high head required for running the turbine is either created by
construction of dam across a river or diverting its flow to a location
lower than head pond or a fore bay.
Advantages of Hydropower
[Link] source of energy
[Link] source of power
3. Reliable energy source (90% availability)
[Link] generation cost
5. Long span of life
6 Low operation and maintenance cost
7. Quick start and stop arrangement.
8. High efficiency (Turbine efficiency 90-95%)
[Link] polluting system
10. Very efficient for peaking load
Disadvantages of hydropower
1. Takes large time for construction
2. High initial cost
[Link] of large land due to submergence in reservoir
4. Long term flow data is essential
5 Displacement of large population from reservoir area and
their rehabilitation
6. Suitable site for the construction of dam is difficult to
available.
7. High cost of transmission system for remote sites.
Sources of energy
conventional sources
a) Hydropower (power obtained from the energy of falling water)
b) Thermal Power (fuel such as coal, diesel, gases or combination of fuel etc. used
to drive steam turbine)
c) Nuclear power (its similar to thermal plants except that nuclear disintegration of
fissionable material like Uranium. The fuel used is plutonium and Uranium.)
unconventional sources
a) Tidal power
b) Solar power
c) Geo thermal (the internal energy of earth in different part of the earth is used
for power production.)
d) Wind power
Advantage of Hydropower plant over thermal plant
• Useful life of thermal plant in 20-25 years as Against more than 100
years for hydropower plant and annual operation and maintenance of
thermal plant is 5-6 times than that of hydropower of equal capacity.
• The fuel needed for thermal plant has to the purchased where fuel cost
for hydropower plant is zero.
• There is no health problem due to not having air pollution.
• Usually hydropower stations are situated the away from the urban area
as cost of land is not a major problem.
• Full output can be reached in about 100 %.
• The number of operation required is considerably small as compared
to thermal
• Additional benefit such as water supply, food control, irrigation can be
achieved.
Disadvantage
•Capital cost is very high
• Power generation from hydropower depend upon quantity of
water
• The site of hydropower station is selected on basis of water
availability and head
• The site is always away from load center
• The cost of transmission fee is very high
• It takes considerably a very long time for erection as
compared to thermal pant
 History of the hydropower development in Nepal
• Pharping hydropower plant (500 Kw) was the first hydropower plant in
Nepal established in 1911 AD. It was connected to Kathmandu by 12km
of 11kv line was later extended to run Matatirtha-Dhorsing Ropeway.
• but after a long interval in 1935AD sundarijal plant having capacity (900
Kw)
• after that in 1965 AD Panauti Hydropower was constructed of capacity
(2.4 MW) and came in operation. in ten year period from 1965 to 1975
the installed capacity of hydropower increased almost 20 times.
• Trishuli hydropower plant(12 MW)—1964/68 supported by India and
later the capacity of the plant is increased to 21MW.
• Sunkoshi hydropower plant (10MW)-1973AD
• Devighat hydropower plant(14MW)-1983AD
History….
• 60 MW kulekhani-i-1982AD & 32MW kulekhani-ii storage hydropower station -
1986AD, with the loan assistance of government of japan and multilateral agencies.
• 60 MW Marsyandi power station-1989AD, with the loan assistance of Germany.
OECE japan,Kuwait government and multilateral agencies.
• Small hydropower project:1971-73AD, small hydropower project were to supply
remote area of the kingdom.
• The hydropower development policy "2001" of Nepal provides the guidelines for
hydropower development in Nepal in line with these policy objectives.
The government of Nepal has adopted liberal policy to attract private investment for
the development of small hydropower projects.
Nepal electricity Authority (NEA) has announced its policy to purchase the power
produced by the private developers of small hydropower project up to 25 MW
capacities.
• Electricity act 2049 has facilitated wide business opportunities to local and foreign
investor for developing hydropower project.
History…
• 144 MW kaligandaki-A -2002 the project constructed by NEA with
the loan assistance of OECE japan, ADB and joint funding of
government of Nepal and NEA.
• The independent power producers (IPP) contribute more than 25%
of the total installed capacity of Nepal's power system eg. Khimti
60 MW); Chillime (20MW), Bhotekoshi (36MW) etc.
• In 1996 first tunneling 500 Kw hydropower project in Tinau River
of Butwal was commissioned through Butwal Power Company
(BPC) limited.
• NORAD(Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation)
successively assistance to develop 5.1 Mw Aandhikhola
Multipurpose Hydropower with irrigation project and jhimruk
Hydropower project in 1995 and 2000 AD respectively through
BPC to the Government.
Hydropower development policy
• Water is considered as a prime natural resource for overall economic
development of Nepal. The major policy objective of Government of
Nepal(GON) is to develop the nations vast hydropower resource
potential to serve the electricity needs of the people and to generate
revenue. With this objective in mind
"Hydropower Development Policy 2058”
It attempts to make the hydropower development procedures "simple,
clear, investment friendly and transparent to hydropower projects for
domestic use as well as for export purposes"
This new policy builds on experiences gained from the implementation
of the earlier hydropower development policy, 2049.
Objectives of hydropower development policy 2049

• To supply electricity as per the demands of the people in

urban and rural areas through the development of the high
potentiality of the water resources that exists in the country.
• To enhance the development of hydropower to meet the
energy needs required for the industrial development in the
country.
• To motivate the national and foreign private sector
investment for the development of hydroelectric power.
Objective of Hydropower Development Policy 2058

The objective of hydropower development policy 2058 are:

• To utilize the existing water resources of the country and to produce
electricity at low cost.
• To ensure dependable reliable and quality electricity services within
the country at a reasonable rate.
• To tie up electrification with the economic activity.
• To extend rural electrification to support rural economic
development.
• To develop hydropower as an exportable commodity.
The policy covers the following topics to develop hydropower
in the country to achieve the above stated objectives
1. Environmental provisional
2. Provision of Investment in production, transmission and distribution.
3. Special investment arrangement to develop infrastructure for rural
electrification.
4. Maximum utilization of local resources.
5 Electricity export arrangement.
6 Institutional arrangement.
7. Royalty arrangement.
[Link] right provisions
…………
…
9. Licensing arrangement.(No license required for capacity less than 1 MW
–Electricity Act-2049)
• A license for hydropower production will be provided for 35 years and
30 years from the date of generation.
• In case of storage projects, the license period can be extended by up to 5
years in addition to the above stated period depending on the
construction period.
10. Domestic electricity market arrangement.
11. Power purchase arrangement.
Challenges of development of hydropower project
The main challenges in hydropower development in Nepal have been
identified as follows
• Lack of political stability
• Lack of technology and skilled manpower.
• Lack of investment
• Lack of infrastructures (Road material and equipment)
• Lack of Promoting power exchange and export.
• The cost of hydropower development is very high because of unstable
geology of hydropower sites small economy of scale limited manufacturing
capability related to hydropower plant construction.
Opportunities of hydropower development
• Clean energy: no polluting and sustainable source of energy.
• Market available: The electricity produced Nepal can be exported to India
and China thus helps to reduce trade gap of the nations with the country.
• Favorable geological and topographical condition: the steep topography
(high river gradient) with good geological conditions (hard rock in river
bed) are the favorable and essentials for development hydropower project at
low cost of investment.
• Availability of cheap labor force: Nepal has developed lot of engineering
institutes and technical centre after the restoration of democracy. The
institutions have produced lot of skilled and semi-skilled man powers. The
human resources are available at cheap rate compared to the man power
from developed countries. The availability of the man powers both skilled
and unskilled labor can be taken as the good opportunities to develop
hydropower schemes
 Hydropower potential
a) Gross potential
b) Technical potential
c) Economical potential
Gross Potential
The power which can be theoretically being possible to generate is known as gross
potential. A river basin is divided into several cascades to measure the head and discharge of
the particular cascade. Based on the head and the hydrograph of that particular cascade the
power can calculated. Gross power potential of Nepal 3000 MW.
The power can be calculated as- P= σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣𝑛 𝑄𝐻
𝑣 –specific weight of water(KN/m3) H-Net head(m) n-No of cascade
𝑛 –efficiency Q-Discharge(m3/s)
Technical potential
All the theoretical possible power in nature cannot be produced due to different
constraints like unfavorable geology, topography, climatic condition, accessibility
etc. So the power which is technically viable to produce is known as technical
potential. Technical potential power of Nepal is about 44,000 MW
Economical potential
The technically feasible project cannot be implemented if they do not give good
return once the Investment in done. Moreover it is not always economical to utilize
the discharge available in short period of year. The project are usually feasible if the
internal rate of return higher than prevailing Interest rate and benefit cost ratio is
greater than one. The economical power potential of Nepal is 42000MW
.Types and classification of Hydropower plants
A. According to Storage of the river
I. Run of river plant
II. Peaking run of river plant
III. Reservoir storage plant
Run of River plant (ROR)
• plant is located on a perennial river in which adequate discharge is available throughout the year. No
attempt is made to store water for dry period
• Power house is located at the main course of river,
• Normal flow of river is not disturbed due to the construction of the plant.
• A run of river project would not normally have a dam, other than intake weir, Generally RoR plant
which is very low head structure at intake
• The ROR plant will certainly have small pool of reservoir to provide the necessary poundage in order to
balance day to day fluctuation
• Normal flow of the river is not distributed due to the construction of the plant
e.g. BhoteKhoshi (Sindhupalchok 20MW), Khimti (Ramechhap), Chileme (Dolakha-20MW)
Peaking run of river plant (PROR).
Keeping the consideration during peak hours Run of river plants may
constructed with poundage which can be regulates daily hydrograph or
weekly hydrograph stored water to run the plant under full capacity. These
types of plants are known as peaking run off plant (PROR).
• Water stored at the head pond during non-peak hours of the day, for peak
hours.
• It can be operate at full capacity in rainy season but it produces power at
full capacity at peak hours of load.
• It has small storage for short term regulation of flow.
• At same location the installed capacity of PROR are higher than ROR .
e.g. Kaligandaki-A 144MW, Marsyandi-69MW, Sunkoshi 10.5MW at
sindhupalchok.
Reservoir storage plant
• Hydropower plants which draw water from large storage reservoir developed by constructing dam
across the river are called reservoir storage project
• Depending upon the storage these plants which can regulate the hydrograph of river by one or more
seasons are generally known as storage plants.
• In such plant dam is constructed to create a large reservoir to permit carry over storage water from
rainy season to the dry season. i.e the water flow stores in wet season to supply in dry season
• Storage plants are generally located at non-perennial rivers. These plants are generally medium head
or high head plant
• Storage plant involve high initial investments but provide a much more efficient and controlled use
of available water.
e.g. (-Kulekhani-i(60MW), Kulekhani ii (32 MW)
I. Seasonal storage: plant with reservoir which can regulate the discharge of summer season to run
the plant in winter season with its full capacity.(Kulekhni)
II. Annual storage:Plant with reservoir which can fully regulate the average hydrograph of source
river
III. Pluri annual Plant: with reservoir which can regulate the hydrograph of source river for several
years.
Classification Based on Head
• Different country classify project differently based on the head of water. The
classifications of hydropower project based on the head of water under which it
operate are as follows:
• Low head <15m (Kaplan turbine is used)
• Medium head 15 to 50 m (Francis Turbine is used)
• High bead>50 m (Pelton Turbine is used)
But in Nepal most of the project huge elevation difference between the headwork,
site and powerhouse site so the following classification may be appropriate
• Very low head <15 m(Propeller turbine is used)
• Low head 15 to 60m (Both Kaplan and Francis turbine used)
• Medium head 60-150m (Francis Turbine is used)
• High head-150-350m(Pelton and Francs turbine is used)
• Very high head 350m (Pelton turbine is used)
Classification based on install capacity
• Micro hydropower plant < 100KW
• Mini hydropower plant :100-1000KW
• Small hydropower plant : 1 MW-10MW
• Medium hydropower plant: 10MW-50MW
• Large hydropower plant : >50MW
Classification based on hydraulic features
• Conventional hydropower plant
• Pumped storage plant
• Tidal power plant
Pumped storage plant
• Plant having water reservoir at U/S as well as D/S of power house which collects the water in the U/S
reservoir by pumping water from D/S reservoir using cheaper energy.
• Water is pumped to the reservoir at night when demand for power across the country is low. When there
is sudden demand for power the head gates are open and water rushes down the tunnel to drive the
turbine which drive powerful generator. The water then collects to the bottom reservoir ready to be
pumped back later
• During pumping phase water flows from lower reservoir to power house and power house to upper
reservoir.
• During hydropower generating phase the water passages from the higher level reservoir to powerhouse
and power house to lower reservoir
• During peak hours the pumped storage plant works as a peak at plant i.e. generates power in peak hours.
• During the peak off hours, water from the tail race reservoir is pumped back by a pump to the upper
reservoir through the same pipe as the plant remains off.
Advantage of pump storage plant
• As compared to other peaking units pumped storage plant have low
capital cost and are thus an economical source of peaking capacity
• Pumped storage plants allow a great deal to flexibility in the
operational schedule of the system.
• It is entirely free from effects of environmental pollution
• It is readily adaptable to automation as well as remote control.
• Power required for pumping is available at a cheaper rate while the
power produced by the plant can be sold at a peak hour rate. The
relatively low hydraulic efficiency is partly compensated due to this
fact.
Major institution involved in hydropower development
of Nepal
1 Ministry of Energy (MOEn)-
Former ministry of water resources (MOWRI recently split to ministry of energy and
ministry of irrigations. The MOE is the line ministry with primary jurisdiction (Adhikar
chetra) and authority over the hydropower sector and is responsible for development and
protection of Nepal's water resources. The secretary of ministry of energy used to be the
member of the NEA board of directors, currently the chief secretary of the Government of
Nepal has been made chairman of the NEA board
2. WECS:-
WECS was established by the government in 1975 with the objective of developing
water and energy resources in an integrated and accelerated manner. The permanent
secretariat of WEC was established in 1981 and called the water and energy
commission secretariat (WECS). The primary responsibility of WECS is to assist
GON, the MoE and other related agencies in the water and energy resources sector.
The main functions of WECS are:
• Formulation of policy and strategy.
• Reviewing multipurpose large and medium projects.
• Coordinating multipurpose large and medium project.
• Coordinating national sector policies.
• Analyzing Bilateral and multilateral projects.
[Link] tariff Fixation Commission (ETFC)
The ETFC, established under the electricity act 1992 is a tariff regularity filings by NEA
and other licensed entries.
The main functions of ETFC are:
• Review on electricity tariff level
• Fixation of tariff structure.
• Fixation of charges for all consumers
 4. DOED
Electricity development center (EDC) was established on July 16 1993,it was later renamed as department of
electricity development (DOED) on 26 January 2000 (12 magh 2056).
The major function of the department are to ensure transparency of regulatory framework, accommodate, promote and
facilitate private sectors participation in power sector by providing "one window" service and license to power projects.
Other function of DOED are as follows
• Study and development of multipurpose, bilateral and major hydropower projects Promotion and development of
private investment in power sector including licensing.
• Preparation of standards for transmission and distribution of electricity and Inspection and monitoring for its
compliance.
• Advisory assistance to ministry of energy Act as secretariat of tariff fixation commission

DoED has been established as "one window" for

• Assistance in importing goods
• Acts as a regulatory and monitoring body.
• issuance of survey and project licenses.
• Providing concession and incentives,
5. Nepal electricity authority (NEA)
NEA was established on August 15" 1985) (Bhadra 1. 2042) under the NEA act 1984, through the merger
of department of electricity of ministry water resources, Nepal Electricity Corporation and related
development based.
The primary objective of NEA to generate, transmit and distribute adequate, reliable and affordable power
by planning, constructing, operating and maintaining, generation, transmission and distribution facilities in
Nepal's power system both interconnected and isolated
Responsibilities of NEA .
• To recommend to Government of Nepal for long and short term plans and policies in the power sector
• To recommend, determine and realize tariff structure for electricity consumption before approval of
GON
• . To arrange for training and study so as to produce perfect manpower in generation, transmission,
distribution and other sectors
6. IPPAN:
• IPPAN was established in the year 2001 with the intention of encouraging the private
sector to work in the area hydropower in Nepal. It is nonprofit non-government
autonomous organization. Its main purpose is to act as a link between the private
sector and government organizations involved in developing hydropower in the
Nepal. It also helps to exchange technology, knowledge, financial and management
Information among the independent power producers in the country.
7. NMHDA (Nepal micro hydro development association):-
NMHDA was established in December 1992. This association is supporting formulation
of policies, plans and program to concerned agencies Conducting activities for
promotion, training research and other job for the sector.
Chapter 2 planning and investigation of hydropower
project
Hydropower planning
Initial stage of work of hydropower development. planning involves the
estimation of present demand forecasting for future and generation of best
alternative.
Planning study includes all type of investigation performed to determine the
desirability of carrying out a project.
• Hydropower Development cycle:-
The hydropower development cycle consists of three main parts:-
• Pre-Construction.
• Implementation.
• Operation.
Hydropower Development cycle
 [Link] Studies:-
• It is mainly based on the secondary data from maps, aerial photographs and reconnaissance (walk
through field visit, eye observation).
• It is conceptual design of the project based on the preliminary assessment of topographical,
geological and hydrological parameter.
• The alternative schemes are studied to select the most suitable project alternatives based on the
tentative cost estimates and are calculated on lump sum basis considering experience of similar
project.
The main purpose of reconnaissance studies are:-
• To identify suitable power projects for the stated purpose.
• To investigate apparent alternative solution for inclusion or rejection of plant.
• To investigate and study the various projects and projects alternatives to the confidence level
required.
• To compare the projects and other projects and formulate the project best suited for the stated
purpose.
• To record lower ranked projects and projects alternatives for future references.
• To provide preliminary cost figures in the performance of reconnaissance studies.
• To record, screen, rank the project alternatives.
Investigation to be carried out in Reconnaissance study
• Hydrological :-
• Compute mean monthly flow and 90% probability of exceedance of flow.
• Carry out discharge measurement at head work site during the driest month.
• Prepare catchment map assess the peak flood discharge.
• Check the presence of Glacier Lake and likely hood of GLOF.
• Geological:-
• Collect and review of geological map, section and aerial photograph.
• Prepare regional geology and structure.
• Prepare a report on general geology.
• Collect available data or information about seismological study.
• Topographical:-
• Collect available largest scale map of the project area.
• Carry out X-section survey at the head works, spillway, power house and tail race site covering HFL.
• Conduct longitudinal profile survey of the project interest site.
• Conduct river cross section survey showing highest flood level and existing water level.
 [Link]-Feasibility Study:-
In this the review of study made on reconnaissance studies with further detailed
surveyed data and observation obtained from precise measurements, data series of
long time and detail investigation.
The second organized steps in hydropower investigation and planning is called
prefeasibility study. The main purposes of pre-feasibility study are:-
• To establish the need and justification for the project.
• To formulate a plan for developing the projects.
• To determine the technical, economical, environmental practicability of the project.
• To define the limitation of project.
• To ascertain local interest in and desire for the project.
• To make recommendation for future action.
• To select the possible projects of future consideration.
 Investigation to be carried out in Pre-Feasibility
Hydrological :-
• Collect long term climatologically data rainfall, evaporation, temp etc./ sediment flow data of the basin/ estimation
sediment load
• Mean monthly flow /flow duration curve, design flood of 50 ,100 and 200 years return period.
• collect primary data, water level and discharge. Develop rating curve at intake and powerhouse site with slope area
method.
Geological:-
• Conduct detail geological and geomorphologic survey at particular sites for intake, desander canal, tunnel, surge tanks,
penstock, powerhouse and tailrace.
• Detail information about the faults, characteristics of rock, hardness, type, cracks, permeability etc.
• Collect and analyze the earthquake data record of the project area or vicinity to it.
Topographical:-
• Establish the control points and new bench marks, conduct leveling and transverse survey for tying control point or
bench mark with triangulation point.
• Prepare topographical map of whole area with 5 m contour interval, 1m contour interval for major structural component.
• Conduct survey for water conveyance route, canal/tunnel, aqueduct/siphon with detail X-section survey of cross
drainage lying across the canal, penstock pipe to provide maps in 1:2000 scale with 2 m contour interval.
• Conduct survey of borehole, test pits.
• Carrying out X-section of the river at interval of 50 and 100m covering at least 500m u/s and d/s HFL and exiting water
level.
[Link] studies
• In this level of study, detail analysis of all levels were carried out based
on detail field investigation of long time series to finalize and optimize
the component of the project
Feasibility study includes analysis of resources:-
• Estimate of net economic value to be produced.
• Estimate of cost development and construction.
• Estimation of cost of operation, maintenance and replacements.
• Assessments of the impact implementation of the project will have on the
environment and the cost of mitigation of the effects i.e solved the
problem.(IEE/EIA)
Investigation to be carried out in Feasibility
• Hydrological :-
• Carry out discharge measurement at the intake site at least 4 to 5 time each season.
• Check the estimated flow data at the intake based on the secondary data with observed flow at the gauge site established near the
intake.
• Carry out water quality sampling and sediment analysis, hardness, corrosiveness and quantity of sediment.
• Assess magnitude of GLOF and its risk if there are any glacier lakes in upstream catchment.
• Geological:-
• Conduct more details geological and geomorphologic survey for particular sites for intake, desander canal, tunnel, surge tanks,
penstock, powerhouse and tailrace.
• Detail information based on the field observation for discontinuity (Cracks) major and minor joints, bedding slope, foliation of
planes, the faults and folds their orientation, classification of rock, hardness strength, type, permeability etc.
• Excavate test pit to collect samples for laboratory analysis to know nature of soil.
• Perform SPT (Standard penetration test) and permeability test in each test pit to know strength and permeability of the soil /rock at
major parts of hydropower dam, intake.
• Identify and investigate borrow area for the construction material such as impervious soils, stones, gravels and sand.
• Collect the information about the location, intensity magnitude and frequency of past earthquake records of greater than 4 rector
scale for determination of earthquake factor to design dam and power house.
• Topographical:-
• Review and update topographic map prepared in the prefeasibility level of study and conduct detail survey if required.
• Conduct detailed survey of access road and transmission lines alignment to prepare topographic map of 1:5000 scale with 5m
contour interval fixing the bench marks in an interval of 500m including detail of cross drainages.
• Conduct socioeconomic survey with the information of land use and land cover for socio environmental hazard and mitigation
analysis.
Flow Duration Curve
• A graphical representation of runoff with time is the flow duration curve.
It has discharge plotted on the Y-axis and the percentage (%) of time
duration is available on X-axis.
Flow duration curve are used in determining the dependability of the
discharge. Basically, these are used in runoff river plant with or without
poundage.
• FDC are plotted using the average monthly value of flow. Depending
upon the flow data two different methods are in used
• Total period method
• Calendar year methods 3
Q (𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐) Flow Duration Curve

25 50 75 100
% of Time
Steps for computation of flow duration Curve:-
• Daily/Monthly flows are arranged in descending order of magnitude, from highest to the lowest flow value, with
each flow value being assigned a rank.
• The highest flow would get a rank of 1 , the next highest flow value being assigned lowest flow would get a rank
‘N’, where, ‘N’ is the total number of days record.
𝑛
• For each value percent of time is computed as 𝑁 ∗ 100 , where ‘n’ is rank assigned to the follow.
• The flow duration curve is obtained by plotting percentage of time as abscissa and the flow value rate as the
ordinates.
• In a wet year, the flow will be higher so the flow duration curve will be above the Flow Duration Curve of normal
year.
• In a dry year, the flow will be less and Flow Duration Curve will be below the FDC in normal year as shown in
figure.
Uses of Flow Duration Curve:-
• FDC is generally used to determine the installed capacity, firm energy and
secondary energy.
• FDC is also used to plot the power duration curve.
• A flow duration curve allows the evaluation of low levels flows.
• The flow duration curve is highly useful in planning and design of water
resource projects.
• FDC is used to determine firm power generation.
• The FDC used in design of drainage systems and in flood control systems.
• FDC provides a qualitative description of the runoff variability in the
stream.
Note:- If the curve have steep slope, it indicates a stream with highly variable
discharge. And if curve have flat slope it indicates small variability.
The long term monthly flow of a small stream is shown in table below:-
Calculate the Flow duration Curve.
Solution:- Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Flow(m3/ 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.50 0.76 1.67 2.59 2.49 1.45 0.94 0.56 0.43
sec)
Load curve
• Load curve is graph of load consumption with respect to any time, so this
curve gives an indication of power used at any time. load curve may be
daily, monthly or yearly.
• Peak load
The highest demand in a day is called peak load. The load is defined as that
part of the load carried at intensity greater than 4/3 times than mean load
intensity.
• Average load
Average load is defined as the average consumption over a defined time
period. Area under the load curve divided by time gives the average load.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Load factor=
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Mass curve (Ripple Mass Curve):-
• The graph of cumulative values of a water quantity (runoff) against time is called mass curve. It is an integral
curve of a hydrograph which express the area under hydrograph from one time to another time. It is also
known as Ripple mass curve and made from mean monthly flow records of a stream.
• Uses of Mass curve:-
• To determine reservoir capacity for a given yield.
• To determine yield from a reservoir of given capacity.
• To determine water to spill out through reservoir.
• Characteristics of mass curve:-
• The mass curve is a continuously raising curve as it shows the accumulated inflow volume with time.
• The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of inflow at that particular time.
• If the curve becomes horizontal at some point, it indicates that rate of flow at that particular time is zero. But
mass curve never fall down.
• If the curve rises sharply, it indicates the high rate of inflow within that period.
• The point A and B in mass curve indicate the dry periods whereas Point C and D indicates high flow.
Site Selection for hydropower project
(Accessibility, Near to load centre, High topographic variation, Sound
Geological condition, Less variation of flow in different season)
• The site for the intake and the power house should be easily accessible
to economizes the cost of transportation
• The power plant should be near to the load centre to reduce cost of
transmission as well as reduce power loss in transmission system.
• Intake should be sited at a place where the stream is permanent. For
example, flowing over bed rock and not prone to accumulation of site.
• The stream should not have a large gradient up-stream of intake.
• The stream should be relatively straight path up-stream and down-
stream of the intake to avoid damage from sharp turning flood waters.
• cont……..
....Site Selection for hydropower
• Intake should be placed on outside of a bend but not inside of the bend.
• A gravel trap is constructed close to the intake in order to prevent gravel
from getting into the approach channel.
• Settling basin should be located as close to the intake as possible.
• The settling basin shall be designed to be functional easily operable and
economical both for construction and operation.
• The location of fore bay should be such that desire head is available for
required power production.
• Structure must be located at stable site and not threaten by landslide,
falling stones as far as possible.
• Power house should be located at place to drain out the water from power
to river through tailrace canal.
Reservoir:-
When a barrier is constructed across the river in the form of a dam,
water gets stored on the upstream side of the barrier forming a pool of
water is called a reservoir.
Water stored in the reservoir may be used for various purposes. for
irrigation, water supply, and hydropower and so on. So, reservoir store
water during the period of excess supply and release it during the period
of low flow to meet the d/s demand.
Classification of reservoir
Based on specific purpose reservoir may be classified as :-
• Flood control reservoir:- The aim of flood control is to store some of the flood
water river when discharge rate a stage is likely to cause damage of the valley.
• Storage or conservation reservoir:- water store for purpose like, Hydropower,
Irrigation, Public and industrial water supply, sediment control of river,
Navigation etc.
• Multipurpose reservoir:- A reservoir is called single purpose reservoir if it serves
only one purpose and is called multipurpose if it used for almost all the purposes
as hydropower, irrigation , water supply, sediment control etc.
• Distribution reservoir:- A reservoir is called a distribution reservoir without a
dam in which water from river is pumped into some concrete tank constructed at
stable places.
Reservoir regulation
• It is defined as rational distribution of river flow in time and space
among different field of water resources like consumptive used field (
water supply, irrigation etc.) and non consumptive use field
(navigation, water power etc.). depending upon the relative reservoir
capacity and period of its regulation, reservoir regulation is categories
as:-
• Short term regulation:- Regulation period is less than or equal to one
year.
• Long term regulation:- Regulation period is more than one year.
 Reservoir planning
• Maximum water level:- It is the maximum level to which the water surface will raise when the design flood pass over
the spillway.
• Minimum water level:-It is the lowest level up to which the water is withdraw from the reservoir under ordinary
condition. Minimum water level generally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet of the dam.
• Useful storage /Live storage:- It is the volume of water stored between the normal water level and minimum water
level.
• Surcharge storage:- It is the volume of water stored above the NWL up to maximum level.
• Dead storage:- It is the volume of water stored below the minimum water level. It is not used for any purpose on the
normal condition. Dead storage is usually taken equal to the sediment volume during the life period of storage.
Generally, it is 15 to 25% of reservoir capacity.
• Valley storage :-The volume of water help by natural river channel in its valley up to the top of it’s bank before the
construction of reservoir. The valley storage depends on cross-section of river, its length and water level. So net
storage capacity = storage capacity of reservoir (Total)- Valley storage.
• Bank storage:-If the bank of the reservoir is porous then some amount of water is temporarily stored by them but when
the reservoir is full the stored water in banks later drains into the reservoir when water level in the reservoir falls. This
volume of water is bank storage. Its volume depends on geological feature of area.
Location of site for reservoir:-
In site selection of reservoir following points should be considered:-
• It is located in the area in minimum percolation and maximum runoff
( sufficient inflow)
• Leakage in the selected area should be minimum.
• It should be located on highly impermeable rock like slate, granite etc.
• To reduce length of the dam, narrow opening of the basin is essential.
• Site should be easily accessible by road if required to construct them
cost of construction should be minimum.
• Located area should provide sufficient water depth with smaller area.
• Construction material for dam should be locally available.
• Less submergence of habitant area, fertile land etc.
Reservoir sedimentation
• Every river carries certain amount of sediment load especially in monsoon.
The sediment particles try to settle down to the river bottom due to the
gravitational force, but may be kept in suspension due to the upward
current in the turbulent flow.
• fine sediment in suspension as suspended load and large body in bed load.
• This deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as reservoir
sedimentation or reservoir silting.
Deposition of sediment reduces the water holding capacity of reservoir. The
sediment load of river depends on the following factor:-
• Nature of soil I catchment
• Vegetal cover around the reservoir.
• Topography of nature (Steep or plain)
• Intensity of flow.
• Origin of flow.
Control of sediment in reservoirs:-
• rate of deposit of sediments in reservoir should be decreased
• As reservoir sedimentation cannot be prevented it may be reduced to some
extent.
The following points should be considered to control and reduce the sediments
flow in the reservoir:-
• Proper selection of reservoir site.
• Series of small low dams in Sandy River should be constructed to arrest the
sediment upstream of the reservoir.
• Control of sediment flow
• Sediment deposited may be removed by excavation, draining and flushing by
sluice disturbing the sediment by some mechanical and hydraulic method.
• Construction of dam should be in stages.
• Construction of check dams in series in upstream tributaries of the river having
huge sediment content.
• Sediment removal by sluices during flood time.
Sediment control should be divided into two parts
• Pre-construction Measure:- they are those measure which are adopted before and
during the execution of the project. They are as follows:-
• Selection of dam site.
• Construction of the dam in stages.
• Construction of check dam.
• Vegetation screens.
• Construction of under sluices in the dam.
• Post-Construction measures:- These measures are under taken during the
operation of the project. They are as follows:-
• Removal of post flood water.
• Mechanical stirring of the sediment
• Erosion control and soil conservation.
• Plantation.
• Dredging by mechanically or manually.
Life of reservoir
• All the reservoir ultimately get filled with sediments. Depending upon
the sediments load in the river and type of catchment, the deposition
of silt will vary from reservoir to reservoir. Deposition of sediment
gradually decreases the available storage capacity of reservoir.
• The rate of sedimentation in the reservoir depends on the trap
efficiency (ɳ𝑡 ).
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
• Trap efficiency(ɳ𝑡 ) = ∗ 100%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
Generally, Varies from 95 to 100%. Trap efficiency depends on the
reservoir capacity inflow rate.
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Capacity Inflow rate=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
The volume of a reservoir at NWL is estimated for 9 billion Cubic meter and mean annual flow of the river
is 150 Cubic meter per sec along with its sediment transportation (Suspended) Capacity of 2.6 kg/m3. The
volume weight of suspended sediment having 1.6 tones/m3 is 1.25 less than the bed sediments. Determine
the service life of the reservoir if the mean annual volume of sediments due to erosion of its banks and some
of the sediment passing in the downstream are 25% and 23% of the gross storage.
• Solution:-
• Volume of reservoir(V) = 9 ∗ 109 𝑚3
• Mean annual flow of river (Q)= 150 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Suspended sediment transportation capacity= 2.6 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
• 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 16 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑚3 =1600 kg/𝑚3
• 𝛾𝐵𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.25 ∗ 16 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑚3 = 2000 kg/𝑚3
• Service life of reservoir (T)= ?
25
• Mean annual volume of the sediments due to erosion of banks = 25% of gross storage (V= ∗ 9 ∗ 109 = 2.25 ∗ 109 𝑚3
100
• Mean volume of sediment passing through downstream = 23% of gross storage (V)
23
• = ∗ 9 ∗ 109 = 2.07 ∗ 109 𝑚3
100
• Therefore, Volume of sediment deposited in the reservoir (V1)= 2.25 ∗ 109 − 2.07 ∗ 109 = 0.18 ∗ 109 𝑚3
• Weight of sediment (Suspended) transported by river = Mean annual volume of river * suspended capacity = Q*t *2.6 kg/m3 =
150*365*24*60*60*2.6 = 1.23 *1010 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑊 1.23∗1010
• Volume of the sediment transported by river 𝑉2 = = = 7687500 𝑚3
𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 1600
• Therefore, total volume of sediment = Volume of sediment due to transported + Volume of remaining sediment deposited due to erosion
of Bank
• V3= V1+V2 = 0.18 ∗ 109 +7687500 = 187687500 m3 per year.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒓 𝑽 𝟎.𝟗∗𝟏𝟎𝟗
• Therefore, Life of reservoir = = = = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟗𝟓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟒𝟖 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝟑 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎
Chapter 3:- Power And Energy Potential Study
• Gross head :is the difference between the water level in the head race
and water level in the tail race.
• For hydropower project with Pelton turbine gross head (𝑯𝒈 ) = 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 − 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍
• For hydropower project with Francis turbine gross head (𝑯𝒈 ) = 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 − 𝑻𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍
Net head(𝑯𝒏𝒆𝒕 ): −
• is the head available for the turbine after deducting the head losses with
the system.
• It is the difference in total head at the point of entry and at the point of
exit of the turbine. This includes the respective pressure and velocity
heads at both places.
• For impulse turbine, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐻𝑔𝑟 − 𝑍 − ℎ𝑙
𝑣2
• For reaction turbine, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐻𝑔𝑟 − − ℎ𝑙
2𝑔
Where, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻𝑔𝑟 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑍=
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒.
ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡.
Operating head:-
It is the simultaneous difference of water surface elevation in the forebay
and tailrace, after making due to allowance of approach velocity and exit
velocity head.
Operating head = T.E.L at Forebay – T.E.L at exit
Design head:-
• It is the net head under which the turbine reaches peak efficiency at
synchronous speed.
Hydraulic efficiency of plant:-
It is the ratio of net head to the gross head. This efficiency indicates the
total losses from intake to powerhouse. Higher losses in the system lower
the hydraulic efficiency. So we always tried to minimize the losses while
designing the project.
Firm (Primary Power):-
• power insured to a consumer at any time of the day is known as firm power.
• Firm power is completely dependable and available 100% of time. Such power corresponds to
minimum stream flow.
• The firm power could be increased by use of poundage.
Secondary power:- The secondary power is the amount of power which is excess of the firm power
during off peak hours during monsoon season etc. It is called surplus or non-firm power.
 Installed Capacity:-
• The plant capacity, which is economically available, is known as installed
capacity. It is also defined as the maximum power, which can be developed by
all generators of the plant at the normal head and with full flow.
𝑛 𝑛∗ɳ∗𝛾∗𝑄𝑑 ∗𝐻
•𝑃= σ𝑖=1 where, 𝑄𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐 , ɳ= overall
100
efficiency, 𝛾 = 9.81 KN/m3
A reservoir has the following available data. Find the probable useful life of the reservoir.
• Reservoir capacity = 20 Mm3 (Million Cubic meter)
• Average annual flood Volume = 40 Mm3
• Annual sediment = 13.3333* 𝟏𝟎𝟒tonnes
• Specific gravity of sediment = 2.2 gm/cc
• Life of reservoir terminates when 80% of initial capacity is filled up.
Capacit 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
• Capacity inflow ratio v/s trap efficiency is given by :- y inflow
ratio
Assume 20% of the capacity is filled up in first interval.
Trap 86 92 94 95 96 96.5 97 97 97 97.5
efficien
cy %
Solution:-
• Annual sediment = 13.3333*104 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 13.3333 ∗ 104 ∗ 103 𝐾𝑔 = 13.3333 ∗ 107 𝑘𝑔
13.3333∗107
• Volume of annual sediment = = 60605.909 𝑚3
2.2∗1000
• Stage- I (20 % of reservoir filling )
20
• 20% of reservoir capacity = 20% *20 Mm3 = ∗ 20 = 4𝑀𝑚3
100
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20
• Initial, capacity inflow ratio = = = 0.5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 40
• Corresponding Trap Efficiency (ɳ𝐼 ) = 96% = 0.96
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20−4
• Capacity –inflow ratio at the end of the interval (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐹 = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 20
0.4
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐹 ) = 95% = 0.95
(0.96+0.95)
• Therefore, average trap efficiency, at 20% of reservoir filling (ɳ20% ) = = 0.955
2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
• We know, trap efficiency (ɳ) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
•
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
• 0.955= ⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 =
60605.904
57878.6431
4∗106
• No of years to fill 20 % of capacity or 4 Mm3= = 69.11 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
57876.6431
In the second interval (20% of reservoir filling )
16
• Initial, capacity inflow ration (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐼 = = 0.40
40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐼 ) = 95% = 0.95
• Capacity –inflow ratio at the end of the interval (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐹 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 16−4
= = 03
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐹 ) = 94% = 0.94
• Average trap efficiency, at 20% of reservoir filling (ɳ20% ) =
(0.95+0.94)
= 0.945
2
• ⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 = 0.945 ∗ 60605.904 =
57272.11
4∗106
• No of years to fill 20 % of capacity or 4 Mm3= =
57272.11
69.841 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
In third interval,
12
Initial, capacity inflow ration (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐼 = = 0.30
40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐼 ) = 94% = 0.94
• Capacity –inflow ratio at the end of the interval (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐹 =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 12−4
= = 0.2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐹 ) = 92% = 0.92
• Average trap efficiency, at 20% of reservoir filling (ɳ20% ) =
(0.94+0.92)
= 0.93
2
• ⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 = 0.93 ∗ 60605.904 =
56363.03
4∗106
• No of years to fill 20 % of capacity or 4 Mm3= =
56363.03
70.97 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
In fourth interval,
8
• Initial, (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐼 = = 0.20
40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐼 ) = 92% = 0.92
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 12−8
• Final, (𝐶𝐼𝑅)𝐹 = = = 0.1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 40
• Corresponding Trap efficiency (ɳ𝐹 ) = 86% = 0.86
(0.92+0.86)
• Average trap efficiency, at 20% of reservoir filling (ɳ20% ) = =
2
0.89
• ⇒ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 = 0.89 ∗ 60605.904 =
53938.81
4∗106
• No of years to fill 20 % of capacity or 4 Mm3= = 74.16 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
53938.81
Marginal Cost and Benefit approach:-
The installed capacity or economical plant capacity is determined by
equating the marginal cost and benefits for that project, while determining
the fixed cost of the project assumed to be constant.
Let X % of the duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1 Kw
power generation with energy price= US $𝐸/𝑀𝑊𝐻
Variable cost = US $ 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 /𝑘𝑤 (the variable cost is the electromechanical
installed cost. The civil cost is not included in the variable cost because it is
fixed cost)
O&M cost= certain percentage of variable cost and life of plant = N years.
Now, analyzing by the marginal benefit and marginal cost approach,
1
Energy generated = 𝑀𝑊 ∗ 𝑋 ∗ 365 ∗ 24 = 8.76 𝑋(𝑀𝑊𝐻)
1000

• Marginal Benefit= Total Energy generated * Energy rate = US $𝐸 ∗ 8.76 𝑋 … … … … … … … … … … (1)

• Marginal Cost = Annual Cost (AC)+ O&M Cost
• Total marginal cost= Annual cost of installed electromechanical equipment (AC)+ O&M
• ⇒The electromechanical equipment is installed at the time of construction so converted it into annual cost and
annual operation and maintenance cost is added in it.
• ⇒ The civil component cost in hydropower is fixed cost so it is not included in marginal cost.
1+𝑖 𝑁 ∗𝑖
• AC= 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 [ ] where, i= interest rate, N= Economic life of the project.
1+𝑖 𝑁 −1
• ⇒Operation and maintenance cost is generally considered as certain percentage of variable cost,
• O&M Cost = % of 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
1+𝑖 𝑁 ∗𝑖
• ∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 +% of 𝑂&𝑀 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ……………………………………….(2)
1+𝑖 𝑁 −1
• Finally, equating marginal cost and marginal benefit the value of ‘X’ can be obtained.
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 ′𝑋′ % 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒
From the mean monthly flow for a Nepalese river. The power duration curve is
calculated which are as shown below:-

%of time 8.33 16.67 25 33.33 41.67 50 58.33 66.67 75 83.33 91.67 100
Power(MW) 703 588 537 305 256 183 147 107 82 72 59 51

• Determine the best installed capacity of the power plant with following data.
• Interest Rate = 10%
• Energy price = US $𝟑𝟎/𝑴𝒘𝒉
• Variable Cost = US $𝟔𝟎𝟎/𝑲𝑾 (Electro mechanical)
• Fixed cost = US $𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝑲𝑾
• O&M cost = 2% of variable cost
• Economic life of the plant = 40 years
 Solution:-
Let us analyze marginal benefit and cost for 1 Kw installation.
Assuming “X” % of the duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1
Kw power generation.
Then,
1
Total energy generated = 1000 ∗ 𝑋% ∗ 365 ∗ 24 𝑀𝑊𝐻 = 8.76𝑋% 𝑀𝑊𝐻 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 0.0876𝑋 𝑀𝑊𝐻 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤.

Marginal Benefit = 0.0876*X *U$ 30 = U$ 2.628 X …………………………………..(1)

Also, Total Marginal cost = annual Variable cost + O& M cost

1+𝑖 𝑁∗𝑖
= 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑁
+ % 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 & 𝑀 ∗ 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡
1+𝑖 −1
Here, fixed cost is civil cost and not taken in total cost.
 1+0.1 40 ∗0.1 2
⇒Total Marginal cost = 𝑈$600 1+0.1 40 −1
+
100
∗ 𝑈$600 = 𝑈$ 73.36 … … … … … … 2

Now, equating equation (1) and (2)

U$2.628 X= u$ 73.36 ⇒ 𝑋 = 27.915%
Hence the advantageous duration is 27.915 %.

Now, installed capacity is calculated by interpolation.

𝑷−𝟓𝟑𝟕 𝟑𝟎𝟓−𝟓𝟑𝟕
• =
𝟐𝟕.𝟗𝟏𝟓−𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑−𝟐𝟓
−𝟐𝟖𝟐
• P= 537 +2.915 *( ) = 𝟒𝟑𝟓. 𝟖𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑾
𝟖.𝟑𝟑
• Which is the best install capacity of the power plant.
Installed Capacity Optimum approach:-

We know the power generated from a plant is function of head and

discharge. i.e. it is given by, P= ɳ𝛾𝑄𝐻
The power can be calculated based on the different percentile available
flow as , 𝑃30 = ɳ𝛾𝑄30 𝐻
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃40 = ɳ𝛾𝑄40 𝐻 and so on.
From flow duration curve, for run of river plant, increasing %
of available flow the design discharge is reduced. Decreasing
the design discharge, the size of the hydropower component
such as intake structure, settling basin, conveyance system,
penstock etc decreases. Hence, the project cost reduces.
• But, in decreasing the design discharge, the project capacity as well
as energy decreases i.e. the annual revenue is decreased. Hence the
revenue and cost is treated for to get optimum benefit.
• The optimum capacity is fixed as installed capacity. In Nepal for
project up to 25 MW the installed capacity is fixed based on
𝑄40 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝐸𝐴 conduct power purchase agreement in the
pattern but for projects greater than 25 MW the installed capacity is
fixed based on the optimization study.
Demand and load prediction:-
Demand is the need of energy that is requested by the customers in
market, community and region and in country. Power demand is
classified into:-
• Residential
• Commercial
• Industrial
The power demand is generally depends upon population, living
standard of population or society, climate, purpose of using power,
general costume and culture.
These are following load prediction:-
• Short term prediction:- Covering a period of 4 to 5 years. It is done
mainly for designing operation plans identifying the areas of deficit and
surplus power.
• Medium term prediction:- Covering a period of 8 to 10 years. It is done
mainly for formulation of expansion program of power generation and
transmission facilities.
• Long term prediction:- covering period of more than 20 years. It is
mainly for formulation of country’s perspective plan for power
generation, country’s power resources and made of transmission and its
voltages. The economic factors and perspective plans has significant role
for long term forecasting.
Load curve:-
• Load curve is graph of load consumption with respect to any time. So
this curve gives an indication of power used at any time. Generally
load curve is daily load curve, weekly load curve, monthly load curve
and yearly load curve. The curve of load consumption with respect to
daily time scale gives the daily load curves as shown in figure below. It
also gives information, whether the installation is working efficiently
or not.

Peak load

Average load

Base load
Load curve may be
Daily load curve:-
Weekly load curve
Seasonal Load Curve

Importance of load / Power variation curve:-

• The study of power/load variation is important for planning of power production / generation and
transmission and distribution utilities.
• It indicates the power consumption at any time.
• It determines the size of the power plant and its cost.
• The load curve indicates the reservoir operation schedule.
• It also helps to prepare guide lines for operation and maintenance of power project to achieve
the targeted service at optimum cost for generation transmission and distribution system.
• In a daily load curve demand may reach the highest value is known as daily peak load or the
highest peak load of the day or daily peak demand.
• Peak demand
• Peak load:-
• Base load
• Average load:-
Load Factor:-
• The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a certain
period of time such as a day or a month or a year is called the load
factor. Since average load is always less than the maximum demand.
i.e. load factor is always less than unity.
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
• Load factor = =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝑴𝒂𝒙
• Also,
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
• Daily Load Factor =
𝑫𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉
• Monthly Load Factor =
𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟑𝟎∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
• Yearly Load Factor =
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟑𝟔𝟓∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
Capacity Factor (Plant Factor):-
• The capacity factor is also known as a plant factor and is the ratio of average
output of the plant for a given period of time to the plant capacity. Capacity
factors depending on the type of fuel that is used and design of the plant.
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
i.e. Capacity or Plant Factor =
𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
Also, Capacity (Plant Factor)=
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
Utilization Factors (Plant Use Factor):-
• It is the ratio of peak load developed during certain period of time to the
installed capacity of the plant.
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Utilization factor = 𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
=
𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓

The value of utilization factors varies from 0.40 to 0.90 for a hydropower plant
depending upon the plant capacity, load factors and storage.
Diversity factors:-
• The consumer uses power as per his demand if he uses whole of the
connected load his load factor is 100%, if he uses less than connected
load his load factor is less than 100%. The ratio of sum of the individual
maximum demand of all the consumers supplied by it to the maximum
demand of the power station is called the diversity factors. It is always
greater than unity.
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
• Diversity factors:-
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
• Demand Factor:-
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
• Demand Factor=
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
Significance of load factors and diversity factors:-
• Load factors and diversity factors play an important part in the cost of
the supply of electrical energy.
• Higher the value of load and diversity factor, lower will be the overall
cost per unit generated.
• Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting in greater
number of unit generated for a given maximum demand. Thus the
standing charges which are proportional to the maximum demand and
independent of number of units generated can be distributed over a
larger number of units supplied and therefore overall cost per unit of
electrical energy generated will be reduced.
• Lower the maximum demand of the power station, the lower is the
capacity required and therefore lower is the capital cost of the plant.
 Power Grid:-
System of transmission of high voltage is called power grid. Modern power system is served by
several power plants which are interconnected to form a power grid. Such power system is
designed to supply sufficient capacity to supply peak load and small additional capacity to take the
care of break down and necessary maintenance. The hydropower station connected with the
national power grid system may be in one river or its basin or different part of country. In this
system, shut down of any power station for maintenance will not affect the working process of the
people as a whole. Thus power system interconnection is known as power grid system. Except micro
hydropower and few mini hydropower projects all the small and large hydropower system is
interconnected to grid. For isolated system, there is no linkage with national grid.
The advantage of integrated grid over isolated grid is :-
• It increases reliability, in the event of a force or planned outage of power station.
• Reduction in the total capacity, by effective utilization of plants and by desired degree of service
reliability.
• Economic operation by combination of different sources of energy such as coal, thermal etc.
Component of power grid system are:-
• Component of power grid system are:-
• Generation station ( Power house, Generator) LDC

• Transmission Line
• Sub-Station
• Distribution lines
• Distribution transformers
• Household / consumer
• Load dispatch center(LDC)
Function of grid
• The power system planning is connected with the reliable supply with
minimum losses.
• Electric power is generated at a low voltage 6 to 25 KV which is then stepped
up to the transmission level in the range of 66 KV to 4O0 KV. As the
transmission capability of line is proportional to the square of its voltage it has
to raise transmission voltage with increase in transmission voltage efficiency in
transmission increases for these reason it is always advantageous to transmit
power at high voltage..
• Finally, the electricity is connected to consumers in 220 V voltage level by 11
KV/220 V distribution transformers.
• Whole supply of electricity from power house to all distribution lines of a
power grid is controlled by Load Dispatch Centre (LDC).
Component of power system:-
• Generators:-
generate electrical power /have a speed range of 70 to 1000 rpm/ generators can
have either a vertical shaft alignment or a horizontal shaft alignment. The main
components of generator are:-
Stator:- stationary part of the generator it consists of frame, core, winding.
Rotor:- Rotating element of generators it consists of hub, rim, poles, excitation.
Bearing:- It minimized frictional losses while operating the generator and
improves the efficiency
• Transformers:-
These are the device which increase(for transmission) or decrease(for
distribution)the voltages. It consists of a core made from laminated silicon alloy
steel having 0.35 mm to 0.50 mm thick each layer being insulated by thin paper
or varnish.
 Switch Gear:-
• The power houses are designed to give continuous service without
interruption of power. But sometimes faults may develop in the system due
to manmade or natural causes. In such cases suitable protective devices
have to be provided to locate faults, isolate the faulty circuits from the
system and to clear the faults as quick as possible. It consists of breakers,
relax and equipment for controlling and measuring such as currents and
potential transformers, isolators, control panels, switches and fuses etc.
Substations:-
• It is generally located just outside the power station building on the ground
or sometime on the RCC roof of the power house. It consists incoming line,
outgoing line, bus bars, transformer, metering panels, dropout fuse station
earthling system, low and high voltage, switch gear like circuit breaker etc.
Control room equipment:-
• It consists of switches to control the operation of units, recording and
signaling equipment. Instruments measuring of controlling voltages,
currents and frequencies of generation, outage feeders, battery charging
equipment , telephone equipment etc. Reservoir and tail race water
level indicator.
 A run of river plant is constructed across a river at a site having net head 50 m. The river carries a sustained minimum flow of 20
cumec as a dry weather flow. Behind the power station sufficient water poundage has been provided to supply daily peak load of
demand with a load factor 70%. Assuming the plant efficiency of 65% determine:-
The maximum generating capacity of the generators to be installed at the powerhouse.
The volume of poundage to be provided to supply the daily demand assuming that the daily load pattern consist of average load for 21
hours and peak load for 3 hours?
• The power produced ( At dry weather flow ) is given by , P=ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻 = 0.65 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 20 ∗
50 = 6376.5 𝐾𝑤 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑴𝑾
• We know,
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 6376.5
• Load factor= ⇒ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 9109.29𝐾𝑤.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 0.7
[Link] there is no reservoir capacity. We have the maximum capacity of the generators to be
installed = 9109.29 KW.
[Link] water from poundage is drawn in order to meet the excess demand for 3 hour.
• Excess power required to be developed during 3 hour = 9109.29 – 6376.5 = 2732.79 KW.
• Excess discharge required for developing this excess power is given by,
• 𝑃 = ɳ∗𝛾∗𝑄∗𝐻
• 2732.79 = 0.65 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 50
3
• ∴ 𝑄 = 8.57 𝑚 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Required poundage per day = 8.57*3*60*60 = 92556 cum
A power station has to supply the following loads on an average day. Calculate the daily load factor. What will be the plant
capacity factor and utilization factor if it has reserve capacity of 1000 Kw?
Time (T) 11pm to 5 5 am to 6 6 am to 7 7 am to 9 9 am to 12 am to 1 pm to 5 5 pm to 7 7 pm to 9 9 pm to
am am am am 12 am 1 pm pm pm pm 11 pm
Load(Kw) 500 750 1000 2000 2500 1500 2500 2000 2500 1000

• Reserve Capacity = 1000 Kw

Time Hour Load (Kw) Energy (Kwh)
11 pm to 5 am 6 500 500*6 = 3000
5 am to 6 am 1 750 750*1 =750
6 am to 7 am 1 1000 1000*1 = 1000
7 am to 9 am 2 2000 2000*2 = 4000
9 am to 12 am 3 2500 2500*3 = 7500
12 am to 1 pm 1 1500 1500*1 = 1500
1 pm to 5 pm 4 2500 2500*4 = 10000
5 pm to 7 pm 2 2000 2000*2 = 4000
7 pm to 9 pm 2 2500 2500*2 = 5000
9 pm to 11 pm 2 1000 1000*2 = 4000
∑= 38750 𝐾𝑤ℎ〗
• Maximum Load = 2500 Kwh
• Plant capacity = Maximum Load + Reserve capacity = 2500 + 1000 =
3500 Kw
38750
• ∴ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 1614.583 𝐾𝑤
24
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1614.583
• 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = ∗ 100% = 64.5%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2500
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 1614.583
• Plant Factor= = ∗ 100% =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3500
46.10%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2500
• Utilization Factor= = ∗ 100% = 71.40%
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3500
 A run off river plant has a minimum flow of 30 m3/sec and net head of 70 m. The overall efficiency of plant is 85%.
Calculate the installed capacity of a plant.
Without poundage designed for pure ROR Plant.
If the plant is designed for a peaking plant with 6 hours peaking (morning 2 hours and evening 4 hours). The plant
has two set of units (Turbine and Generators) such that one unit with full capacity is operating during off peak
hour. If total evaporation and other loss is 5 % of the stored water.
• Solution:-
• Power developed without poundage by 30 m3/sec discharge is given by ,P = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 30 ∗ 70 =
17510.85𝐾𝑤
• With poundage,
• One unit is continuously operated during off peak hour. i.e. 30/2 = 15 m3/sec water is used.
• ∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃1 = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 15 ∗ 70 = 8755.425𝐾𝑤
• Total volume of water stored during (24- 6) = 18 hours when one unit is operating = 15*18*60*60= 972000 m3.
• Loss of water = 972000*5/100= 48600 m3.
• Net amount of poundage per day = 972000-48600 = 923400 m3
923400
• Rate of water available from poundage for 6 hours only = 6∗60∗60 = 42.75 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Total flow available to generate power = 15+ 42.75 =57.75 m3/sec
• ∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃2 = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 57.75 ∗ 70 = 33708.386𝐾𝑤
• ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 42463.811
• OR, P= (30+42.75)*9.81*0.85*70 = 42463.811Kw.
 From the following data of the flow at a given area for an average year. Compute and draw the power
duration curve. Assume an average available net head of 10 m and combined efficiency of 89%.
Determine primary and secondary energy available during a year if the plant capacity is fixed at power
corresponding to the flow available for 25% of time.
Flow(m 900 600 500 450 400 350 340 300 280 200 140 100
3/sec)
% time 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 93 100

• Solution:-
• Net head(H)= 10 m Efficiency (ɳ)= 89%
• The power installed capacity of the plant is fixed based on 25% of the time
availability of flow so , 𝑄25 = 475 m3/sec.
𝑥−500 450−500
• = ⇒ 𝑥 = 475 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
25−20 30−20
• Power (Installed Capacity) P= ɳ𝛾𝑄ℎ =0.89*9.81*475*40 = 41471.775 Kw=
41.472MW
𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+ 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 365∗24
• Energy = ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒: −
S.N Flow(m3/sec) % of time Power(MW) Actual Power(MW) Energy (Gwh)
1 900 1 78.578 41.472 3.633
2 600 10 52.385 41.472 32.697
3 500 20 43.655 41.472 36.329
4 475 25 41.472 41.472 18.165
5 450 30 39.289 39.289 17.687
6 400 40 34.924 34.924 32.505
7 350 50 30.558 30.558 28.681
8 340 60 29.685 29.685 26.387
9 300 70 26.193 26.193 24.475
10 280 80 24.447 24.447 22.180
11 240 90 17.462 17.462 18.356
12 140 93 12.223 12.223 3.901
13 100 100 8.731 8.731 6.425

෍ 271.421
 .
• The area under the power duration curve gives the energy generated. So the energy under different area is calculated
as,
𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+ 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 365∗24 10−0 41.472+41.427 365∗24
• 𝐸1 = ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = ∗ ∗ 1000 = 3.633 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000 100 2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 10−1 41.472+41.427 365∗24
• 𝐸2 = 𝑛 𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = ∗ ∗ = 32.697 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000 100 2 1000
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 20−10 41.472+41.427 365∗24
• 𝐸3 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 36.329𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 25−20 41.472+41.427 365∗24
• 𝐸4 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 18.165 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 30−25 39.289+41.427 365∗24
• 𝐸5 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 17.687𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 40−30 34.924+39.289 365∗24
• 𝐸6 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 32.505 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 50−40 30.558+34.924 365∗24
• 𝐸7 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 28.681 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+ 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 365∗24 60−50 26.685+30.558 365∗24
• 𝐸8 = 100 ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = ∗ ∗ 1000 = 26.387 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2 1000 100 2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 70−60 26.193+26.685 365∗24
• 𝐸9 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 24.475 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 80−70 24.447+26.193 365∗24
• 𝐸10 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 22.180 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 90−80 17.462+24.447 365∗24
• 𝐸11 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ ∗ 1000 = 18.356 𝐺𝑤ℎ
2
𝑡 −𝑡 𝑃 𝑃 365∗24 93−90 12.223+17.462 365∗24
• 𝐸12 = 𝑛 100𝑛−1 ∗ 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 ∗ 1000 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100 ∗ 2
∗ 1000 = 3.901 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛+ 𝑃 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛−1 365∗24 100−93 8.731+12.223 365∗24
• 𝐸13 = 100 ∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000 = 6.425 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100−0 365∗24
• Firm energy or Primary energy (Available at 100% of time)= 100 ∗ 8.731 ∗ 1000 = 76.484 𝐺𝑤ℎ
• ∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 271.421 − 76.484 = 194.937 𝐺𝑤ℎ