IV Semester CS Major SEMESTER-II BCA Cloud Minor

Course 11: Data Communication and Computer COURSE 1: COMPUTER NETWORKS

Networks Credits -3 Syllabus

UNIT-I UNIT- I
INTRODUCTION: Network applications, network Introduction to Network:- Definition,
hardware, network software, reference models: OSI,
Applications, line configuration, Network
TCP/IP, Internet, Connection oriented network -
X.25, frame relay. THE PHYSICAL LAYER:
topologies, Transmission mode, Types of
Theoretical basis for communication, guided Networks (LAN, WAN, MAN), Protocols,
transmission media, wireless transmission, the public Network models: The OSI model, TCP/IP
switched telephone networks, mobile telephone Protocol Suite.
system.
Physical Layer: Signals –Analog signals, Digital
UNIT-II signals, Transmission media - Guided & Un-
Guided.
THE DATA LINK LAYER: Design issues, error
detection and correction, elementary data link UNIT- II
protocols, sliding window protocols, example data
link protocols - HDLC, the data link layer on the Network LAN Technologies: Ethernet, Fast
internet.
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and Wireless LAN’s.
Data Link Layer: Error Detection and
THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUBLAYER: Channel
allocations problem, multiple access protocols,
correction - Types of Errors, Error Detection,
Ethernet, Data Link Layer switching, Wireless LAN, Error correction. Data link Protocols – Stop-
Broadband Wireless, Bluetooth. and-wait ARQ, Go-back-n ARQ, Automatic
Repeat Request (ARQ).
UNIT-III
UNIT- III
THE NETWORK LAYER: Network layer design
issues, routing algorithms, Congestion control Network Devices: Modem, Hub, Switch, Router,
algorithms, Internetworking, the network layer Repeaters, bridges, Gateway. Network Layer:
Internetwork Protocol (IP), Addressing (Classes,
UNIT-IV Dotted-decimal notation, Sample Internet),
Subnet mask, Network layer Protocols – ARP,
THE TRANSPORT LAYER: Transport service, IPv4, and IPv6.
elements of transport protocol, Simple Transport
Protocol, Internet transport layer protocols: UDP UNIT- IV
and TCP.
Transport Layer: TCP protocol, UDP protocol,
UNIT-V
Process-to-Process delivery, Congestion:
THE APPLICATION LAYER: Domain name Congestion control, congestion avoidance,
system, electronic mail, World Wide Web: congestion discarding, Quality of Service (QOS).
architectural overview, dynamic web document and
http. UNIT-V

APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS: Simple Application Layer: Domain Name System (DNS)
Network Management Protocol, File Transfer - domain name space, distribution of name
Protocol, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, Telnet. space, DNS in the Internet, SMTP, SNMP, FTP,
POP3, HTTP, WWW.
Network :

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information (data) and
resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more
easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used
to connect computers and tools in any network.

Uses of Computer Networks

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.

 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.

 Sharing files.

 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.

 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources with each other.

Prerequisites

 Network - A network comprises two or more devices connected via a communication link.
 Link - A link is a medium that can be wired or wireless that connects the devices in a network for
communication. Examples of a wired medium can be cables/wires, while microwaves or radiowaves
are some examples of wireless medium.
 Nodes/Devices - Any device capable of receiving and sending data in a network is referred to as
nodes/devices in the network.
Examples - laptops, computers, smartphones, etc.

Network applications:

"network applications" refer to software programs that utilize a computer network to enable communication
and data sharing between multiple devices and users, allowing activities like web browsing, file sharing,
email, online gaming, and real-time messaging to occur across the internet; essentially, any application that
requires interaction across a network to function is considered a network application.

Line Configuration:

Line configuration refers to the method by which two or more devices are attached to a link and is
also known as a connection.

In the OSI reference model, the physical layer responsible for the transmission of bits over a medium
takes care of the line configuration.

Line Configuration in Computer Network

A Network is nothing but a connection made through connection links between two or more devices.
Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device that is capable to send and receive data. There are
two ways to connect the devices :

1. Point-to-Point connection
2. Multipoint connection

Point-to-Point connection

As the name suggests, a point-to-point connection provides a link between exactly two devices/nodes, which
implies the link can only be used by the two devices connected to it, i.e. the sender and receiver and no other
device can use it.

The important features of the point-to-point connection are as follows:

 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for data transmission between the two nodes connected.

 Like, if the capacity of a link is 10MBPS, which means 10 megabits of data can be transmitted
through it per second, then only the two devices can utilize it, and no other device can claim this.

 Mostly cables/wires are used to attach the two endpoints in point-to-point line configuration, but
microwaves or radio waves can also be used.

 It is one of the most basic and simplest configurations to implement.

Examples

 One real-life example is controlling a T.V. through an infrared remote, which does nothing but
establish a point-to-point connection between the T.V and remote.

 Another best example is a telephone call in which there is a point-to-point connection between 2
telephones.

A diagram showing the point-to-point line configuration will help us understand the concept more clearly.
Multipoint connection

As you might have guessed, in a multipoint connection two or more devices can share a single link, i.e. there
can be one sender and multiple receivers.

The important features are as follows:

 It is also called a Multidrop connection.

 More than two devices can share the entire capacity of the link.

Source

There can be two ways of sharing capacity on the same link -

 Spatial sharing - In spatial sharing, two or more devices can utilize the link capacity simultaneously.

 Temporal sharing - In temporal sharing, the devices take turns using the link one by one; hence,
they don't utilize the link simultaneously and the link is time-shared among them.

Advantages of Multipoint connection

Some of the advantages of the multipoint connection over the point-to-point connection are the ease of
installation, reliability and low cost, as in multipoint connection, more than two devices can share the same
link, unlike in point-to-point connection.

Network topologies

Types of Network Topology

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or devices in a computer
network. It defines how these components are connected and interact with each other. Understanding various
types of network topologies helps in designing efficient and robust networks. Common types include bus,
star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we are
going to discuss different types of network topology their advantages and disadvantages in detail.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is referred
to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:

 Point to Point Topology

 Mesh Topology

 Star Topology

 Bus Topology

 Ring Topology

 Tree Topology

 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver. It is
the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver.
Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links.

 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).

 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Communication is very fast between the nodes.

 Mesh Topology is robust.

 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.

 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration are difficult.

 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.

 The cost of maintenance is high.

A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service providers are
connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military communication
systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an
intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active
hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.

 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.

 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.

 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.

 The cost of installation is high.

 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers are
connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are connected
to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed
by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop
lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.

 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.

 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.

 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.

 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols
are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.

 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.

 Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks. For more, refer
to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A number
of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send
some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token
Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another
node.

 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.

2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to
be released for other stations to use.

3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.

4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

 Cheap to install and expand.

 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
  Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.

 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree
Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater.
This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from
bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and
a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.

 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.

 We can add new devices to the existing network.

 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

 The cost is high because of the cabling.

 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree is the
CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each
department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team
members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and
departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above.
Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as
Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual
topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination of all
different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.

 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.

 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices.

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a
backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or router.
Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The
wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for
efficient communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each
building.
Conclusion
In conclusion, network topologies play a crucial role in determining the efficiency and reliability of a
computer network. Each topology, whether it’s bus, star, ring, mesh, or tree, offers unique benefits
and potential drawbacks. By understanding these different arrangements, network designers can
choose the most appropriate topology to meet the specific needs of their systems, ensuring optimal

performance and connectivity.

Transmission/Communication Mode
Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring data between
devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate communication. They are classified into three
types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode. In this article, we will discuss
Transmission Modes.

What is Transmission Modes?

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission modes:

Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.

 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.

 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which
simplifies the communication process.

 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not required,
such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode

 Only one-way communication is possible.

 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.

 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional communication.

Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases
where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of
the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.

Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in situations where
devices need to send and receive data.

 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can be used
for both transmission and reception.

 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.

Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot transmit at the
same time.

 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some
applications.

 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can
complicate the communication process.

Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction, this
sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and
the other for receiving.

 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity
of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for real-
time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.

 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and receive data
simultaneously.

 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for error
correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.

 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically separate
transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.

 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level of
bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

Difference Between Simplex, Half duplex, and Full Duplex Transmission Modes

Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

The direction of Simplex mode is a uni- Half Duplex mode is a Full Duplex mode is a
communication directional two-way directional two-way directional
communication. communication but one communication
at a time. simultaneously.
Sender and In simplex mode, In Half Duplex mode, In Full Duplex mode,
Receiver Sender can send the Sender can send the data Sender can send the data
data but that sender and also can receive the and also can receive the
can’t receive the data. data but one at a time. data simultaneously.
 Channel usage Usage of one channel Usage of one channel for Usage of two channels for
for the transmission of the transmission of data. the transmission of data.
data.
Performance The simplex mode The Half Duplex mode Full Duplex provides
provides less provides less better performance than
performance than half performance than full simplex and half duplex
duplex and full duplex. duplex. mode.
Bandwidth Simplex utilizes the The Half-Duplex involves The Full-Duplex doubles
Utilization maximum of a single lesser utilization of single the utilization of
bandwidth. bandwidth at the time of transmission bandwidth.
transmission.
Suitable for It is suitable for those It is suitable for those It is suitable for those
transmissions when transmissions when there transmissions when there
there is requirement of is requirement of sending is requirement of sending
full bandwidth for data in both directions, and receiving data
delivering data. but not at the same time. simultaneously in both
directions.
Examples Example of simplex Example of half duplex Example of full duplex
mode are: Keyboard mode is: Walkie-Talkies. mode is: Telephone.
and monitor.

Conclusion

Transmission modes enable communication between devices and are classified into three types:
simplex mode, which allows unidirectional communication and is cost-effective but supports only one-
way data transfer; half-duplex mode, which allows bidirectional communication but not
simultaneously, offering a balance between efficiency and cost; and full-duplex mode, which enables
simultaneous two-way communication, providing the highest efficiency and reliability but is the most
complex and expensive.

Types of Networks

Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to connect devices
within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones,
tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a network
range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is
very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA-infrared, and
Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Types of PAN

 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are created by simply
utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.

 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed using a USB.

Advantages of PAN

 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.

 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.

 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance

 It is easy and portable.

 Needs fewer technical skills to use.

Disadvantages of PAN

 Low network coverage area/range.

 Limited to relatively low data rates.

 Devices are not compatible with each other.

 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

Applications of PAN

 Home and Offices

 Organizations and the Business sector

 Medical and Hospital

 School and College Education

 Military and Defense

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very
high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library,
laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN

 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a
privacy.

 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.

 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications

transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber
and wireless transmission.
  Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance
and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.

Disadvantages of LAN

 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because there is special
software required to make a server.

 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.

 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each and
every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users are violated

 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area

 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an unauthorized
user, can cause a serious data security threat.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a
range from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and
moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
Campus Area Network (CAN)

Advantages of CAN

 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data
transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.

 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring,

tracking and limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed
between network and internet.

 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast data
transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly, where
wiring and cabling costs can be managed. So to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-
effective in view of performance

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with
a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes
with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area
within multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Advantages of MAN

 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.

 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.

 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
  MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.

 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.

Disadvantages of MAN

 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.

 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.

 It provides less fault tolerance.

 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission
speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The most common
example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Advantages of WAN

 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit data
quickly and cheaply.

 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided by
WAN.
  The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimised.

 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.

 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.

 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.

 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected system within the network.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Parameter PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

s
Full Name Personal Area Local Area Campus Area Metropolitan Wide Area
Network Network Network Area Network Network
Technology Bluetooth, Ethernet & Ethernet FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line,
IrDA,Zigbee Wifi ATM Dial-Up
Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km
Transmissi Very High Very High High Average Low
on Speed
Ownership Private Private Private Private or Private or
Public Public
Maintenan Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult
ce
Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

 Storage Area Network (SAN)

 System-Area Network (SAN)

 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

 Home Area Network (HAN)

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless
network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over physical
cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly. The most common example of
WLAN is Wi-Fi.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.

2. Storage Area Network (SAN)

SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to
several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage
resources from the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data
storage. Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical splitters
to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to
distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.

Olt : optical line terminal : connects a service provider's network to a customer's premises.

Ont: optical network terminal

Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over
various locations to share computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets the
user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they are not.
Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely. VPN
protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected network
connection.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)

6. Home Area Network (HAN)

Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with
other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network (LAN)
within that home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and
other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages
sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and wireless
communication.

Home Area Network (HAN)

Internetwork

An internet network is defined as two or more computer network LANs, WANs, or computer network
segments that are connected by devices and configured with a local addressing system. The method is
known as internetworking. There are two types of Internetwork.
  Intranet: An internal network within an organization that enables employees to share data,
collaborate, and access resources. Intranets are not accessible to the public and use private IP
addresses.

 Extranet: Extranets extend the intranet to authorized external users, such as business partners
or clients. They provide controlled access to specific resources while maintaining security.

Advantages of Computer Network

 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily
access and available to everyone.

 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.

 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in
easily communicating among the organization.

 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and

protection of information in the system.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them.
Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.

 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it consists
of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.

 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.

 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it

requires training for its proper use.

Conclusion

In conclusion, computer networks are essential components that connect various computer devices in order
to efficiently share data and resources. PAN, LAN, CAN, MAN, and WAN networks serve a wide range of
applications and purposes, each with its own set of advantages and drawbacks. Understanding these
networks and their applications improves connectivity, data exchange, and resource utilization in a variety
of applications from personal use to global communications.

Protocols
A protocol in a network is considered software as it is a set of rules and procedures that define how
data is exchanged between devices, and these rules are implemented through software code within the
operating system or applications, rather than being directly controlled by hardware components

Types of Network Protocols and Their Uses

Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data between
various devices in the network. These protocols define guidelines and conventions for transmitting
and receiving data, ensuring efficient and reliable data communication.

What is Network Protocol?

A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices in the
network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is
being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of
internal and structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network

protocols. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates how
computer systems interact with one another over a network. The communication mechanism between
two network devices is shown by seven different layers in the OSI model. Every layer in the OSI
model works based on different network protocols. At every layer, one or more protocols are there for
network communication. To enable network-to-network connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for
instance, routes data by controlling information like the source and destination addresses of data
packets. It is known as a network layer protocol.

Types of Network Protocols

In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI model
has a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network communication
are the three main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of protocols is to link
different devices.

The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:

 Network Communication

 Network Management

 Network Security

1. Network Communication

Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so crucial
that it is not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally set out the
rules and formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error
detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below mentioned are some network communication
protocol:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext between two or more systems.
HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing over the web is done through using
HTTP.

Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-

oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any data. It is
used for communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP, streaming
media, etc.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message service. It adds no flow
control, reliability, or error-recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not
required. It is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and broadcasting connections,
etc.

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the router in an independent system
one or more networks run by a single organization and connect to different networks. It connects the
endpoints of a LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different LANs to one another.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical addresses acknowledged in a
local network. For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these logical and physical
addresses a table known as ARP cache is used.

Internet Protocol(IP)

It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet. It is used for
addressing and routing data packets so that they can reach their destination.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of automating the process of
configuring devices on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and various
other configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with other IP
networks. it also allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any other protocol based
on TCP or UDP.

2. Network Management

These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring,
maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating these
requirements across the network to ensure stable communication. Network management protocols
can also be used for troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.

Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)

It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward operational information and error
messages. ICMP is used for reporting congestions(bottlenecks) , network errors, diagnostic purposes,
and timeouts.

Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main
components in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device. SNMP
agent has the local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a form that is
compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data acquired from SNMP agents, thus
helping in monitoring network glitches(bugs), and network performance, and troubleshooting them.

Gopher
It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for easy
management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote computer in a
stratified manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it allows users
to download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available on other services.

Post Office Protocol(POP3)

It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a remote email server over a
TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold and receive
emails intended for their users. Eventually, these users will use email client software to look at their
mailbox on the remote server and to download their emails. After the email client downloads the
emails, they are generally deleted from the servers.

Telnet

It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program and to use it i.e., it is
designed for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and a remote
endpoint to enable a remote session.

3. Network Security

These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how the
network secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make
sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the network data. Primarily, these
protocols depend on encryption to secure data.

Secure Socket Layer(SSL)

It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting sensitive data and securing internet
connections. SSL allows both server-to-server and client-to-server communication. All the data
transferred through SSL is encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)

It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol ensures secure communication between two computers
where one sends the request through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.

Transport Layer Security(TLS)

It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over the internet, its functionality is
encryption, checking the integrity of data i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and
authentication. It is generally used for encrypted communication between servers and web apps, like a
web browser loading a website, it can also be used for encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP.

Some Other Protocols

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

  ICMP protocol is used to retrieve message from the mail server. By using ICMP mail user can
view and manage mails on his system.

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

 SIP is used in video, voice, and messaging application. This protocol is used to initiating,
Managing, Terminating the session between two users while they are communicating.

Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)

 This protocol is used to forward audio, video over IP network. This protocol is used with SIP
protocol to send audio, video at real-time.

Rout Access Protocol (RAP)

 RAP is used in network management. It helps to user for accessing the nearest router for
communication. RAP is less efficient as compared to SNMP.

Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP)

 It is used to implement VPN ( Virtual Private Network ). PPTP protocol append PPP frame in
IP datagram for transmission through IP based network.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

 TFTP is the simplified version of FTP. TFTP is also used to transfer file over internet

Resource Location Protocol (RLP)

 RLP is used to assign the resource such as server, printer, or other devices over the internet to
the user. It is used to locate the resource to the client for broadcast query.

OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a
software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:
 Application related – Transportation related
 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer
just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

simplex, half duplex, and full duplex

The main differences between simplex, half duplex, and full duplex are the direction and timing
of data transmission:
Simplex: Data is sent in one direction only.
Half duplex: Data is sent in one direction at a time, alternating between devices.
Full duplex: Data is sent in both directions simultaneously.

Here's some more information about each mode:

Simplex
In simplex mode, one device is the sender and the other is the receiver. The sender cannot receive data, and the
receiver cannot send data.

Half duplex
In half duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data, but only one at a time.

Full duplex
In full duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data simultaneously. Full duplex is the fastest method of
device communication.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
 2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode
between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer
  This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It
ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed
the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment
for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then
the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given
time.
3) Network Layer
  It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions,
the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols
are IPV4 and Ipv6.
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Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out
of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into packets. This
process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Packetizing involves encapsulating data into packets suitable for transmission .
4) Transport Layer

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
 Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
 User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer
but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer,
it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number
that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at
the destination without any error.
5) Session Layer

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes, coordinates the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
  Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes
or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place
again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
6) Presentation Layer

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer
  An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
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 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite/Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite, commonly known as TCP/IP, is a framework for

organizing the set of communication protocols used in the Internet and similar
computer networks according to functional criteria.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of communication
protocols that makes data exchange between two devices possible. TCP/IP specifies how data should
be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received on a network by providing end-to-end
communication. As compared to the OSI model, which is a theoretical model, TCP/IP is an application
and practical model.

TCP/IP started as one of many internet protocols created by DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency in the United States) in the 1970s. The TCP/IP model was later adopted as the
standard protocol for ARPAnet, the modern internet’s predecessor. TCP/IP is now the international
standard for internet communication.

What is TCP/IP Model?

The TCP/IP model is created to allow communication over long distances possible between two
devices. It also assists in how the data between two devices is transmitted over the internet. TCP/IP
specifies how the data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received on a
network by providing end-to-end communication. The TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers, i.e., the
application layer, transport layer, network layer, and data link layer. Each layer is responsible for a
particular task strictly according to the protocols.

1. Application Layer
2. Host-To-Host Layer/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer/Network Layer
4. Network Access Layer/Link Layer

TCP specifies how applications will establish communication channels across a network. It also
controls how a message is split into multiple data packets, sent over the internet, and reassembled in
order at the destination address. IP specifies how each packet should be addressed and routed to
ensure that it arrives at its destination. To identify where the message should be forwarded, each
gateway computer on the network verifies this IP address.

Highlights:

 The TCP/IP model allows communication over long distances between two devices.
 TCP handles the flow of data and also handles errors in data transmission, while IP provides a
unique address to each device in the network.

How Does the TCP/IP Protocol Work?

Whenever we send things like a simple text message, a file, or a video message over the internet, the
TCP/IP model divides the data into packets, according to four-layered architecture. The data goes in
order from the sender’s side, and on the receiver’s side, it follows the reverse order and is finally
reassembled.
TCP/IP is based on the client-server communication model, which means that a user of a first
computer (the client) sends a service request to a second network computer or web hosting
provider(server), such as forwarding a Web page. TCP/IP also uses point-to-point communication,
which means that data is sent from one host computer to another within a defined network border. In
TCP/IP model, each client request is unique and unrelated to previous ones. Hence, it is called
stateless, and being stateless allows network channels to be used indefinitely.

Because the entire process is standardized, the TCP/IP model works. Without standardization,
communication would go haywire, and fast internet service relies on efficiency. The TCP/IP model
provides both efficiency and standardization. The TCP/IP model is the most effective way to send
internet data because it is the global standard.

Highlights:

 According to the four-layered architecture, the TCP/IP model divides the data into packets.
 The TCP/IP model provides both efficiency and standardization, and it is one of the biggest
reasons why the TCP/IP model always works.

Layers in TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model generally consists of four essential layers

5. Application Layer
6. Host-To-Host Layer/Transport Layer
7. Internet Layer/Network Layer
8. Network Access Layer/Link Layer

Since TCP/IP is an implementable model, it can be further classified into a five-layer model in which
the data link layer and the physical layer are separated from the Link layer. It is done to achieve the
client’s requirements with efficiency. To understand better, let’s have a look at the diagram given
below, which compares four-layer and five-layer TCP/IP Models with the standard OSI Model.
This will focus on the four-layer TCP/IP model and discuss all layers of the TCP/IP.

The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The four layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite are defined below.

1. Application Layer

This layer performs the functions of the top three layers of the OSI model, i.e., the Application,
Presentation, and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-
interface specifications. Its protocols include HTTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol, and File Transfer Protocol. At the application layer, the payload is the actual application
data. Some of the protocols of the application layer are described below.

 HTTP:- It stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol enables us to access data via
the internet. It sends data in plain text, audio, and video formats. It’s called a hypertext
transfer protocol because it’s efficient enough to use in a hypertext environment where there
are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 TELNET:- It establishes a connection between the local and remote computers in such a way
that the local computer seems to be a remote terminal.
 SMTP:-The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the TCP/IP protocol that handles e-mail.
The data is sent to another e-mail address using this protocol.
 FTP:- The FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard internet protocol for transferring data
from one computer to another.

2.Host-to-Host/Transport Layer

This layer is similar to the OSI model’s Transport layer. It specifies how much data should be sent,
when, and where at what rate. The message from the application layer is built upon this layer. This
layer ensures that data units are supplied in a timely and error-free manner. Through error control,
flow control, and segmentation or de-segmentation, the transport layer helps to control the link’s
reliability. The transport layer also acknowledges the successful data transmission and sends the next
data if no errors occur. The two important protocols present in this layer are
  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):-It is known for offering error-free and reliable
communication between end systems. It does data segmentation and sequencing. It also
features an acknowledgment feature and uses a flow control method to govern data flow. It is a
very effective protocol, but it has a lot of overhead because of these features. Increased
overhead translates to higher costs. TCP uses three-way handshaking to establish and
acknowledge the connection between the two devices.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP):-On the other side, it doesn’t have any of these properties. If
your application does not require dependable transmission, one must use this protocol because
it is relatively cost-effective. UDP is a connectionless protocol, so it does not provide assurance
of data delivery.(broadcasting)

3.Internet Layer

This layer is also known as the network layer. The Internet layer’s primary function is to send packets
from the source or computer to their destination, regardless of their route. The Internet layer or
Network Layer provides a functional and procedural means for sending variable-length data
sequences between nodes across multiple networks. Message delivery at the Internet layer does not
guarantee reliable network layer protocol. The main protocols lie in the layer are

 IP:-The Internet Protocol (IP) is in charge of sending packets from a source host to a
destination host based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. There are two variations of IP
IPv6 and IPv4.
 ARP:- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for resolving conflicts between
computers. Its task is to determine a host’s hardware address from an IP address. ARP’s
primary function is to convert 32-bit addresses to 48-bit addresses and vice versa. ARP is
necessary because IP addresses in IP version 4 (IPv4) are 32 bits long, but MAC addresses are
48 bits long. (Logical to physical addresses)

4. Network Access Layer/Link Layer

Network access or Link layer specifies the physical transmission of data over the network. This layer
handles data transmission between two adjacent devices on the same network. It also determines how
bits should be optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network media
such as coaxial, optical, fiber, or twisted-pair cables.

Highlights:

 Application Layer is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface

specifications. HTTP, SMTP, TELNET, etc., are some of its essential protocols.
 Host-To-Host Layer specifies how much data should be sent, when, and where at what rate.
TCP and UDP are two significant protocols of this Layer.
 The Internet layer’s primary function is to send packets from the source or computer to their
destination, regardless of their route. IP and ARP are two significant protocols of this layer.
 Network Acess Layer handles data transmission between two adjacent devices on the same
network.

Uses Of TCP/IP Model

The various uses of the TCP/IP Model are described below.

1. It provides a suite of communication protocols that allows data exchange between two devices
possible or in general we can say that it makes the internet possible.
2. We all are aware of the importance of text communication in today’s environment. For text
communication, flow control, and error control are mandatory because the text message’s size
is minimal, and it must be delivered with minimal error to the right person. A small mistake in
 the text message can change the meaning of the whole message. So TCP/IP model handles the
following operations to ensure the transition between sender and receiver is in order and error-
free. Examples of text communication are WhatsApp, Instagram, Google Chat, and iMessage.
3. Internet banking is possible due to this model because it provides reliability, efficiency, and
security, making it possible for users to use such facilities online.
4. Online gaming and video streaming are also possible because TCP/IP model provides flexibility
in choosing connection-oriented or connectionless transmission. Due to this flexibility,
broadcasting sports and events to a mass audience is possible.
5. TCP/IP provides various functions like DNS, DHCP, Virtual Private Networking,
Piggybacking, Error control, etc. This feature allows end-user to use the internet without fear
of losing their privacy and integrity.

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

1. It’s a set of open protocols. As any one institution does not own it, it can be used by anybody or
any group.
2. It’s a client-server architecture and highly scalable. It allows the addition of new networks
without disrupting existing services.
3. It’s an industry-standard model that can be used to solve real-world networking problems.
4. It is interoperable, allowing two different systems to communicate via a heterogeneous
network.
5. It assigns a unique IP address to each device in a network such that each device has its own
unique identity over the internet.
6. It is challenging for humans to remember numerical values compared to alphabetical names.
So to solve this, TCP/IP models also provide DNS service to provide resolution between
alphabetical domain names and IP addresses.

Disadvantages of the TCP/IP Model

1. Concepts like “services,” “interfaces,” and “protocols” are not distinguished. As a result,
describing new technologies in new networks is not appropriate.
2. This model was created to be used in wide-area networks. It is not designed for tiny networks
such as LANs and PANs (pervasive area networks) (personal area networks).
3. It’s not generic. As a result, it can’t represent any protocol stack other than TCP/IP. It cannot,
for example, define a Bluetooth connection.
4. It is not easy to replace protocols.

Physical Layer
Signals
Computer network signals are signals that are transmitted over a network, such as digital signals and analog
signals

The physical layer’s major function is to move data in the form of electromagnetic signals over a
transmission medium. The data which is used by a person is not in a form that can be transmitted
over a network.

Both data and the signals that represent them can be either Analog or digital in form.

Types of Signals

There are different types of signals which are given below:

  Analog Signals

 Digital Signals

1. Analog Signals

A signal is an electrical representation of data. Signals can represent messages, images, sounds,
measurements, and anything else defined as a set of values.

In analog signal, the physical quantities such as current or voltage varies continuously with time.
These signals get stored in the form of wave signal. It also has low impedance/resistance.

These signals are continuing (e.g., a real variable) and infinitely varying with time parameter or can
take any value within a given range. These signals are represented by the sine wave. Examples of
analog signals are audio signals, temperature readings, sound waves or television waves.

Analog Signal Graph

Characteristics of Analog Signal

 These sorts of electronic signals are time-varying.

 lowest and highest values which is either positive or negative.

 It are often either periodic or non-periodic.

 Analog Signal works on continuous data.

 The accuracy of the analog signal isn’t high in comparison to the digital signal.

 It helps you to live natural or physical values.

 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it’s going to not be meaningful to
all or any .

Advantages of Analog Signals

 It is Easier in processing.

 Analog Signals are best fitted to audio and video transmission.

 It has a coffee cost and is portable.

 It posses higher density.

 Not necessary in Analog Signals to shop for a replacement graphics board.

  It Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds.

 It Provide more accurate representation of a sound.

 It is the natural sort of a sound.

 It has Less bandwidth.

 Binary digits 0 and 1 represent the optical pulse for storing, processing and transmitting
information.

Disadvantages of Analog Signals

 Analog tends to possess a lower quality signal than digital.

 The cables are sensitive to external influences.

 Analog wire is expensive and not easily portable.

 In this, it has Low availability of models with digital interfaces.

 Recording analog sound on tape is sort of expensive if the tape is broken.

 It offers limitations in editing.

 Tape is becoming hard to seek out.

 It is quite difficult to synchronize analog sound.

 Quality is definitely lost.

 Data can become corrupted in analog signals.

 Most of sound capturing devices such as phones etc which may become confusing to store a
digital signal.

 Digital sounds can cut an analog acoustic wave which suggests that you simply can’t get an
ideal reproduction of a sound.

 It Offers poor multi-user interfaces.

Conclusion

The fundamental ideas of analog and digital signals and their applications in electronics are covered.
A thorough understanding of analog and digital technologies is developed through an analysis of the
advantages and disadvantages of each. The technologies are used throughout the world and the
infrastructure varies, so a varied approach to applying the technology will depend on that
infrastructure and the standards that apply to the region for which the systems are being installed.

2. Digital Signals
In digital signal, the physical quantities such as current or voltage can have only one of the two
possible values at a time, i.e., digital signal have only levels, either zero or some maximum finite value
of current or voltage. These signals get stored in the form of binary bit. It is having high impedance
which may reach to 100 megaohms.

A signal that is a function of discrete variables (e.g., an integer variable) is said to be discrete time and
this are represent in binary form (0s and 1s). More robust against noise. Commonly used in computer
systems and telecommunications.

Digital Signal Graph

Characteristics of Digital Signals

The following are some important characteristics of digital signals:

 Digital signals have discretely defined definite values.

 Digital signals are easy to express using binary digits, i.e. bits.
 Digital signals have very high noise immunity, making them ideal for information transmission
over communication channels.
 Digital signals allow for efficient and fast error detection and correction using automated tools.
 Digital signals are reliable for transmitting information over long distances.
 Digital signals can be processed using digital systems like computers.
 Digital signals can provide an extra layer of security through an encryption mechanism.

Disadvantages of Digital Signals

Apart from advantages, digital signals also have several disadvantages. Some key disadvantages of
digital signals are listed as follows:

 Digital signals typically require higher bandwidth to transmit data at higher rates.
 Digital signals require expensive infrastructure for transmission.
 Digital signals involve some advanced transmission systems, making them slightly complex and
costly.
 Digital signals may have inaccuracies due to analog-to-digital conversion.

Applications of Digital Signals

Digital signals are widely used in the following applications:

 Digital signals are used in telecommunication networks for information transmission.

 Digital signals are used in internet technology and mobile and satellite communication.
 Digital signals are also used in computer networks like LAN, WAN, WiFi, etc.
  Digital signals are widely in digital electronic systems such as microprocessors,
microcontrollers, smartphones, digital computers, etc.
 Digital signals are also utilized for data storage in digital memory devices like USB drives,
SSDs, etc.
 Digital signals are widely utilized in digital control systems and robotics.

Conclusion

In conclusion, digital signals are those that represent information in the form of definite values
defined as certain discrete time instants. Digital signals are represented using binary digits, i.e.
discrete voltage levels. Digital signals are crucial for various industries like telecommunication,
internet technology, robotics, automation and control systems, etc.

Comparison between Analog and Digital Signal

Below table represents the difference between analog and digital signal.

Features Analog Signal Digital Signal

Representation It has Continuous waveforms This is discrete and finite
and infinite number of values. values.
Representation medium Voltage, current and sound In Binary digits
waves.
Waveform Smooth and continuous curve Stepwise changes
Accuracy Sensitive to noise and interface. Less Sensitive to noise and
interface.
Processing Complex processing Easy processing and flexible.
Bandwidth Bandwidth consumption is Bandwidth consumption is
variable. fixed.
Device Compatibility This are compatible with This are compatible with
traditional devices such as modern devices such as
analog cameras, analog audio computers, smartphones etc.
systems etc.
Power consumption Use more power. Use less Power.
Example Temperature, flow Motor start, trip etc.
measurement etc.

Conclusion

In the circuit, signals follow the script that controls the operation of electronic devices. Whether
analog signals or digital signals, periodic or aperiodic signals, deterministic and random signals, we
can say that the signals are information systems for communication, control and processing. As
technology advances, understanding and controlling signals becomes important. From simple sine to
digital model, signals still form the basis of innovation in electrical engineering.

Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one device
to another within a network. These medium can be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends
on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will discuss the transmission media.
In this article we will see types of transmission media in detail.

What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?

A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media

Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed

 Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such
pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
  Easy to install

 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a copper
braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and
in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and
2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial
cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .

 It is easy to install.

 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.

 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.

 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up of glass.
The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM
(Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional
mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.

 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior
and exterior of automobiles.

Stripline

Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M.

Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the
planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also
called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane
which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals, commonly
found in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow conducting strip (usually
made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating layer), with a metal ground plane
on the other side.

2. Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is required

for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Radiowave

Microwaves

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned
with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the
antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used
in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

Direction These are omni-directional These are unidirectional in These are
in nature. nature. unidirectional in
nature.
Penetration At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they can They cannot
penetrate through solid penetrate through solid penetrate through
objects and walls but high objects and walls. at high any solid object and
frequency they bounce off frequency, they cannot walls.
the obstacle. penetrate.
Frequency Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz to Frequency range:
range 1GHz. 300 GHz. 300 GHz to 400
GHz.
Security These offers poor security. These offers medium These offers high
security. security.
Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.
Government Some frequencies in the Some frequencies in the There is no need of
License radio-waves require microwaves require government license
government license to use government license to use to use these waves.
these. these.
Usage Cost Setup and usage Cost is Setup and usage Cost is Usage Cost is very
moderate. high. less.
Communication These are used in long These are used in long These are not used
distance communication. distance communication. in long distance
communication.

Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the loss or distortion of signals during data transmission, leading
to errors or reduced quality in communication. Common causes include signal distortion, attenuation,
and noise all of which can affect the clarity and reliability of transmitted data.
strength of signal decreases-distance// with different frequencies-delay in arriving// signal that mixes

Transmission Impairment

 Attenuation: It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance
which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as
attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original
signal back and compensate for this loss.

 Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final
destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they
have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

 Noise: The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.

Factors Considered for Designing the Transmission Media

 Bandwidth: Assuming all other conditions remain constant, the greater a medium’s bandwidth,
the faster a signal’s data transmission rate.

 Transmission Impairment : Transmission Impairment occurs when the received signal differs
from the transmitted signal. Signal quality will be impacted as a result of transmission
impairment.

 Interference: Interference is defined as the with the addition of an undesired signal.

Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Transmission media in computer networks are used to connect devices and transfer data. Here are
some common applications:

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Industrial networks, environments with high interference
Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones
Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV
Stripline Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave circuits
Microstripline Antennas, satellite communication, RF circuits
Radio Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile phones
Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication
Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links
Conclusion

In conclusion, transmission media are fundamental ways for data transmission in networks, and they
are classified as directed (wired) or unguided (wireless). Guided media, such as twisted pair cables,
coaxial cables, and optical fibers, provide secure, fast, and dependable data transmission over short
distances. Unguided media, such as radio waves, microwaves, and infrared, provide wireless
communication at various distances, with security and attenuation trade-offs. The choice of
transmission media is determined by bandwidth, transmission impairment, and interference.

UNIT II

Network Lan Technologies

A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one physical
location, such as a building, office, or home. A LAN can be small or large, ranging from
a home network with one user to an enterprise network with thousands of users and
devices in an office or school.

Ethernet

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3. The
reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and maintain, and
allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies
that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI
model, the physical layer and the data link layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since
we mainly deal with DLLs. In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used in
Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks.A wired networking still uses
Ethernet more frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates the need for cables by enabling users to connect their
smartphones or laptops to a network wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard offers faster maximum
data transfer rates when compared to Gigabit Ethernet. However, wired connections are more secure
and less susceptible to interference than wireless networks.

There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect devices and transfer data.

Let’s discuss them in simple terms:

1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called twisted pair or CAT5. It can
transfer data at a speed of around 100 Mbps (megabits per second). Fast Ethernet uses both
fiber optic and twisted pair cables to enable communication. There are three categories of Fast
Ethernet: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4.

2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is more common nowadays. It
can transfer data at a speed of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second). Gigabit Ethernet
also uses fiber optic and twisted pair cables for communication. It often uses advanced cables
like CAT5e, which can transfer data at a speed of 10 Gbps.

3. 10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network that can transmit data at a
speed of 10 gigabits per second. It uses special cables like CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-pair cables
and fiber optic cables. With the help of fiber optic cables, this network can cover longer
distances, up to around 10,000 meters.
 4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or hubs to improve network
performance. Each workstation in this network has its own dedicated connection, which
improves the speed and efficiency of data transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a wide range of
speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the version of Ethernet being used.

In summary, Fast Ethernet is the basic version with a speed of 100 Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet is faster
with a speed of 1 Gbps, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is even faster with a speed of 10 Gbps, and Switch
Ethernet uses switches or hubs to enhance network performance.The Manchester Encoding
Technique is used in Ethernet. Using Manchester encoding, data can be transmitted over a physical
medium in communication systems. It is a type of line coding where the signal transitions, as opposed
to the absolute voltage levels, serve as the data representation.

Each bit of information is split into two equal time periods, or “halves,” in Manchester encoding. If
the signal level is higher during the first half of the bit period than it is during the second, the result is
a logic high (typically 1), or vice versa.

Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet, therefore, 0 is expressed by a high-to-low
transition, a 1 by the low-to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and Differential
Manchester, the Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate.

Key Features of Ethernet

1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current Ethernet
standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.

2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range of devices and
operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a growing number of users and
devices.

3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction techniques to ensure

that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
 4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely available and easy to
implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing support.

5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices from different

manufacturers to communicate with each other seamlessly.

6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and authentication,
to protect data from unauthorized access.

7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools available to help
network administrators monitor and control network traffic.

8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking technologies,

making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.

9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in almost any setting,
from homes and small offices to large data centers and enterprise-level networks.

10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It does not
require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and configure, making it accessible to a
wide range of users.

11. Standardization: Ethernet is a standardized technology, which means that all Ethernet devices
and systems are designed to work together seamlessly. This makes it easier for network
administrators to manage and troubleshoot Ethernet networks.

12. Scalability: Ethernet is highly scalable, which means it can easily accommodate the addition of
new devices, users, and applications without sacrificing performance or reliability.

13. Broad compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of protocols and technologies,
including TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and others. This makes it a versatile technology that can be
used in a variety of settings and applications.

14. Ease of integration: Ethernet can be easily integrated with other networking technologies, such
as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, to create a seamless and integrated network environment.

15. Ease of troubleshooting: Ethernet networks are easy to troubleshoot and diagnose, thanks to a
range of built-in diagnostic and monitoring tools. This makes it easier for network
administrators to identify and resolve issues quickly and efficiently.

16. Support for multimedia: Ethernet supports multimedia applications, such as video and audio
streaming, making it ideal for use in settings where multimedia content is a key part of the user
experience.Ethernet is a reliable, cost-effective, and widely used LAN technology that offers
high-speed connectivity and easy manageability for local networks.

Advantages of Ethernet

Speed: When compared to a wireless connection, Ethernet provides significantly more speed. Because
Ethernet is a one-to-one connection, this is the case. As a result, speeds of up to 10 Gigabits per second
(Gbps) or even 100 Gigabits per second (Gbps) are possible.

Efficiency: An Ethernet cable, such as Cat6, consumes less electricity, even less than a wifi connection.
As a result, these ethernet cables are thought to be the most energy-efficient.
Good data transfer quality: Because it is resistant to noise, the information transferred is of high
quality.

Baud rate = 2* Bit rate

Disadvantages of Ethernet

Distance limitations: Ethernet has distance limitations, with the maximum cable length for a standard
Ethernet network being 100 meters. This means that it may not be suitable for larger networks that
require longer distances.

Bandwidth sharing: Ethernet networks share bandwidth among all connected devices, which can
result in reduced network speeds as the number of devices increases.

Security vulnerabilities: Although Ethernet includes built-in security features, it is still vulnerable to
security breaches, including unauthorized access and data interception.

Complexity: Ethernet networks can be complex to set up and maintain, requiring specialized
knowledge and expertise.

Compatibility issues: While Ethernet is generally interoperable with other networking technologies,
compatibility issues can arise when integrating with older or legacy systems.

Cable installation: Ethernet networks require the installation of physical cables, which can be time-
consuming and expensive to install.

Physical limitations: Ethernet networks require physical connections between devices, which can limit
mobility and flexibility in network design.

How Ethernet Works?

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, the Ethernet is located in the lower layers and
facilitates the operation of the physical and data link layers. The OSI model consists of seven layers,
which are as follows.

The topmost layer, known as the application layer, is what enables users to download and access data
from email clients or web browsers. With the aid of the application, users enter their queries, and the
request is then sent to the following layer, which is known as a “packet.” The packet contains data
about the sender and the destination web address. The packet is transmitted from the application
layer until it reaches the bottom layer, also known as the Ethernet frame.

How to connect or plug in an Ethernet cable

The process will be the same, whether you are connecting an Ethernet cable to your computer or
setting up a home network. As the below image is representing that it appears to be a large telephone
cord jack. Once you have located it, then, until you hear a click, you have to push the cable connector
into the port. You will see a green light that indicates a signal is found if the connection is properly
established on the other end.
Why is Ethernet used?

Ethernet is still a common form of network connection, which is used for its high speed, security, and
reliability. It is used to connect devices in a network that is used by specific organizations for local
networks, organizations such as school campuses and hospitals, company offices, etc.

As compared to technology such as IBM's Token Ring, due to Ethernet's low price, it initially grew
popular. As gradually network technology advanced, Ethernet ensured its sustained popularity as it
has the potential to develop and deliver higher levels of performance with maintaining backward
compatibility. In the mid-1990s, the original ten megabits per second of Ethernet increased to 100
Mbps. Furthermore, up to 400 gigabits per second can be supported by current versions of Ethernet.

Introduction to Wireless LAN

What is a wireless LAN?

A wireless local-area network (WLAN) is a group of colocated computers or other devices that form a
network based on radio transmissions (rather than wired connections).

Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local Area Wireless
Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network (LAN) through
a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path sharing,
802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an office.
WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable, while in other
cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the public. Whatever the reason,
wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Examples of WLANs that are available today are NCR's waveLAN and Motorola's ALTAIR.

Wireless LANs are further classified into two categories, these are:

1. Ad-hoc Wireless LANs

Ad hoc networks are formed by a group of wireless nodes that establish peer-to-peer communication.
The ad-hoc mode has been designed to allow communication only among clients within the
transmission range, i.e., within the same cell.

If a client wants to communicate outside the cell, then it’s a must that one of the cells acts as the
gateway and performs routing.

2. Wireless LANs with Infrastructure

Wireless LANs with infrastructure are equipped with a backbone that operates at high speeds and can
be wired or wireless. Access points serve as the intermediary between wireless nodes and the wired
backbone. The utilization of access points allows the proficient transfer of network resources among
wireless nodes.

Before transmitting information, wireless devices such as clients and access points are required to
establish a relationship or association. Data exchange between two wireless stations can only occur
once an association has been established.

How Does Wireless Local Area Network Work?

Understanding the functioning of WLAN is straightforward. The operational principles of LAN

networking are nearly identical. The only difference is that WLAN allows the connection of devices to
a network without the need for a physical cable.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) employs radio frequency waves to help with the transmission
and reception of data among various devices, such as a wireless router and a laptop.

Radio waves are commonly known as radio carriers due to their primary role of transmitting energy
to a distant receiver. The radio carrier overlays the transmitted data, thereby allowing its precise
retrieval upon reception.

The process is commonly known as modulation. In a wireless local area network setup, a transceiver
device, commonly referred to as an access point, establishes a connection to the wired network via
standard cabling from a fixed position. The access point functions as an intermediary device that
allows the transfer of data between the WLAN and the wired network infrastructure by receiving,
buffering, and retransmitting the data.
A single access point can handle a limited number of users and can operate within a distance from
under one hundred to multiple hundred feet. Typically, the access point, along with its attached
antenna, is installed at an elevated position. However, it may be situated in any feasible location that
achieves the desired radio coverage.

Wireless LAN adapters serve as the medium through which end users gain access to the wireless LAN.
These adapters are available in the form of add-on cards for notebook or palmtop computers, as cards
for desktop computers, or as integrated components within hand-held computers. WLAN adapters
allow a communication interface between the client’s network operating system (NOS) and the
airwaves through an antenna.

Advantages of WLANs

 Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction. Radio
waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g.,
within devices, in walls etc.).
 Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous planning,
any wired network needs wiring plans.
 Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices which can for
example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of small
notepads, PDAs, etc.
 Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc. whereas,
networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down completely in disasters.
 Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower than the cost of
installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two reasons. First, after providing
wireless access to the wireless network via an access point for the first user, adding additional
users to a network will not increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct
costs of cabling and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
 Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new information to take
advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs

 Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired networks. The main
reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is radio transmission, higher error
rates due to interference and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and
detection mechanisms.
 Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have come up
with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality plus many enhanced features.
Most components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
 Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the operation and
restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
 Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national and
international frequency regulations have to be considered.
 Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power consuming, also
wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN design should take this into
account and implement special power saving modes and power management functions.
 License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license to be able to
use the product. The equipment must operate in a license free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM
band.
 Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many other
electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train engines, hair dryers,
 etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect transmission is a standard office
or production environment.

Data Link Layer

Error Detection and Correction in Data link Layer

Data-link layer uses error control techniques to ensure that frames, i.e. bit streams of data, are
transmitted from the source to the destination with a certain extent of accuracy.

Errors

When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject to get corrupted due to
interference and network problems. The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being received by the
destination and are called errors.

Types of Errors

Errors can be of three types, namely single bit errors, multiple bit errors, and burst errors.

 Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit has been corrupted, i.e. either changed

from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.

 Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits are corrupted.

 Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.
Error Control

Error control can be done in two ways

 Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether any error has occurred or not.
The number of error bits and the type of error does not matter.
 Error correction − Error correction involves ascertaining the exact number of bits that has
been corrupted and the location of the corrupted bits.

For both error detection and error correction, the sender needs to send some additional bits along
with the data bits. The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the additional redundant bits.
If it finds that the data is free from errors, it removes the redundant bits before passing the message to
the upper layers.

Error Detection Methods

To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce redundancy bits that provide additional
information. Various techniques for error detection include:

 Simple Parity Check

 Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 Checksum

 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Simple Parity Check

Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding an extra bit to a data
transmission. It works as:

 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and

 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s

This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity checking.
Advantages of Simple Parity Check

 Simple parity check can detect all single bit error.

 Simple parity check can detect an odd number of errors.

 Implementation: Simple Parity Check is easy to implement in both hardware and software.

 Minimal Extra Data: Only one additional bit (the parity bit) is added per data unit (e.g., per
byte).

 Fast Error Detection: The process of calculating and checking the parity bit is quick, which
allows for rapid error detection without significant delay in data processing or communication.

 Single-Bit Error Detection: It can effectively detect single-bit errors within a data unit,
providing a basic level of error detection for relatively low-error environments.

Disadvantages of Simple Parity Check

 Single Parity check is not able to detect even no. of bit error.

 For example, the Data to be transmitted is 101010. Codeword transmitted to the receiver is
1010101 (we have used even parity).
Let’s assume that during transmission, two of the bits of code word flipped to 1111101.
On receiving the code word, the receiver finds the no. of ones to be even and hence no error,
which is a wrong assumption.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity
check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along with the data.
At the receiving end, these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the received data.

Advantages of Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 Two-Dimensional Parity Check can detect and correct all single bit error.
  Two-Dimensional Parity Check can detect two or three bit error that occur any where in the
matrix.

Disadvantages of Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 Two-Dimensional Parity Check can not correct two or three bit error. It can only detect two or
three bit error.

 If we have a error in the parity bit then this scheme will not work.

Checksum

Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in transmitted data. The process
involves dividing the data into equally sized segments and using a 1’s complement to calculate the sum
of these segments. The calculated sum is then sent along with the data to the receiver. At the receiver’s
end, the same process is repeated and if all zeroes are obtained in the sum, it means that the data is
correct.

Checksum – Operation at Sender’s Side

 Firstly, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.

 On the sender’s end, the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum.
The sum is complemented to get the checksum.

 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.

Checksum – Operation at Receiver’s Side

 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to get
the sum. The sum is complemented.

 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.

Read more about Checksum

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

 Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary division.

 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are appended to the
end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number.

 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is
no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted.

 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be
rejected.

CRC Working

We have given dataword of length n and divisor of length k.

Step 1: Append (k-1) zero’s to the original message

Step 2: Perform modulo 2 division

Step 3: Remainder of division = CRC

Step 4: Code word = Data with append k-1 zero’s + CRC

Note:

 CRC must be k-1 bits

 Length of Code word = n+k-1 bits

Example: Let’s data to be send is 1010000 and divisor in the form of polynomial is x3+1. CRC method
discussed below.
Read in detail about Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)

Advantages of Error Detection

 Increased Data Reliability: Error detection ensures that the data transmitted over the network
is reliable, accurate, and free from errors. This ensures that the recipient receives the same
data that was transmitted by the sender.

 Improved Network Performance: Error detection mechanisms can help to identify and isolate
network issues that are causing errors. This can help to improve the overall performance of the
network and reduce downtime.

 Enhanced Data Security: Error detection can also help to ensure that the data transmitted over
the network is secure and has not been tampered with.

Disadvantages of Error Detection

 Overhead: Error detection requires additional resources and processing power, which can lead
to increased overhead on the network. This can result in slower network performance and
increased latency.

 False Positives: Error detection mechanisms can sometimes generate false positives, which can
result in unnecessary retransmission of data. This can further increase the overhead on the
network.
  Limited Error Correction: Error detection can only identify errors but cannot correct them.
This means that the recipient must rely on the sender to retransmit the data, which can lead to
further delays and increased network overhead.

Error Correction in Computer Networks

Once the errors are detected in the network, the deviated bits sequence needs to be replaced with the
right bit sequence so that the receiver can accept the data and process it. This method is called Error
Correction. We can correct the errors in the Network in two different ways which are listed below:

 Forward Error Correction: In this Error Correction Scenario, the receiving end is responsible
for correcting the network error. There is no need for retransmission of the data from the
sender’s side.

 Backward Error Correction: the sender is responsible for retransmitting the data if errors are
detected by the receiver. The receiver signals the sender to resend the corrupted data or the
entire message to ensure accurate delivery.

However, there is one of the most widely used Error Correction methods which is called ‘Hamming
Code’ which was designed by R.W. Hamming. Let us have a quick look at it.

Hamming Code Error Correction

In this method extra parity bits are appended to the message which are used by the receiver to correct
the single bit error and multiple bit error. Consider the below example to understand this method in a
better way.

Suppose the sender wants to transmit the message whose bit representation is ‘1011001.’ In this
message:

 Total number of bits (d) = 7

 Total of redundant bits (r) = 4 (This is because the message has four 1’s in it)

 Thus, total bits (d+r) = 7 + 4 = 11

Also by convention the redundant bits are always placed in the places which are powers of 2. Now this
message will take the format as shown below:

Therefore we have R1, R2, R3, and R4 as redundant bits which will be calculated according to the
following rules:

 R1 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in their least significant bit.
Thus, R1 covers positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
  R2 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the second position from the
least significant bit. Thus, R2 covers positions 2,3,6,7,10,11.

 R3 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the third position from the
least significant bit. Hence, R3 covers positions 4, 5, 6, 7.

 R4 includes all the positions whose binary representation has 1 in the fourth position from the
least significant bit due to which R4 covers positions 8,9,10,11.

These rules are illustrated below:

Now, we calculate the value of R1, R2, R3 and R4 as follows:

 Since the total number of 1s in all the bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even number. R1
= 0.

 Since the total number of 1s in all the bit positions corresponding to R2 is an odd number, R2=
1.

 Since the total number of 1s in all the bit positions corresponding to R3 is an odd number, R3=
1.

 Since the total number of 1s in all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is even, R4 = 0.

Therefore, the message to be transmitted becomes:

This message is transmitted at the receiver’s end. Suppose, bit 6 becomes corrupted and changes to 1.
Then the message becomes ‘10101101110.’ So at the receiver’s end the number of 1’s in the respective
bit positions of R1, R2, R3, and R4 is rechecked to correct the corrupted bit. This is done in the
following steps: For all the parity bits we will check the

 For R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 are checked. We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit
positions is 4(even) so R1 = 0.

 For R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 are checked. You can observe that the number of 1’s in these bit
positions is 5(odd) so we get a R2 = 1.

 For R3: bits 4, 5, 6, and 7 are checked. We see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions is
3(odd). Hence, R3 = 1.

 For R8: bits 8,9,10,11 are observed. Here, the number of 1’s in these bit positions is 2 and that’s
even so we get R4 = 0.

If we observe the Redundant bits, they give the binary number 0110 whose decimal representation is
6. The error in bit 6 has been successfully identified and corrected. By rechecking the parity bits, we
could detect that R4 was not matching its expected value, pointing us to the corrupted bit. The bit 6
should have been 1, and after correcting it, the message is now error-free.

Conclusion

Errors are encountered where there is a difference between the sequence of bits of the source message
and the received message while data is transferred over the Network. The Errors create a lot of
problems in the information transfer by corrupting the data. Thus, the receiver becomes unable to
further process the data, due to which the request-response cycle slows down over the network.

Examples of Data Link Layer Protocols

Data Link Layer protocols are generally responsible for ensuring and confirming that the bits and
bytes received are identical to the bits and bytes being transferred. It is a set of specifications that are
used for the implementation of the data link layer just above the physical layer of the Open System
Interconnections (OSI) Model.

Various data link protocols are required for Wide Area Network (WAN) and modem connections.
Logical Link Control (LLC) is a Local Area Network (LAN) data link protocol. Some of the data link
protocols are given below :
1. Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) – SDLC is basically a communication protocol of
computer. It usually supports multipoint links even error recovery or error correction also. It is
usually used to carry SNA (Systems Network Architecture) traffic and is present precursor to HDLC.
It is also designed and developed by IBM in 1975. It is also used to connect all of the remote devices to
mainframe computers at central locations may be in point-to-point (one-to-one) or point-to-multipoint
(one-to-many) connections. It is also used to make sure that the data units should arrive correctly and
with right flow from one network point to next network point.

Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) is a protocol that manages the transmission of data over a
communications line. It was introduced by IBM as part of its Systems Network Architecture (SNA).

How SDLC works

 SDLC is used for transferring serial-by-bit information.

  It can be used for duplex or half-duplex transmission over switched or nonswitched lines.

  It supports multipoint links as well as error correction.

  It is used as layer 2, the data link layer, in the SNA protocol stack

2. High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) – HDLC is basically a protocol that is now assumed to be
an umbrella under which many Wide Area protocols sit. It is also adopted as a part of X.25 network.
It was originally created and developed by ISO in 1979. This protocol is generally based on SDLC. It
also provides best-effort unreliable service and also reliable service. HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol
that is applicable for point-to-point and multipoint communications both.

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a protocol that allows devices to transmit data between
them. It's used in networking and telecommunication.

How HDLC works

 HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol that defines frame formats.

  It supports both half-duplex and full-duplex communications.

  HDLC can operate with or without a continuous connection between devices.

  HDLC ensures reliable data transfer, allowing one device to understand data sent by another.

  HDLC controls the speed at which data is transmitted.

3. Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) – SLIP is generally an older protocol that is just used to add a
framing byte at end of IP packet. It is basically a data link control facility that is required for
transferring IP packets usually among Internet Service Providers (ISP) and a home user over a dial-
up link. It is an encapsulation of the TCP/IP especially designed to work with over serial ports and
several router connections simply for communication. It is some limitations like it does not provide
mechanisms such as error correction or error detection.

4. Point to Point Protocol (PPP) – PPP is a protocol that is basically used to provide same functionality
as SLIP. It is most robust protocol that is used to transport other types of packets also along with IP
Packets. It can also be required for dial-up and leased router-router lines. It basically provides
framing method to describe frames. It is a character-oriented protocol that is also used for error
detection. It is also used to provides two protocols i.e. NCP and LCP. LCP is used for bringing lines
up, negotiation of options, bringing them down whereas NCP is used for negotiating network-layer
protocols. It is required for same serial interfaces like that of HDLC.

5. Link Control Protocol (LCP) – It was originally developed and created by IEEE 802.2. It is also
used to provide HDLC style services on LAN (Local Area Network). LCP is basically a PPP protocol
that is used for establishing, configuring, testing, maintenance, and ending or terminating links for
transmission of data frames.

6. Link Access Procedure (LAP) – LAP protocols are basically a data link layer protocols that are
required for framing and transferring data across point-to-point links. It also includes some reliability
service features. There are basically three types of LAP i.e. LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced),
LAPD (Link Access Procedure D-Channel), and LAPF (Link Access Procedure Frame-Mode Bearer
Services). It is actually originated from IBM SDLC, which is being submitted by IBM to the ISP
simply for standardization.

7. Network Control Protocol (NCP) – NCP was also an older protocol that was implemented by
ARPANET. It basically allows users to have access to use computers and some of the devices at remote
locations and also to transfer files among two or more computers. It is generally a set of protocols that
is forming a part of PPP. NCP is always available for each and every higher-layer protocol that is
supported by PPP. NCP was replaced by TCP/IP in the 1980s.

Flow Control
When a data frame (Layer-2 data) is sent from one host to another over a single medium, it is required
that the sender and receiver should work at the same speed. That is, sender sends at a speed on which
the receiver can process and accept the data. What if the speed (hardware/software) of the sender or
receiver differs? If sender is sending too fast the receiver may be overloaded, (swamped) and data may
be lost.

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is a data transmission method that uses acknowledgements and
timeouts to ensure reliable data transmission. It's used in wired and wireless networks.

How ARQ works

 The receiver uses an error detection code to check if a received packet is in error.

  If the packet is error-free, the receiver sends a positive acknowledgement to the sender.

  If the packet is in error, the receiver sends a negative acknowledgement to the sender.

  If the sender doesn't receive an acknowledgement within a specified timeout period, it

retransmits the message.

ARQ use cases

 ARQ is well-suited for streaming video over IP networks, such as the public internet.

  ARQ is particularly crucial for high-quality video and audio streaming over lossy networks.


ARQ protocol variations Stop-and-wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ.

ARQ limitations

 ARQ can reduce transmission efficiency because of retransmission.

 ARQ introduces a small degree of latency to the transmission.

Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:

 Stop and Wait

This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to stop and wait until
the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.

 Sliding Window

In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the number of data-frames after
which the acknowledgement should be sent. As we learnt, stop and wait flow control mechanism
wastes resources, this protocol tries to make use of underlying resources as much as possible.

Error Control

When data-frame is transmitted, there is a probability that data-frame may be lost in the transit or it
is received corrupted. In both cases, the receiver does not receive the correct data-frame and sender
does not know anything about any loss.In such case, both sender and receiver are equipped with some
protocols which helps them to detect transit errors such as loss of data-frame. Hence, either the sender
retransmits the data-frame or the receiver may request to resend the previous data-frame.

Requirements for error control mechanism:

 Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must ascertain that there is some
error in the transit.
  Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should acknowledge it.
 Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, it sends a
NACK back to the sender and the sender must retransmit the correct frame.
 Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If an
acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the timeout
the sender retransmits the frame, thinking that the frame or it’s acknowledgement is lost in
transit.

There are three types of techniques available which Data-link layer may deploy to control the errors
by Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQ):

 Stop-and-wait ARQ

The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

o The sender maintains a timeout counter.

o When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.
o If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender transmits the next frame in
queue.
o If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender assumes that either the frame or
its acknowledgement is lost in transit. Sender retransmits the frame and starts the
timeout counter.
o If a negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retransmits the frame.
 Go-Back-N ARQ

Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.When the acknowledgement
is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N ARQ method, both sender and
receiver maintain a window.
The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without receiving the
acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiving-window enables the receiver to receive multiple
frames and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence number.

When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence number it has received
positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively acknowledged, the sender sends next set of
frames. If sender finds that it has received NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular frame,
it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.

 Selective Repeat ARQ

In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for its window size
and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to retransmit all the frames which
are not acknowledged.

In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers the frames in
memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or damaged.

The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.

Stop and Wait ARQ Extra reading

The stop and wait ARQ is one of the Sliding Window Protocol strategies that is used where reliable
ordered delivery of the data frames is required. The stop and wait ARQ is used for noisy channels or
links and it manages the flow and error control between the sender and the receiver. The stop and wait
ARQ protocol sends a data frame and then waits for an acknowledgment or ACK from the receiver.
The ACK means that the receiver has successfully received the data frame. After the sender receives
the ACK from the receiver, it sends the next data frame. So, there is a wait and then the next data
frame is transmitted so the name came to be Stop and Wait ARQ protocol. In the stop and wait ARQ,
both the sender and the receiver have windows of the same size i.e. 1.

What is Stop and Wait for ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)?

Now, let us discuss the data link layer briefly so that we can get a better understanding of the Stop and
Wait ARQ protocol as it is one of the most widely used protocols of the data link layer to control
errors.

The data link is the second layer of the OSI model which is used for the transmission of the error-free
frames from one node to the other node. If the two computer nodes are on the same network then the
data link layer provides a connection between the two nodes. The main work of the data link layer is
to convert the data into the form of frames.

The flow control protocols involved in the data link layers are as follows:

Now, let us get back to the topic of Stop and Wait ARQ. The stop and wait ARQ is one of the Sliding
Window Protocol strategies that is used where reliable in-order delivery of the data frames is
required. The stop and wait ARQ is used for noisy channels or links and it manages the flow and error
control between the sender and the receiver.

The stop and wait ARQ protocol sends a data frame and then waits for an acknowledgment or ACK
from the receiver. The ACK means that the receiver has successfully received the data frame. After the
sender receives the ACK from the receiver, it sends the next data frame. So, there is a wait and then
the next data frame is transmitted so the name came Stop and Wait ARQ protocol.

In the stop and wait ARQ protocol, ARQ stands for Automatic Repeat Request. ARQ is an error-
control strategy that ensures that a sequence of information is delivered in order and without any
error or duplications despite transmission errors and losses.

In the stop and wait ARQ, the sender also keeps a copy of the currently sending frame so that if the
receiver does not receive the frame then it can retransmit it. In stop and wait ARQ, the sender sets a
timer for each frame so whenever the timer is over and the sender has not received any
acknowledgment for the frame, then the sender knows that the particular frame is either lost or
damaged. So, the sender sends back the lost or damaged frame once the timer is out. So, we can see
that the sender needs to wait for the timer to expire before retransmission

There is no negative acknowledgment of the lost or damaged frames. So, there is no NACK (negative
acknowledgment) in case of stop and wait ARQ.

Let us learn the working of the stop and wait ARQ using an example in the next section.

Working Principle of Stop and Wait ARQ

Before learning about the working of the stop and wait ARQ, we should be familiar with the window
size of the sender and receiver as the stop and wait ARQ is a type of sliding window protocol only.

In the stop and wait ARQ, both the sender and the receiver have windows of the same size. The
window on the sender’s side covers the sequence of data packets that are sent (or to be sent). On the
other hand, the window on the receiver’s side covers the sequence of data packets that are received (or
to be received).

The size of the sender’s window is 1. The window size of the receiver is the same as that of the sender
i.e. 1. The sender’s window size is represented using Ws and the receiver’s window size is represented
using Wr.

The overall working of the stop and wait ARQ is simple. Initially, the sender sends one frame as the
window size is 1. The receiver on the other end receives the frame and sends the ACK for the correctly
received frame. The sender waits for the ACK until the timer expires. If the sender does not receive
the ACK within the timer limit, it re-transmits the frame for which the ACK has not been received.

Now, let us take an example to visualize the working of stop and wait ARQ or how the data frame is
transmitted using the stop and wait ARQ protocol. The image below shows the transmission of frames.

The steps of data transmission can be:

1. The sender sends frame 0.

2. The sender waits for ACK from the receiver.
3. The receiver receives the frame and sends back ACK 0.
4. Again the sender sends the frame 1 and this process is continued till all the frames have been
received by the receiver.

Let us discuss the various problems of the Stop and Wait ARQ –

1. Problem of Lost Data Packet When the sender sends the data packet and the receiver does not
receive the data packet, it means that the data is lost in between the transmission. So, to
 overcome this type of problem, the sender uses a timer. When the sender sends the data packet,
it starts a timer. If the timer goes off before receiving the acknowledgment from the receiver,
the sender retransmits the same data packet. Refer to the image below for better visualization.

2. Problem of Lost Acknowledgement When the sender sends the data packet and the receiver
receives the data packet but the acknowledgment from the receiver is not received. It means
that the acknowledgment is lost in between the transmission. So, to overcome this type of
problem, the sender uses sequence numbering. When the sender sends the data packet, it
attaches a certain sequence number which helps the receiver identify the data packet. If the
timer goes off before receiving the acknowledgment from the receiver, the sender retransmits
the same data packet. But in this case, the receiver already has the data packet, so it discards
the data and sends it back an acknowledgment. This tells the sender that the certain data
packet is now received correctly.

Refer to the image below for better visualization.

3. Problem of Delayed Acknowledgement When the sender sends the data packet and the receiver
receives the data packet but the acknowledgment from the receiver is not received. It means
that the acknowledgment is lost or delayed in between the transmission. So, to overcome this
type of problem, the sender uses sequence numbering. When the sender sends the data packet,
it attaches a certain sequence number which helps the receiver identify the data packet. If the
timer goes off before receiving the acknowledgment from the receiver, the sender retransmits
the same data packet. But in this case, the receiver already has the data packet, so it discards
the data and sends it back the acknowledgment again. Now, if the sender has received the
previously sent acknowledgment then the newer acknowledgment is discarded by the sender.
Refer to the image below for better visualization.
 4. Problem of Damaged Packet When the sender sends the data packet and the receiver receives
the data packet the received data packet is corrupted. So, to overcome this type of problem, the
receiver uses negative acknowledgment (NACK). So, if the sender receives a negative
acknowledgment then the sender retransmits the data packet.

Refer to the image below for better visualization.

Characteristics of Stop and Wait ARQ

Let us discuss some of the important characteristics of the stop and wait ARQ.

 The stop and wait ARD is a sliding window protocol with a window size equal to 1.
 The stop and wait ARQ is an example of the Closed Loop OR connection-oriented.
 The sender sends the data frame with a sequence number.
 The sender also maintains a copy of the data frame that is being currently sent so that if the
ACK is not received then the sender can re-transmit the frame.
 The sender can send only one frame at a time and the receiver can also receive only one frame
at a time.
 The stop and wait ARQ is a connection-oriented protocol.
 In the stop and wait ARQ, the sender needs to maintain a time tracker.

Advantages of Stop and Wait ARQ

Let us discuss some of the advantages of the stop and wait ARQ.

 The stop and wait ARQ can be used in both the data link layer and the transport layer.
 The stop and wait ARQ provides both error management and flow control management.
 The stop and wait ARQ works in half-duplex mode as at a time only the sender can send the
message or the receiver can send the ACK.
 The stop and wait ARQ ensures that the information is received by the receiver in the order it
was sent.
Limitations of Stop and Wait ARQ

Let us discuss some of the limitations or disadvantages of the stop and wait ARQ.

 The data can be lost in between the transmission. So, in such a case, the sender waits for ACK
and the receiver waits for the data frame for an infinite amount of time.
 The ACK from the receiver may get lost in the channel. So, the sender waits for ACK for an
infinite amount of time.
 The window size of the sender and the receiver is only 1. So, only one frame can be sent at a
time.
 As there is a timer concept, the sender must wait for a long duration before retransmission.
Hence, the stop and wait ARQ is a slow protocol.

Conclusion

 The stop and wait ARQ is one of the Sliding Window Protocol strategies that is used where
reliable in-order delivery of the data frames is required.
 The stop and wait ARQ is used for noisy channels or links and it manages the flow and error
control between the sender and the receiver.
 The stop and wait ARQ protocol sends a data frame and then waits for an acknowledgment or
ACK from the receiver. The ACK means that the receiver has successfully received the data
frame.
 After the sender receives the ACK from the receiver, it sends the next data frame. So, there is a
wait and then the next data frame is transmitted so the name came Stop and Wait
ARQ protocol.
 The sender can send only one frame at a time and the receiver can also receive only one frame
at a time.
 The sender also maintains a copy of the data frame that is being currently sent so that if the
ACK is not received then the sender can re-transmit the frame.
 In the stop and wait ARQ, both the sender and the receiver have windows of the same size
i.e. 1.
 The stop and wait ARQ can be used in both the data link layer and the transport layer and it
provides both error management and flow control management.
 The data can be lost in between the transmission. So, in such a case, the sender waits for ACK
and the receiver waits for the data frame for an infinite amount of time.
 The ACK from the receiver may get lost in the channel. So, the sender waits for ACK for an
infinite amount of time.

Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol Extra reading

Go Back N ARQ which stands for Go Back N Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is a data link layer
protocol that is used for data flow control purposes. It is a sliding window protocol in which multiple
frames are sent from sender to receiver at once. The number of frames that are sent at once depends
upon the size of the window that is taken.

What is Go-Back-N ARQ?

We all know that the Data Link Layer (DLL) in the OSI model is responsible for the flow and error
control of the data that is sent from sender to receiver. This flow and error control mechanism follows
some set of rules/protocols. We will be discussing flow control protocols in this article.

The flow control protocols are generally divided into two categories i.e.

1. Stop and wait protocol

2. Sliding window protocol.
The difference between these two categories of flow control protocols is that in the stop and wait
protocol, only one data frame is sent at a time from sender to receiver. While in sliding window
protocol, multiple frames can be sent at a time from sender to receiver.

Go Back N ARQ is a sliding window protocol which is used for flow control purposes. Multiple frames
present in a single window are sent together from sender to receiver.

Pipelining is allowed in the Go Back N ARQ protocol. Pipelining means sending a frame before
receiving the acknowledgment for the previously sent frame.

In this article, we will discuss all the important concepts related to the Go Back N ARQ protocol in detail.

Sender Window and Receiver Window in Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

The sender window is a fixed-sized window that defines the number of frames that are transmitted
from sender to receiver at once. The integer ‘N’ in the Go Back ‘N’ is the frame size.

For example in Go Back 4 ARQ, the size of the sender window is 4.

The Receiver window in the Go Back N ARQ protocol is always of size 1. This means that the receiver
takes at most 1 frame at a single time.

Working of Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Given below are the steps to clearly explain how the Go Back N ARQ algorithm works.

1. Data packets are divided into multiple frames. Each frame contains information about the
destination address, the error control mechanism it follows, etc. These multiple frames are numbered
so that they can be distinguished from each other.

2. The integer ‘N’ in Go Back ‘N’ ARQ tells us the size of the window i.e. the number of frames that
are sent at once from sender to receiver. Suppose the window size ‘N’ is equal to 4. Then, 4 frames
(frame 0, frame 1, frame 2, and frame 3) will be sent first from sender to receiver.
3. The receiver sends the acknowledgment of frame 0. Then the sliding window moves by one
and frame 4 is sent.

4. The receiver sends the acknowledgment of frame 1. Then the sliding window moves by one
and frame 3 is sent.

5. The sender waits for the acknowledgment for a fixed amount of time. If the sender does not get the
acknowledgment for a frame in time, it considers the frame to be corrupted. Then the sliding window
moves to the start of the corrupted frame and all the frames in the window are retransmitted.

For example, if the sender does not receive the acknowledgment for frame 2, it retransmits all the
frames in the windows i.e. frames [2, 3, 4, 5].
Characteristics of Go-Back-N ARQ

Given below are the characteristics of the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol.

1. The size of the sender window in Go Back N ARQ is equal to N.

2. The size of the receiver window in Go Back N ARQ is equal to 1.
3. When the acknowledgment for one frame is not received by the sender or the frames received
by the receiver are out of order, then the whole window starting from the corrupted frame is
retransmitted.

Go-Back-N ARQ follows the principle of pipelining i.e. a frame can be sent by the sender before
receiving the acknowledgment of the previously sent frame.

Advantages of Go-Back-N ARQ

Given below are some of the advantages of Go Back N ARQ.

1. It can send multiple frames at once. 2. Pipelining is present in the Go-Back-N ARQ i.e. a frame can
be sent by the sender before receiving the acknowledgment of the previously sent frame. This results
in a shorter waiting time for the frame. 3. It handles corrupted as well as out-of-order frames which
result in minimal frame loss.

Disadvantages of Go-Back-N ARQ

Given below are some of the disadvantages of Go Back N ARQ.

1. If acknowledgment for a frame is not received, the whole window of frames is retransmitted instead
of just the corrupted frame. This makes the Go Back N ARQ protocol inefficient.
2. Retransmission of all the frames on detecting a corrupted frame increases channel congestion and
also increases the bandwidth requirement.
3. It is more time-consuming because while retransmitting the frames on detecting a corrupted frame,
the error-free frames are also transmitted.

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Conclusion
 1. Go-Back-N ARQ is a sliding window protocol which is used for flow control purposes. Multiple
frames present in a single window are sent together from sender to receiver.
2. Pipelining is allowed in the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol. Pipelining means sending a frame before
receiving the acknowledgment for the previously sent frame.
3. The integer ‘N’ in Go-Back-N ARQ tells us the size of the window i.e. the number of frames
that are sent at once from sender to receiver.
4. The sender window size in Go-Back-N ARQ is ‘N’ and the receiver window size is 1.
5. When the acknowledgment for one frame is not received by the sender or the frames received
by the receiver are out of order, then the whole window starting from the corrupted frame is
retransmitted.

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

What is an automatic repeat request(ARQ)?

 An automatic repeat request is a protocol that notifies the sender that an error has
occurred and that the data received is incorrect
 It works as follows:
o If an error is detected the receiver sends a negative acknowledgement
transmission to indicate the data is corrupted
o If no error is detected the receiver sends a positive acknowledgement
transmission meaning the data is correct
o If the receiver does not send any acknowledgement transmission then the
sender waits for a certain time period known as a time-out before
automatically resending the data
o This process is repeated until all data has been received and acknowledged

is a group of error – control protocols for transmission of data over noisy or unreliable
communication network. These protocols reside in the Data Link Layer and in the Transport Layer of
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model. They are named so because they provide for
automatic retransmission of frames that are corrupted or lost during transmission. ARQ is also called
Positive Acknowledgement with Retransmission (PAR).

ARQs are used to provide reliable transmissions over unreliable upper layer services. They are often
used in Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication.

Working Principle

In these protocols, the receiver sends an acknowledgement message back to the sender if it receives a
frame correctly. If the sender does not receive the acknowledgement of a transmitted frame before a
specified period of time, i.e. a timeout occurs, the sender understands that the frame has been
corrupted or lost during transit. So, the sender retransmits the frame. This process is repeated until
the correct frame is transmitted.

Types of ARQ Protocols

There are three ARQ protocols in the data link layer.

  Stop – and – Wait ARQ − Stop – and – wait ARQ provides unidirectional data transmission
with flow control and error control mechanisms, appropriate for noisy channels. The sender
keeps a copy of the sent frame. It then waits for a finite time to receive a positive
acknowledgement from receiver. If the timer expires, the frame is retransmitted. If a positive
acknowledgement is received then the next frame is sent.
 Go – Back – N ARQ − Go – Back – N ARQ provides for sending multiple frames before
receiving the acknowledgement for the first frame. It uses the concept of sliding window, and so
is also called sliding window protocol. The frames are sequentially numbered and a finite
number of frames are sent. If the acknowledgement of a frame is not received within the time
period, all frames starting from that frame are retransmitted.
 Selective Repeat ARQ − This protocol also provides for sending multiple frames before
receiving the acknowledgement for the first frame. However, here only the erroneous or lost
frames are retransmitted, while the good frames are received and buffered.

UNIT III

Network Devises:

Modem

Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. The modem is defined as a networking device that is used to
connect devices connected in the network to the internet. The main function of a modem is to convert the
analog signals that come from telephone wire into a digital form. In digital form, these converted signals are
stored in the form of 0s and 1s. The modem can perform both the task of modulation and demodulation
simultaneously. Modems are majorly used to transfer digital data in personal systems. The modem is also
known as a signal translator as it translates one signal into another signal by modulating the digital signal
into an analog signal for transmission and then demodulates receiving analog signals into digital signals.

Features of Modem

 Modems can modulate as well as demodulate the signals simultaneously.

 Modem allows to connect only a specific number of devices to the internet.

 According to the features of modem, it’s price ranges.

 Modems can be upgraded with the help of a specific software patch.

 To use the devices over the internet with a modem devices need to be configured with an Internet
Service Provider(ISP).

 When the modem is connected to Hub it slows down its process.

Working of Modem
The two main components of a modem are modulation and demodulation. Where the modem can perform
both tasks simultaneously. The step-by-step working of the modem is given below:

Step 1: Data Generation: When data needs to be transmitted it is first generated. Therefore computer system
generated the data which is in digital form of 0s and 1s.

Step 2: Modulation: Modulation is defined as a process of converting digital data signals of the computer
into analog data signals so that these signals can travel on the internet. The digital data is encoded onto a
carrier wave.

Step 3: Transmission: The resultant of modulation that is modulated data is transmitted over the
communication line to the modem that is receiving it.

Step 4: Demodulation: Demodulation is defined as a process in which analog data signals from the internet
are converted into digital data signals so they can be understood by computer systems. In the process of
demodulation the digital data from the carrier wave is decoded.

Step 5: Decoding: The resultant of demodulation that is demodulated data is being sent to the computer
systems for their further use.

Types of Modem

There are different types of modems available. Each modem has different features and provides with
different benefits. Below are the different types of modems:

1. Optical Modem

In modem, different type of media is used to transfer the signals. Optical Modem is the type of modem that
makes use of optical cables instead of using another metallic type of media. The digital data is converted
into the pulse of light that is transmitted on the optical fiber used in the optical Modem.

2. Digital Modem

Digital Modem is defined as a type of modem that is used to convert digital data into digital signals. Digital
data is in form of 0s and 1s. For this, it performs the process of modulation. Digital Modem modulates the
digital data on digital carrier signals for transmission.

3. Cable Modem

Cable modems are defined as a type of modem used to establish a communication between computer
systems and the Internet Service Providers. A cable modem helps to access high-speed data through cable
TV networks. Such modems are usually connected to desktops or systems and work like external devices.
4. Satellite Modem

Satellite Modems are defined as a type of modem that provides with the internet connection through satellite
dishes. This type of modem works by sending the input bits into output radio signals and vice versa. The
internet network that is provided by such types of modems is more reliable and efficient as compared to
other types of modems.

5. Dial Modem

A Dial Modem is a type of modem that converts data used in telephone and data used on computers. In short
dial modem converts between analog form and digital form. The networking devices connected to the
computer are all at one end and the telephone line is at another end. This type of modem transmits the data at
a speed of 56000 per/sec.

Advantages of Modem

 A modem converts digital signals into an analog signal.

 The cost of a modem increases according to the features it has.

 The modem helps to connect the LAN to the internet.

 Modem performs both modulation and demodulation processes simultaneously

Disadvantages of Modem

 The working of the modem slows down when connected to the hub.

 The modem cannot track the traffic between the LAN and the internet.

 When using a modem a limited number of network devices can be connected to the internet.

 Modems have a high rock of security-related attacks.

 The modem does not provide maintenance of traffic.

Hub
Hub in networking plays a vital role in data transmission and broadcasting. A hub is a hardware
device used at the physical layer to connect multiple devices in the network. Hubs are widely used
to connect LANs. A hub has multiple ports. Unlike a switch, a hub cannot filter the data, i.e. it
cannot identify the destination of the packet, So it broadcasts or sends the message to each port.

What is HUB?

A hub is a multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data,
so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through hub remains one. Hub does not have any routing table to store the data of ports
and map destination addresses., the routing table is used to send/broadcast information across all the
ports.
How Does a Network Hub Work?

A hub is a multiport device, which has multiple ports in a device and shares the data to multiple
ports altogether. A hub acts as a dumb switch that does not know, which data needs to be forwarded
where so it broadcasts or sends the data to each port.

Suppose there are five ports in a hub A, B, C, D, and E. Consider A wants to send any data frame, or
let’s say A is acting as a sender, so the hub will forward the data transmitted by A to B, C, D, E.
Now, at the same time B also wants to send the data then data received from A and B will collide
and can cause data loss. In this situation, the data gets destroyed, and the hosts send a jam signal to
all the hosts informing them about the collision, and each sender needs to wait for a certain amount
of time.

Note: In the hub, data is sent to all ports but each port accepts only that data whose destination
address matches their MAC address.

Types of Network Hubs

Networks hubs are classified into three types:

1. Active Hub: They have a power supply for regenerating, and amplifying the signals. When a
port sends weak signalled data, the hub regenerates the signal and strengthens it, then send it
further to all other ports. Active hubs are expensive in costs as compared to passive hubs.

2. Passive Hub: Passive hubs are simply used to connect signals from different network cables
as they do not have any computerised element. They simply connect the wires of different
devices in the star topology. Passive hubs do not do any processing or signal regeneration
and that’s why do not require electricity the most they can do is they can copy or repeat the
signal. It can’t clean the message, and it can’t amplify or strengthen the signal.

3. Intelligent Hub: Intelligent hubs as the name suggests are smarter than active and passive
hubs. The intelligent hub comprises a special monitoring unit named a Management
Information Base (MIB). This is software that helps in analysing and troubleshooting
network problems. Intelligent hubs work similarly to active hubs but with some management
features. Like it can monitor the traffic of the network and the configuration of a port.

Features of Hubs

Hubs are the hardware device that operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.

 It supports half-duplex transmission

  It works with shared bandwidth and broadcasting.

 The hub can provide a high data transmission rate to different devices.

 It can detect collisions in the network and send the jamming signal to each port.

 Hub does not support Virtual LAN(VLAN) and spanning tree protocol.

 It is unable to filter the data and hence transmit or broadcast it to each port.

 It cannot find the best route/ shortest path to send any data, which makes it an inefficient
device.

Difference Between Network Hub And Switch

Hub Switch
It works on the physical layer of the OSI model. It works on the data link layer of the OSI
model.
It performs frame flooding, which includes It mainly performs broadcasts and performs
broadcast, multicast and unicast as well. multicast, and unicast whenever required.
The transmission mode is half-duplex. The transmission mode is full-duplex.
It cannot perform data filtering. It can filter data and send the frame to the
desired destination.
There is no spanning tree. A switch may contain more than one
spanning tree possible.
It can not store the MAC address of the ports and It can store the data in a routing table and it
the destination address of the frame that arrived. helps in further sending the data.
It is a passive device. It is an active device.
Hub can operate at a speed of 10Mbps. The switch can operate at a speed of 10-
100Mbps and 1- 10 Gbps.

Advantages of Network Hubs

 It is less expensive.

 It does not impact network performance.

 Hub support different network media.

Disadvantages of Network Hubs

 It cannot find the best/ shortest path of the network.

 No mechanism for traffic detection.

 No mechanism for data filtration.

 Not capable of connecting to different network topologies like token ring, ethernet, etc.

Switch

What is a Network Switch and How Does it Work?

The Switch is a network device that is used to segment the networks into different subnetworks called
subnets or LAN segments. It is responsible for filtering and forwarding the packets between LAN segments
based on MAC address.

Switches have many ports, and when data arrives at any port, the destination address is examined first and
some checks are also done and then it is processed to the devices. Different types of communication are
supported here like unicast, multicast, and broadcast communication.

Features of Network Switches

 It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.

 It performs error checking before forwarding data.

 It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.

 It operates in full duplex mode.

 It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.

 It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission modes.

 Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to destination.

 Switches have a more significant number of ports.

Why Are Network Switches Valuable?

Switches are one of the most important things for transferring information between different endpoints.
Some of the benefits are mentioned below.

 Switches are having full-duplex communication which helps in making effective use of bandwidth.

 Switches help to provide a wired connection to printers, IoT devices, wireless points, and many more
devices.

 IoT Devices send data through Network Switches that help in making smarter surroundings with the
help of Artificial Intelligence.

 Network Devices are made with the help of Switches that carry a large number of traffic in
telecommunication.

Types of Switches

Switches are mainly classified into the following types that are mentioned below.

 Virtual Switches: Virtual Switches are the switches that are inside Virtual Machine hosting
environments.

 Routing Switches: These are the switches that are used to connect LANs.They also have the work of
performing functions in the Network Layer of the OSI Model.

 Unmanaged Switches: Unmanaged Switches are the devices that are used to enable Ethernet devices
that help in automatic data passing. These are generally used for home networks and small
 businesses. In case of the requirement of more switches, we just add more switches by plug and play
method.

 Managed Switches: Managed Switches are switches having more complex networks. SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol) can be used for configuring managed switches. These types of
switches are mostly used in large networks having complex architecture. They provide better security
levels and precision control but they are more costly than Unmanaged switches.

 LAN Switches: LAN (Local Area Network) Switches are also called ethernet switches or data
switches. LAN switches always try to avoid overlapping of data packets in the network just by
allocating bandwidth in such a manner.

 PoE Switches: Power over Ethernet(PoE) are the switches used in Gigabit Ethernets. PoE help in
combining data and power transmission over the same cable so that it helps in receiving data and
electricity over the same line.

 Smart Switches: Smart Switches are switches having some extra controls on data transmissions but
also have extra limitations over managed Switches. They are also called partially managed switches.

 Stackable Switches: Stackable switches are connected through a backplane to combine two logical
switches into a single switch.

 Modular Switches: These types of switches help in accommodating two or more cards. Modular
switches help in providing better flexibility.

What is a Layer 2 Switch?

A Layer 2 switch operates at Layer 2 of OSI model, which is the Data Link Layer. The switch forwards data
packets depending on the devices’ MAC (Media Access Control) addresses that are in its network. Most
commonly they are found in Local Area Networks (LAN) where their main purpose includes providing
different collision domains while reducing congestion within that network .To enable delivery of this data to
specific destination layer II switches find out appropriate port for these packets on MAC basis.

What is a Layer 3 Switch?

A Layer 3 Switch is identical to an ordinary switch in its operation with a router at the same time, working at
both data link layer (Layer 2) and network layer (Layer 3) under the Open Systems Interconnection model.
Layer 3 switches can route packets between diverse subnets or VLANs (virtual LANs) with the application
of IP addresses, similar to the manner in which networking devices called routers handle them. Hence they
are suitable for big-sized networks necessitating fast switching together with routing abilities.

What is an Unmanaged Switch?

A basic, plug-and-play network device called unmanaged switch permits automatic communication between
Ethernet devices. Where the network design is uncomplicated and there is no need for intricate settings,
unmanaged switches are mostly found in home networks or small businesses. They do not include any
configuration choices or advanced functions thus they are convenient to install and use.

What is a Managed Switch?

A managed switch has more sophisticated functionalities and elevated authority on network configurations
as opposed to an unmanaged one. They let the net admins set up, manage and observe their net working so
as to enhance its effectiveness and safeguard it against possible hacks or any other form of interference.
Managed switches also provide remote alterations through SNMP (Simplified Network Management
Protocol). Other different protocols such as VLANs, QoS (Quality of Service), and redundancy alternatives
are supported by such switches too.

How Does a Network Switch Works?

When the source wants to send the data packet to the destination, the packet first enters the switch and the
switch reads its header and finds the MAC address of the destination to identify the device then it sends the
packet out through the appropriate ports that lead to the destination devices.

Switch establishes a temporary connection between the source and destination for communication and
terminates the connection once the conversation is done. Also, it offers full bandwidth to network traffic
going to and from a device simultaneously to reduce collision.

How Does a Network Switch Works?

Switching Techniques

Switching techniques are used to decide the best route for data transmission between source and destination.
These are classified into three categories :

 Circuit Switching

 Message Switching

 Packet Switching

How To Set Up a Network Switch?

There are different kinds of switches that work according to the tasks defined. For a small network LAN, or
for a home network, a network switch is used by plugging into a port of the router. Below mentioned are the
steps which are used in setting up network switches.

Step 1: Switch has to be bought as per the requirement of the network.

Step 2: The switch port has to be connected directly to the router using the cable. Generally, if there is an
uplink port present in the switch, the wire should be connected to that port, if the uplink power is not
present, then the wire has to be connected to any port of the router.
Step 3: After proper connection, the IP addresses of devices are configured.

Difference Between Network Switch and Router

Network Switch Router

Network Switch works on Layer 2 of the OSI Model. The router is primarily a device of Layer 3
of the OSI Model.
The resource is shared among multiple devices with the Data is moved between two or more
help of a single LAN using a network switch. computers with the help of a router.
Network switches uses data frames. Routers use data packets.
Switches only work in a Wired network connection. Router works with both wired and wifi
networks.
Switches use MAC Addresses for transferring data to the Routers use IP Addresses for the same
proper destination. work.

Uses of Network Switches

Network Switches are an important part of Network communication. Some of the use cases are mentioned
below.

 Network switches help provide automatic link connections that remove time-consuming settings and
provide easy access to network devices.

 Switches provide a better, more secure, reliable network having more control over data.

 Generally, switches work in full duplex mode, which helps in continuous data transmission and that
improves better connectivity.

 As MAC Address is used for the devices connected to it, that helps in the delivery of messages to
only the required destination, not everywhere.

 Network Switches work for home networks or local networks where streaming works are performed
regularly.

Difference between Network Switch and Hub

Network Switch Hub

Network Switch is a device of layer 2 of the OSI Model. Hub is a physical device of Layer 1 of the
OSI Model.
Network Switch is a little more complex than a Hub. Hub is a simple device as compared to
Network Switch.
Network Switch easily manages data in and out, hence less Communication Collisions usually happen
communication collision. in a Hub.
Network Switches transfer data together by connecting The main task of Hub is to connect all
devices. nodes of the network.
Switches prevent collision with the help of Ethernet frames. Hubs cannot help in preventing collisions.

Advantages of Switches

 Prevents traffic overloading in a network by segmenting the network into smaller subnets.

 Increases the bandwidth of the network.

 Less frame collision as the switch creates the collision domain for each connection.
Disadvantages of Switches

 It can not stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment from traveling to all other LAN
segments.

 Switches are more expensive.

Router

What is a Router?

A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. One or more
packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a router. By sending data packets to their
intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between different networks and permits several devices to share an
Internet connection.

Let us understand this by a very general example, suppose you search for www.google.com in your web
browser then this will be a request that will be sent from your system to Google`s server to serve that
webpage, now your request which is nothing but a stream of packets don`t just go to the google`s server
straightaway they go through a series of networking devices known as a router which accepts this packets
and forwards them to correct path and hence it reaches to the destination server. A router has several
interfaces by which it can connect to several host systems. Routers are the devices that are operated on the
Network Layer of the OSI Model, these are the most common devices used in networking.

Router

How Does Router Work?

 A router determines a packet’s future path by examining the destination IP address of the header and
comparing it to the routing database. The list of routing tables outlines how to send the data to a
specific network location. They use a set of rules to determine the most effective way to transmit the
data to the specified IP address.

 To enable communication between other devices and the internet, routers utilize a modem, such as a
cable, fiber, or DSL modem. Most routers include many ports that can connect a variety of devices to
the internet simultaneously. In order to decide where to deliver data and where traffic is coming
from, it needs routing tables.

 A routing table primarily specifies the router’s default path. As a result, it might not determine the
optimum path to forward the data for a particular packet. For instance, the office router directs all
networks to its internet service provider through a single default channel.

 Static and dynamic tables come in two varieties in the router. The dynamic routing tables are
automatically updated by dynamic routers based on network activity, whereas the static routing
tables are configured manually.
 Router Network

Types of Router

There are several types of routers. Some of them are mentioned below:

1. Broadband Routers: These are one of the important kinds of routers. It is used to do different types of
things. it is used to connect computers or it is also used to connect to the internet.

2. Wireless routers: These routers are used to create a wireless signal in your office or home.

3. Wired Routers: Wired Router is used to connects multiple wired devices using a Ethernet cable, It
takes the transmission data from the modem and distribute it to a further network, it is widely used in
schools and small offices.

4. Edge Routers: As the name indicates, these are located at the edges usually connected to an Internet
Service Provider, and distribute packets across multiple packets.

5. Core Routers: Core routers distribute packets within the same network. The main task is to carry
heavy data transfers.

6. Virtual Router: They are implemented using a software on the virtual machine , and they are more
flexible and scalable.

7. Portable Routers: They are used to create private Wi-Fi and hence designed for easy portability.

Functions of Router

The router performs below major functions:

 1. Forwarding: The router receives the packets from its input ports, checks its header, performs some
basic functions like checking checksum, and then looks up to the routing table to find the appropriate
output port to dump the packets onto, and forwards the packets onto that output port.

2. Routing: Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path for the packet to
reach the destination, It maintains a routing table that is made using different algorithms by the
router only.

3. Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers use NAT to translate between different IP address
ranges. This allows devices on a private network to access the internet using a single public IP
address.

4. Security: Routers can be configured with firewalls and other security features to protect the network
from unauthorized access, malware, and other threats.

5. Quality of Service (QoS): Routers can prioritize network traffic based on the type of data being
transmitted. This ensures that critical applications and services receive adequate bandwidth and are
not affected by lower-priority traffic.

6. Virtual Private Network (VPN) connectivity: Routers can be configured to allow remote users to
connect securely to the network using a VPN.

7. Bandwidth management: Routers can be used to manage network bandwidth by controlling the
amount of data that is allowed to flow through the network. This can prevent network congestion and
ensure that critical applications and services receive adequate bandwidth.

8. Monitoring and diagnostics: Routers can be configured to monitor network traffic and provide
diagnostics information in the event of network failures or other issues. This allows network
administrators to quickly identify and resolve problems.

Architecture of Router

A generic router consists of the following components:

1. Input Port: This is the interface by which packets are admitted into the router, it performs several key
functions as terminating the physical link at the router, this is done by the leftmost part in the below
diagram, and the middle part does the work of interoperating with the link-layer like decapsulation,
in the last part of the input port the forwarding table is looked up and is used to determine the
appropriate output port based on the destination address.

2. Switching Fabric: This is the heart of the Router, It connects the input ports with the output ports. It
is kind of a network inside a networking device. The switching fabric can be implemented in several
ways some of the prominent ones are:

o Switching via memory: In this, we have a processor which copies the packet from input ports
and sends it to the appropriate output port. It works as a traditional CPU with input and
output ports acting as input and output devices.

o Switching via bus: In this implementation, we have a bus that connects all the input ports to
all the output ports. On receiving a packet and determining which output port it must be
delivered to, the input port puts a particular token on the packet and transfers it to the bus. All
output ports can see the packets but they will be delivered to the output port whose token has
been put in, the token is then scraped off by that output port and the packet is forwarded
 o Switching via interconnection network: This is a more sophisticated network, here instead of
a single bus we use a 2N bus to connect n input ports to n output ports.

3. Output Port: This is the segment from which packets are transmitted out of the router. The output
port looks at its queuing buffers (when more than one packets have to be transmitted through the
same output port queuing buffers are formed) and takes packets, does link layer functions, and finally
transmits the packets to an outgoing link.

4. Routing Processor: It executes the routing protocols, and it works like a traditional CPU. It employs
various routing algorithms like the link-state algorithm, distance-vector algorithm, etc. to prepare the
forwarding table, which is looked up to determine the route and the output port.

Archi
tecture of Router

Security Challenges in Router

There are several challenges faced by the router, due to which an unauthorized access is taken by another
party. Here below are some security challenges in router:

1. Vulnerability Exploits

Firmware is automatically installed on all hardware-based routers to assist the operation of the router. Like
any other programme, router firmware frequently has flaws that hackers could use against it. Vendors of
routers usually release updates to fix these flaws. Router firmware needs to be updated on a frequent basis as
a result. Attackers have the ability to monitor traffic on unpatched routers and utilise them as part of a
botnet.

2. DDoS Attacks

Distributed Denial-Of-Service (DDoS) attacks against network infrastructure frequently target both large
and small organisations. Network outages can be caused by unmitigated network layer DDoS attacks, which
can overload routers or bring them down. Using Cloudflare Magic Transit is one way to defend networks
and routers against DDoS attacks of this nature.

3. Administration Credentials

To carry out administration tasks, a set of admin credentials is included with every router. The default values
for these credentials are “admin” for the username and “admin” for the password. As soon as possible,
change the username and password to something more secure since, if they are not changed, attackers can
use them to remotely take over the router. They are aware of the typical default values for these credentials.
Advantages of Router

 Easier Connection: Sharing a single network connection among numerous machines is the main
advantage of router. This enables numerous people to connect to the internet, boosting total
productivity. In addition, routers have connections between various media and network designs.

 Security: Undoubtedly, installing a router is the first step in securing a network connection. Because
using a modem to connect directly to the internet exposes your computer to several security risks. So
that the environment is somewhat secure, routers can be utilized as an intermediary between two
networks. While not a firewall or antivirus replacement.

 NAT Usage: Routers use Network Address Translation (NAT) to map multiple private IP addresses
into one public IP address. This allows for a better Internet connection and information flow between
all devices connected to the network.

 Supports Dynamic Routing: The router employs dynamic routing strategies to aid in network
communication. The internet work’s optimum path is chosen through dynamic routing. Additionally,
it creates collision and broadcast domains. Overall, this can lessen network traffic.

 Filtering of Packets: Switching between packets and filtering packets are two more router services. A
collection of filtering rules are used by routers to filter the network. The packets are either allowed or
passed through.

Disadvantages of Router

 Slower: Routers analyze multiple layers of information, from the physical layer to the network layer,
which slows down connections. The same issue can also be encountered when multiple devices are
connected to these network devices, causing “connection waiting”.

 High Cost: They are more expensive than some other tools for systems administration. This includes
security, extension, and the focal point. As a result, routers are typically not the greatest option for
issues.

 Need for configuration: The router must be properly configured to work properly. In general, the
more complex the intended use, the more configuration is required. This requires professional
installation, which can add to the cost of buying a router.

 Quality Issues: The time transitions are not always accurate. Even yet, some modern devices use the
2.4GHz band, which is frequently deactivated. These kinds of separations are frequently possible for
those who live in apartments and condominiums.

 Bandwidth shortages: Dynamic routing techniques used by routers to support connections tend to
cause network overhead, consuming a lot of bandwidth. This leads to a bandwidth shortage that
significantly slows down the internet connection between connected devices.

Applications of Router

There are several applications of router because nowadays routers are widely used in most of the networking
communication for better communication:

 Hardware equipment, such as servers from BSC, MGW, IN, SGSN, and other remote location
networks, is connected to these networks via routers.

 It is utilised in both wired and wireless communication since it supports a high speed of data
transmission due to its utilisation of STM connections for connectivity.
  Routers are frequently used by internet service providers to transfer data, such as audio, video,
image, and email, from one location to another. Additionally, it can transmit data globally by utilising
the destination’s IP address.

 Routers provide access control. It can be set up so that some users can access all of the data while
others can access just a subset of it.

Repeater

What is a Repeater?

A repeater is a networking device that helps to amplify and regenerate signals to increase the reach of a
network. Also operating at the physical layer of the OSI model, repeaters help overcome distance-related
limitations by strengthening the strength and quality of the signal. They are instrumental in LANs and
WANs as they minimize errors, reduce data loss, and ensure reliable delivery to specific locations. One of
the primary benefits of repeaters is the error free transfer of data over longer distances. This will ensure
efficient and safe communication.

Repeater

Features of Repeaters

 Repeater can regenerate the signal without modifying it.

 Repeaters can be used in analog signals and digital signals.

 Repeaters can extend the range of networks.

 Dynamic networking is supported by repeater.

 Use of Repeaters reduces error and loss of data.

 Power is required for working of repeaters.

 Using repeater can add complexity in the network.

Working of Repeaters

 Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile phone, laptop
or radio.
  This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it’s wireless network or through the
cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it’s strength gets weak.

 The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source system but a weak signal.
Therefore repeater amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthen.

 The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This signal is more
stronger and can travel at longer distance. In short, it extends the network without losing the quality
of signal.

 Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and wired technologies
such as ethernet.

Types of Repeaters

According to the functions and features repeaters are divided into three types. They are as follow:

1. According to the type of Signals

According to the type of signal being generated by the Repeater they are classified as:

 Analog Repeater: Analog repeaters are used to amplify only the analog signals. Analog repeaters
receives the analog signal, amplifies it and then regenerates it as the output. Analog repeaters were
mostly used in the older network technologies where analog signal was used.

 Digital Repeater: Digital repeaters are the type of repeaters that does not amplify digital signal but
regenerates it directly. Digital repeaters are mostly used in the modern technologies where digital
signal is being used. Digital repeaters are also capable to reconstruct a distorted signal.

2. According to the type of Connected Network

Based on the type of network the repeaters can connect they are categorized as below:

 Wired Repeaters: Wired repeaters are used in wired Local Area Networks(LANs). Wired repeater
receives the signal and repeats it. This helps to extend the network travel data without loosing it’s
strength and data.

 Wireless Repeaters: Wireless repeaters are used in wireless Local Area Networks(LANs) and
Cellular networks. A router connected in the network sends wireless signal to the repeater. Once
received, repeater broadcast the signal to increase the coverage of network.

3. According to the Domain of LAN Networks

Based on the location of the Repeater in network they are connected, Repeaters are classified as below:

 Local Repeaters: Local Repeaters are used in Local Area Networks where the network is very small.
The distance between the devices connected in network is very small.

 Remote Repeaters: Remote Repeaters are used in Local Area Networks where network is very large.
The distance between the devices connected in network is more.

4. Based on Technologies

According to the technology used Repeater are further classified as:

  Microwave Repeater: Microwave repeaters are defined as a type of repeater that are embedded
between the source and destination that is transmitting station and receiving station. The use of
microwave repeater depends upon the distance between two devices. In microwave repeaters high
power transmitters and sensitive receivers are used.

 Optical Repeater: Optical repeaters are defined as a type of repeaters that are used for the
communication of fibre optic communication systems. Optical repeaters can amplify and reshape the
operations before they are being transmitted. The optical repeater grabs all the signals from optical
fiber cable into electronic form.

 Radio Repeater: Radio repeater is a type of repeater that transmits all the received data into radio
signals. Radio repeaters has two different ports namely radio receiver and radio transmitter. Radio
transmitter is used to retransmit the data that is received from repeater and radio receiver collects all
the incoming data in form of signals.

 Telephone Repeater: Telephone repeaters are type of repeaters used for long distance networks.
Amplifiers having transistors are used in telephone repeater. Telephone repeater is a bidirectional
communication system. Telephone repeaters are majorly used for communication in submarines.

Advantages of Repeater

 Better Performance of Network: Repeaters provide with better performance of network because they
do not always depend on processing overheads at the time.

 Cost Effective: Repeaters are more cost effective as compared to other network devices therefore
they are cost effective.

 Extends the network: Repeaters provides with an advantage to extend the available network for
transmission of data.

 No Physical barriers: Using physical devices can led to some barrier while transmission of signals.
With the help of wireless repeaters such issues are resolved.

 Enhanced Signals: When computer devices and routers are connected in a network over long
distance it weakens the strength of signals. While using repeaters it improves the strength of signals
even over long distances.

Disadvantages of Repeater

 Network Traffic: Repeaters do not have features to segment the network traffic. Therefore repeaters
do lack with the property to congestion.

 Network Segmentation: As repeaters do not have feature to segment the network traffic repeaters
cannot create a separate traffic from one cable to another.

 Limited number of repeaters: Use of limited number of repeaters is supported by the network. If
more number of repeaters are used that the specified one, it can even create collision of packets and
increase the noise.

 Collision Domain: The information is passed from various domains repeater is not able to separate
the devices.

Bridges

What is Bridge in Computer Network – Types, Uses, Functions & Differences

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple LANs to a larger
LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as bridges, hubs, routers, switches,
etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a particular purpose. The bridge is a networking
device that connects the larger LAN networks with the group of smaller LAN networks.

In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what exactly a bridge is, and the
type of bridges we have in computer networks including transparent bridges, source routing bridges, and
translational bridges, which will be followed by advantages and disadvantages of the bridge in networking.
then how the bridge is different from the gateway and last we will look into the applications and functions of
the bridge in the network.

Bridge in Computer Network

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger Local Area
Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a physical or
hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a layer of two
switches.

The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine whether to filter or
forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections into sections,
now each section has a separate bandwidth and a separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve
network performance.

Types of Bridges

There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:

 Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge
doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any station. The prime function of the
transparent bridge is to block or forward the data according to the MAC address.

 Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for
token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data frames by the source station
to perform the routing operation so that once the frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined
path/route.

 Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to
another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between two different types of networking
systems. Like if we are sending data from a token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable
will be used to connect both the networking system and transmit data.

Working of Bridges
Let’s see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:

 Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network segments A and B.

 Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is coming from to
know which device is on which segment.

 Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A, the bridge stops it
from going further.

 Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the bridge sends it
to the correct place on network B.

 Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from network B.

Working of Bridge

Models of Bridge in Computer Networks

There are two main models of bridging in computer network: Local bridging and remote bridging. Let us
learn about them in detail.

 Local Bridging Local bridging connects LAN switches using local cables. This allows computers on
the same Ethernet segment, whether they’re connected to virtual hubs or physical LANs, to
communicate freely. It’s used when LANs within the same area need to talk to each other directly at
the link layer.

 Remote Bridging Remote bridging connects two bridges over a Wide Area Network (WAN). This
model is used when LANs are located in different geographical areas and need to communicate with
each other at the link layer.

Uses of Bridge in Computer Network

 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple LANs together.

 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or reject the data.
  In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the network.

 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is unavailable.

 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.

 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC address is available.

Functions of Bridges in the Network

 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.

 To control the traffic in the network.

 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.

 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.

Advantages

 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network topologies together.

 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.

 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different segments.

 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple LAN segments.

 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except the bridge itself.

 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.

Disadvantages

 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.

 Slow in speed.

 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC address of the device on the
network.

 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of data is not possible.

 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and broadcast storms can be
formed

Gateway

Introduction of Gateways
A gateway is a network node or device that connects two networks that use different transmission protocols.
Gateways play an important role in connecting two networks. It works as the entry-exit point for a
network because all traffic that passes across the networks must pass through the gateway.
What are Gateways?
A network gateway is a device that connects different networks by translating messages from one protocol
into another protocol. The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic.
Gateways are also known as protocol converters because they play an important role in converting
protocols supported by traffic on different networks. As a result, it allows smooth communication between
two networks.

Features of Gateways
Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of these are:

 A gateway is situated at a network’s edge and manages all data that enters or exits the network.

 A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer of the OSI model.

 Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and divided it into small packets
of data rather than sending it bulk.

 Gateways provide security within the network.

Types of Gateways
These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of direction of flow of data:

 Unidirectional Gateways: Data can only pass through unidirectional gateways in one direction. The
destination node replicates changes made in the source node but not the other way around. They are tools
for archiving the packets.

 Bidirectional Gateway: Data can pass through bidirectional gateways in both directions. They are tools for
synchronisation.

These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of functionality of Gateway:

 Network Gateway: The most popular kind of gateway, known as a network gateway acts as an interface
between two disparate networks using distinct protocols. Anytime the word gateway is used without a type
designation, it refers to a network gateway.

 Cloud Storage Gateway: A network node or server known as a cloud storage gateway translates storage
requests made using various cloud storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or
REST (Representational State Transfer). Data communication is made simpler since it makes it easier to
integrate private cloud storage into applications without first moving those programmes to a public cloud.

 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O): Project HERMES and Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations
(GENSO) are two well-known I2O gateways that connect devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft
orbiting the earth.

 IoT Gateway: Before delivering sensor data to the cloud network, IoT gateways assimilate it from Internet of
Things (IoT) devices in the field and translate between sensor protocols. They link user applications, cloud
networks, and IoT devices.

 VoIP Trunk Gateway: By using a VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network, it makes data transmission
between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices like landlines and fax machines easier.
How Gateways Work?
 The gateway receives data from devices within the network.

 After receiving data the gateway intercept and analyse data packets, which include analyzing packet header,
payload etc.

 Based on the analysis of the data packets, the gateway calculate an appropriate destination address of data
packet. It then routes the data packets to their destination address.

 In some cases, the gateway might also want to transform the format of the obtained data to ensure
compatibility at the receiver.

 Once the data packets have been analyzed, routed, and converted, then the gateway sends the last packets
to their respective destinations address inside the network.

Gateways

Advantages of Gateways
 Gateway helps in connecting two different network.

 Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to the network.

 Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.

 Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external attacks.

Limitations of Gateways
There are few limitations of gateways as well. Here are some of them:

 Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the network requires time.

 Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other networks.

 The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost efficient.

 Gateway is hard to manage

Conclusion
In conclusion gateway plays an important role for managing the flow od data between various networking
device. It works as the entry-exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the networks must
pass through the gateway.

Network Layer
What is Internet Protocol (IP)?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that allows computers and other devices to communicate over the
Internet. It ensures that information sent from one device reaches the correct destination by using a unique
set of numbers known as IP addresses.

Whether you're browsing websites, sending emails, or watching videos, the Internet Protocol helps manage
how information travels, making sure everything works smoothly and efficiently.

Why is Internet Protocol Important?

The Internet Protocol is a fundamental component of the Internet and computer networks, responsible for
delivering packets of data from the source host to the destination host based on their IP addresses. It ensures
that packets of data get to the right destination from the source device.

Each device connected to a network is assigned an IP address, which serves as a "home address" for the
device, enabling other devices to locate and send messages to it and providing the addressing and routing
mechanisms the devices require for their communications.

IP works in conjunction with the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to send error messages and
operational information (e.g., destination unreachable, echo requests), which inform senders about issues in
packet delivery. Unlike some protocols, IP does not establish a connection before transmitting data, making
it a connectionless protocol that allows for more flexible and efficient data transmission

Primary Terminologies

 IP Address: IP address is referred as a number sticker given to each device that belongs to the
network which utilizes Internet Protocol to communicate. It serves two main purposes: host or
network interface recognition, identifier or location addressing.

 Packet: A packet is a parcel of data that is switched between an origin and a destination via the
Internet or some other network that is based on the packet switching mechanism. This component
mainly has a header and a payload.

 Router: A router is a network device that (serves as) a forwarding point for data packets between
computer networks. Routers carry out the traffic routing functions through the Internet.

 IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is a protocol that tends to provide connectivity between the
desktop computers online and that application layer is the wider application one that covers most of
the Internet communications nowadays

 IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), the final iteration in the series of the upgrades to the Internet
Protocol, is used for the purpose of identifying, locating and routing of various computers so that
traffic through Internet can be transferred properly.

How Does IP Addressing Work?

Every device connected to a network (such as the internet or a local network) needs a unique identifier so it
can be located and communicated with other devices. So, the IP address serves this purpose. IP addresses are
used by routers to determine how to forward data packets across the internet or a local network. This is
essential for the delivery of data between devices located in different geographical regions or network
segments.

IP addressing uniquely identifies each device on a network using IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, assigned either
statically or dynamically through DHCP. DNS translates human-readable domain names into these IP
addresses, while protocols like ARP (for IPv4) or NDP (for IPv6) map IPs to physical MAC addresses
locally. Data is encapsulated into IP packets containing source and destination addresses, which are routed
through network devices using routing tables and protocols such as OSPF or BGP to reach their target. In
private networks, NAT allows multiple devices to share a single public IP, conserving address space and
enhancing security by hiding internal addresses. Upon reaching the destination, packets are decapsulated and
processed by the appropriate applications. This comprehensive system ensures accurate, secure, and reliable
data delivery across interconnected networks.

Working of IP Address

Differences between IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions of the Internet Protocol to assign internet protocol addresses to devices that
could be connected to the internet.

The older version is IPv4 which uses a 32-bit address that is written in the form of four sets of numbers
separated by periods, an example of which is 192.168.1.1. It provides about 4.3 billion unique addresses,
sufficient at the time when it was first implemented but now running out due to the countless number of
devices that join the internet.

On the other hand, IPv6 was designed to solve this problem. It uses 128-bit addresses, displayed as eight
groups of four alphanumeric characters, and can generate almost limitless unique addresses.

For more details you can refer to Internet Protocol Version 4 and Internet Protocol Version 6.

What is an IP Packet?

An IP packets is the basic unit of data transmission in an IP network. It consists of a header and a payload:

 Header: The header contains essential control information, such as the source and destination IP
addresses, that helps routers determine where to send the packet.

 Payload: The payload contains the actual data being transmitted. Once the packet reaches its
destination, the data in the payload is delivered to the appropriate application or protocol
TRouters examine the IP header and use the destination IP address to determine the best route for the packet.
The packet may pass through multiple routers before reaching its destination. Upon arrival, the packet is
decapsulated, and the payload is passed to the relevant application on the receiving device.

IP
Packet

How Does the IP Routing Work?

IP routing is a procedure of routing the information from the source to the recipient to enable its direction to
the final destination. As we also know that the data is broken into several pieces, and then each piece will
almost definitely go through several routers until these data ends up in the final destination. The path that the
set of data package follows is determined by the routing algorithm.

Besides the size of packet and the header length, the design of the routing algorithm takes into account other
factors related to determining the most suitable route for the data from the sender to the destination. At the
arrival of the datagram at some router, then source address and destination address fields are employed with
a routing table to decide the subsequent hop's address.
 IP
Routing

Considering that it runs until it ultimately arrives at its desired point. The data which is getting distributed
into multiple packages will be reached destination by travelling through different independent packets.

Example:

The TCP layer in an email server carries out this service by means of dividing the data into packets,
providing numbers to each of the packets as well as to send these packets to the IP layer. This IP layer later
resends the packet to the email server becoming the destination. On the recipient server, other way around,
the TCP layer separates the data packets from the IP layer and remains its original text. This command goes
to the mail application.

Understanding Network Addressing: A Fundamental Overview

Network addressing is a fundamental system that assigns unique identifiers to each device on a network. These
identifiers, known as IP addresses, are crucial in facilitating communication between devices. Each device on the
network uses a unique IP address to send and receive data accurately and efficiently.

What is a Network Address?

A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that share common or different resources
provided on or by network nodes. This sharing or communication between the machines is governed by
some set of rules or network protocols. These computers or machines are identified by network addresses
and may have hostnames.

A Content Delivery Network (CDN) is a group of geographically distributed servers that work together to
deliver web content quickly and efficiently. Bringing the content closer to the user achieves this, thus
improving website performance and reliability. Network addressing plays a crucial role in this process,
allowing the CDN to read a user’s IP address and determine their location on the network. This strategy
ensures content delivery from the closest server, resulting in faster load times and improved user experience.

How URL is Converted to IP Address?

Answer: A URL is converted to an IP address through a process called DNS resolution, where the domain
name is looked up in DNS servers to find its corresponding IP address.
URL Entry
When you type a URL into your web browser, it needs to determine the IP address of the server hosting the
website.
DNS Lookup
Your browser queries a DNS server to find the corresponding IP address for the domain name in the URL.
The DNS server acts like a phone book for the internet, translating human-friendly domain names into
machine-friendly IP addresses.
DNS Response
The DNS server responds with the IP address of the website’s server.
Browser Connection
With the IP address, your browser can establish a connection to the website’s server, allowing it to send and
receive information, which is displayed as a webpage.
Conclusion
DNS resolution converts domain names into IP addresses, allowing browsers to find and display websites by
translating user-friendly URLs into the numerical addresses used for network communication.

Types of Network Addressing: Unpacking the Varieties

Just as languages have different dialects, network addressing also has different types. These types, namely
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast addressing, each serve a unique purpose in the intricate world of
network communication.

Unicast Addressing: The One-to-One System

Unicast addressing is the most common form of network addressing. As a one-to-one system, each device on
the network has a unique address. Unicast addressing is like sending a letter to a specific person at a
particular address; the information is directed to one specific destination. Unicast addressing is common in
regular internet traffic, where data packets get sent from one source to one destination.

Multicast Addressing: The One-to-Many System

Imagine sending an invitation to a group of people at once – this is what Multicast addressing does. It’s a
one-to-many system where a single address is used to send data to multiple devices. This type of addressing
is particularly beneficial when transmitting live video and audio streams, software updates, or any other
form of data that needs to be received by multiple users simultaneously.

Broadcast Addressing: The One-to-All System

Broadcast addressing, on the other hand, is the digital equivalent of a public announcement. It’s a one-to-all
system where data is sent to all devices on the network. Broadcast addressing generally sends network
requests or announcements to all devices in local area networks (LANs).

Advantages, Disadvantages, and Use Cases

Each type of network addressing carries its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Unicast addressing,
while efficient for one-to-one communication, can consume significant bandwidth when sending the same
data to multiple users.

Multicast addressing mitigates this issue by allowing data to be sent to multiple users simultaneously. Still,
it requires more complex network configurations and may not be supported by all devices or networks.
Broadcast addressing allows data to reach all devices on a network quickly, but it can generate substantial
traffic, potentially slowing down the network.

What is a Network Address?

A Network Address is a logical or physical address that uniquely identifies a host or a machine in a
telecommunication network. A network may also not be unique and can contain some structural and
hierarchical information of the node in the network. Internet protocol (IP) addresses, Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses, and telephone numbers are some basic examples of network addresses. It can
be of numeric type symbolic or both in some cases.

Network Address

Network Addressing
It is the prime responsibility of the network layer to assign unique addresses to different nodes in a network .
As mentioned earlier they can be physical or logical but primarily they are logical addresses i.e. software-
based addresses. The most widely used network address is an IP address. It uniquely identifies a node in an
IP network. An IP address is a 32-bit long numeric address represented in a form of dot-decimal notation
where each byte is written in a decimal form separated by a period. For example 196.32.216.9 is an IP
address where 196 represents first 8 bits, 32 next 8 bits and so on. The first three bytes of an IP address
represents the network and the last byte specifies the host in the network.

An IP address is further divided into sub classes:

Class A
An IP address is assigned to those networks that include large number of hosts.
 The network ID consists of 8 bits.
 The host ID consists of 24 bits.
In Class A, the network ID is determined by the remaining 7 bits, while the first bit in higher order bits of
the first octet is always set to 0.
There are a total of 27 networks in Class A, which equals 128 network addresses.
224 – 2 = 16,777,214 host addresses make up the entire number of hosts in Class A.

Class A
Class B
An IP address is assigned to networks range from small sized to large sized.
Class B networks are those that range in size from small to large networks and are given an IP address.
 There are 16 bits in the Network ID.
 There are 16 bits in the host ID.
In Class B, the network ID is determined by the remaining 14 bits, with the higher order bits of the first octet
always set to 10. The Host ID is found in the remaining 16 bits.
There are 214 networks in Class B, which equates to 16384 network addresses.

Class B
Class C
An IP address is assigned to networks that are small sized.
 There are 24 bits in the Network ID.
 The host ID consists of 8 bits.
In Class C, the network ID is determined by the final 21 bits, with the higher order bits of the first octet
always set to 110. The host in a network is identified by its eight bits, or host ID.
There are 221 networks in all, which equals 2097152 network addresses.
There are a total of 28 – 2 = 254 host addresses.

Class C
Class D

IP address are reserved for multicast address and does not possess subnetting. Multicast addresses are
assigned a reserved IP address in Class D. It is devoid of subnetting. In every network, the host ID is
determined by the remaining bits, with the higher order bits of the first octet always set to 1110.

Class D
Class E

An IP address is used for the future use and for the research and development purposes and does not possess
any subnetting.An IP address is utilised in Class E for research and development or future use. There is no
subnetting on it. In every network, the host ID is determined by the remaining bits, with the higher order bits
of the first octet always set to 1111.

Class E

An IP address is divided into two parts:

1. Net ID : represents the number of networks.

2. Host ID : represents the number of hosts.

Norms to assign Network ID

 For the hosts located in the same network, share the same network ID.

 It cannot start with 127 as 127 is used exclusively by Class A.

 If all the bits of the network ID are set to 0, it could not be assigned as it specifies a particular host on the
local network.

 If all the bits of the network ID are set to 1, it could not be assigned as it is reserved for multicast address.

Norms to assign Host ID

 It must be unique within any network.

  If all the bits of the host ID are set to 0, it could not be assigned as it is used to represent the network ID of
the IP address.

 The Host ID with all the bits set to 1 are reserved for multicast address.

Classful Network Addressing

Class Leading Bits NET ID Bits HOST ID Bits Number of Addresses Range
Networks per Network
A 0 8 24 27 224 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255
B 10 16 16 214 216 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255
C 110 24 8 221 28 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255
D 1110 Not defined Not defined Not defined Not defined 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255
E 1111 Not defined Not defined Not defined Not defined 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255

Dotted decimal Notation

IPv4 addresses are merely used as identifiers, which operate at the network layer to identify IP packets
source or destination. The version of IP that is in use is known as IPv4. In this version, every node on the
Internet can have one or more interfaces, and we are needed to recognize each of these devices with a
specific address assigned to each of them. It represents that each node is created one or more IP addresses to
conjure TCP/IP. These are logical addresses and include 32 bits.

IP addresses are defined using binary notation with a 32-bit long string. Dotted decimal notations are used to
make strings easily, in which periods or dots separate four decimal numbers from 0 to 255, describing 32
bits.

For example, the IPv4 address 11000000101010000000101000011001 is represented as 192.168.10.25 in

dotted decimal notation.
Following are the steps to convert an IPv4 address from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation−

 Break 32-bit long address into segments of 8-bit blocks: 11000000 10101000 00001010 00011001
 Write decimal similar to each structure: 192 168 10 25
 Divide the blocks with periods: 192.168.10.25

The figure shows the IP address structure.

Dotted Decimal Notation

We have seen that the IPv4 address is expressed as a 32-bit number in dotted decimal notation. IP addresses
may have a fixed part and variable part depending upon the allocation of total addresses to you or your
organization.

The fixed part of the address may be from one octet to three octets, and the remaining octets will then be
available for the variable part.

For example, you can take an IP address like 192.168.10.25. Now set all constant bits to 1 and set all
variable bits to 0. This gives 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000. On converting it in dotted-decimal
notation, the outcome is 255.255.0.0.

This dotted-decimal notation with constant and variable methods can address prefixes to 192.168.10.25 and
is represented as 192.168.10.25, 255.255.0.0. This method of expressing the prefix length as a dotted-
decimal number is known as a network mask or subnet mask notation.

What Is the Internet? Meaning, Working, and Types

The internet is a global network of devices that communicate using the TCP protocol.

 The internet is defined as a global network of linked computers, servers, phones, and smart
appliances that communicate with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP) standard
to enable the fast exchange of information and files, along with other types of services.
 This article explains the meaning, inner workings, and the most popular types of internet.
some basic terms you need to understand from the beginning since you'll hear these expressions all
the time. We introduce some important terms below.

Prerequisites: Basic familiarity with your computer operating system.

 The difference between a web browser, a website, and a search engine.
 How a web browser works at a basic level.
Learning outcomes:
 Searching for information.

The difference between web page, website, web server, and search engine

We will start by describing various web-related concepts: web pages, websites, web servers, and
search engines. These terms are often confused by newcomers to the web or are incorrectly used.
Let's make sure you know what they each mean! Let's start with some definitions:

Web page

A document that can be displayed in a web browser. These are also often called just "pages". Such
documents are written in the HTML language (which we look at in more detail later on).

Website

A collection of web pages grouped together into a single resource, with links connecting them
together. Often called a "site".

Web server

A computer that hosts a website on the Internet.

Web service

A software that responds to requests over the Internet to perform a function or provide data. A web
service is typically backed by a web server, and may provide web pages for users to interact with.
Many websites are also web services, though some websites (such as MDN) comprise of static
content only. Examples of web services would be something that resizes images, provides a weather
report, or handles user login.
 Search engine

A web service that helps you find other web pages, such as Google, Bing, Yahoo, or DuckDuckGo.
Search engines are normally accessed through a web browser (for example, you can perform search
engine searches directly in the address bar of Firefox, Chrome, etc.) or through a web page (for
example, bing.com or duckduckgo.com).

Let's look at an analogy — a public library. This is what you would generally do when visiting a
library:

1. Find a search index and look for the title of the book you want.
2. Make a note of the catalog number of the book.
3. Go to the particular section containing the book, find the right catalog number, and get the book.

Let's compare a public library with the web:

 The library is like a web server. It has several sections, which is similar to a web server hosting
multiple websites.
 The different sections (science, math, history, etc.) in the library are like websites. Each section is
like a unique website (two sections do not contain the same books).
 The books in each section are like web pages. One website may have several web pages, for
example, the Science section (the website) will have books on heat, sound, thermodynamics, statics,
etc.
 The search index is like the search engine. Each book has its own unique location in the library (two
books cannot be kept at the same place) which is specified by the catalog number.

Let's now take the time to look at each term in a little bit more detail.

Web page

A web page is a simple document displayable by a browser. A web page can embed a variety of
different types of resources such as:

 Style information — controlling a page's look-and-feel.

 Scripts — which add interactivity to the page.
 Media — images, sounds, and videos.

Note: Browsers can also display other documents such as PDF files and other resources such as
images or videos, but the term web page specifically refers to HTML documents.

All web pages can each be found at a unique location (web address, also called a URL). To access a
page, just type its address in your browser address bar:
Try it out

Try loading one of your favorite websites in a browser now.

Website

A website is a collection of linked web pages (plus their associated resources) that share a unique
domain name. Each web page of a given website provides explicit links—most of the time in the
form of clickable portions of text—that allow the user to move from one page of the website to
another.

When you load your favorite website in a browser, it tends to first display the website's main web
page, or homepage (casually referred to as "home"):

Try it out

Try clicking some menu items or links to look at some different pages on your favorite website.

Note: It is also possible to have a single-page app: a website that consists of a single web page that is
dynamically updated with new content when needed.
Web server

A web server is a computer hosting one or more websites. "Hosting" means that all the web pages
and their associated files are available on that computer. The web server will send web page files it is
hosting to a user's browser when they attempt to load it.

Don't confuse websites and web servers. For example, if you hear someone say, "My website is not
responding", it actually means that the web server is not responding and therefore the website is not
available. More importantly, since a web server can host multiple websites, the term web server is
never used to designate a website, as it could cause great confusion. In our previous example, if we
said, "My web server is not responding", it means that multiple websites on that web server are not
available.

Search engine

Search engines are a common source of confusion on the web. A search engine is a special kind of
website that helps users find web pages from other websites.

There are plenty out there: Google, Bing, Yandex, DuckDuckGo, and many more. Some are generic,
some are specialized around certain topics.

Many beginners on the web confuse search engines and browsers. Let's make it clear: A browser is a
piece of software that retrieves and displays web pages; a search engine is a website that helps
people find web pages from other websites. The confusion arises because, the first time someone
launches a browser, the browser often displays a search engine's homepage or a search box allowing
them to search for a term using that search engine. Most browsers also allow their users to use a
search engine by typing search terms directly into the browser address bar.

This all makes sense because the first thing people tend to want to do with a browser is find a web
page to display. Don't confuse the software (the browser) with the service (the search engine).

Here is an instance of Firefox showing a Google search box as its default startup page:
 Try it out

Do a search in a search engine by:

 Going to a search engine homepage and entering a search term.

 Entering a search term into the browser address bar.

How the web works: the basics

In many parts of the world, the web has become just as essential a tool to our everyday lives as
cutlery, bicycles and cars, or toothbrushes. If that sounds unrealistic to you, just think about how
often you use a website or mobile phone app each day! Even if you are not typing a web address into
a web browser to access content or services, the chances are that the app you are making use of is
probably using web technology behind the scenes to grab data to present to you.

When you access the web, quite a lot happens between your first interaction (for example, typing a
web address (URL) into a browser and pressing Enter/Return) and the result of your action being
presented to you (for example, the website appearing in your web browser):

1. The web browser requests the resource (for example, a web page, some data, or an image or video)
you want to access from the web server it is stored on. Such requests (and the resulting responses)
are made using a technology called HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which uses a language of
verbs (such as GET) to describe what should happen.
2. If the request is successful, the web server sends an HTTP response back to the web browser
containing the requested resource.
3. In some cases, the requested resource will then fire off more HTTP requests, which will result in
more responses. For example:
1. When a website is loaded, initially the main index HTML file of the site's home page is
requested.
2. When that file is received by the browser, it will start to parse it, and will probably find
instructions to make more requests. As discussed above, these might be for files to embed
such as images, style information, scripts, and so on.
4. When all of the resources have been requested, the web browser parses and renders them as required,
before displaying the result to the user.

This description of how the web works is heavily simplified, but it is all you really need to know at
this point. You will find a more detailed account of how web pages are requested and rendered by a
web browser in our Web standards module, slightly later on.

For now, try opening a web browser and loading up a couple of your favorite sites, thinking about
the above steps as you do so.

Searching for information

As a web developer, you will spend a lot of time searching for information, from syntax you can't
remember to solutions to specific problems. It is therefore a good idea to learn how to effectively
search the web.

If you are looking for general information about a specific web technology feature, you should type
the name of the feature into the MDN search box. For example, try typing box model, fetch() or
video element into the search box and see what comes up. If you don't find the information you need,
try expanding your search — try your search term in a search engine.

To get data from the web, the internal process involves several key steps that work together to retrieve,
process, and store information from websites. Here's a detailed breakdown:
Step-by-Step Internal Process of Getting Data from the Web

1. URL Resolution & Request Initiation

 The user provides a URL (e.g., https://example.com/data).

 The client (browser, script, or API request) sends an HTTP request (GET, POST, etc.) to the server.

 This request goes through the DNS (Domain Name System), which translates the domain name
(example.com) into an IP address.
 The request is routed to the web server that hosts the website.

2. Server Processing & Response Generation

 The web server processes the request and checks for the required data.
 If available, it retrieves the data from its database or backend systems.
 The server then formats the data (e.g., HTML, JSON, XML) and sends a response.

 If an error occurs, the server may return HTTP status codes (e.g., 404 Not Found, 500 Internal
Server Error).

3. Data Reception & Parsing

 The client receives the response and parses/analyses the content.

 The parsing method depends on the data format:
o HTML Parsing → Using BeautifulSoup (Python).
o JSON Parsing → Using json.loads().
o XML Parsing → Using ElementTree.

4. Data Extraction & Filtering

 After parsing, specific data elements (titles, links, tables) are extracted.
 This is done using selectors like CSS classes, XPath, or JSON keys.

5. Data Storage & Processing

 Extracted data is saved for further use.

 Common storage methods include:
o CSV Files → pandas.to_csv()
o Databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB)
o Excel, JSON, XML Formats

6. Automation & Large-Scale Data Collection

 For repeated or large-scale data retrieval, automated tools like:

o Scrapy (Python Web Crawler)
o Selenium (Browser Automation)

7. Ethical Considerations & Compliance

 Always follow website policies (robots.txt).

 Avoid overloading servers with too many requests.
 Use APIs when available instead of scraping.

Conclusion
By following this step-by-step internal process, you can efficiently retrieve, extract, and store data from the
web while ensuring ethical compliance.

Step-by-Step Internal Process of Getting Data from the Web (with All Layers)

Retrieving data from the web involves multiple layers that interact with each other. Below is a breakdown
of the entire process, including network, application, data, and storage layers, with diagrams.

1. Layers Involved in Web Data Retrieval

The process of getting data from the web involves the following layers:

A. User Layer (Frontend Layer)

 This is where the request originates (browser, app, script).

 Users interact with websites or applications via URLs.

B. Network Layer

 Converts domain names into IP addresses (DNS resolution).

 Handles HTTP/HTTPS requests and TCP/IP communication between client and server.

C. Server Layer (Backend Layer)

 The web server processes the request.

 Retrieves data from databases or APIs.
 Sends a response to the client.

D. Data Processing & Storage Layer

 Data is extracted, filtered, and stored in a structured format.

 Storage options include CSV, JSON, databases, or cloud storage.

2. Step-by-Step Internal Process with Layers

Step 1: User Requests Data (Frontend Layer)

 The user enters a URL (https://example.com/data) in a browser or runs a script.

 The browser sends an HTTP GET request to retrieve the webpage.

Diagram:

User → Browser/Scraper → HTTP Request (GET/POST) → Network Layer

Step 2: DNS Resolution & Network Communication (Network Layer)

 The domain name (example.com) is converted into an IP address via DNS resolution.
 The request is sent over the TCP/IP network.
 The request reaches the web server.

Diagram:

DNS → IP Resolution → HTTP Request Sent → Web Server Receives

Example DNS Resolution Process:

example.com → 192.168.1.1 (IP Address)

Step 3: Server Processing & Response Generation (Server Layer)

 The web server (e.g., Apache, Nginx) receives the request.

 It checks if the requested resource is available.
 The backend (Python, Node.js, PHP, etc.) processes the request.
 If data is needed, the server queries the database or API.

Diagram:

Web Server → Backend Processing → Query Database/API → Retrieve Data

Step 4: Data Reception & Parsing (Frontend Processing)

 The client (browser or script) receives the server response.

 The response is parsed based on its format (HTML, JSON, XML).
 The parsing method depends on the format:
o HTML Parsing → BeautifulSoup
o JSON Parsing → json.loads()
o XML Parsing → ElementTree

Diagram:

Received Data → Identify Structure → Parse Elements (Title, Links, Tables)

Step 5: Data Extraction & Filtering (Processing Layer)

 Specific data elements (titles, links, tables) are extracted.

 Selectors (CSS, XPath, JSON keys) are used for filtering.

Diagram:

Parsed HTML → Find Elements → Extract Specific Data

Step 6: Data Storage & Structuring (Storage Layer)

 Extracted data is stored in structured formats:

o CSV Files → pandas.to_csv()
o Databases (MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB)
o Cloud Storage (Google Drive, AWS S3)

Diagram:

Extracted Data → Format → Store in CSV, JSON, or Database

Step 7: Automation & Large-Scale Data Collection

 Web scraping can be automated for large-scale data collection.

 Tools like Scrapy (Python), Selenium (Browser Automation), APIs help in automation.

Diagram:

Automated Scraper → Multiple Requests → Data Extraction → Storage

Step 8: Ethical Considerations & Compliance

 Follow website policies (robots.txt) before scraping.

 Use rate-limiting to avoid overloading servers.
 Prefer APIs when available.

Diagram:

Scraper → Check robots.txt → Respect Server Limits

3. Full Overview Diagram (All Layers)

1. User Layer (Frontend)

→ Enters URL in Browser/Scraper

→ Sends HTTP Request

2. Network Layer

→ DNS Resolves Domain

→ TCP/IP Sends Request to Server

3. Server Layer (Backend)

→ Web Server (Apache/Nginx) Receives Request

→ Backend (Python, Node.js, PHP) Processes Request

→ Retrieves Data from Database or API

→ Sends HTTP Response (HTML, JSON, XML)

4. Data Processing Layer

→ Parses Response (BeautifulSoup, JSON, XML)

→ Extracts Required Data (Titles, Links, Tables)

5. Storage Layer

→ Stores Data in CSV, JSON, Databases, Cloud

6. Automation & Compliance Layer

 → Uses Scrapy, Selenium for Automation

→ Checks robots.txt for Legal Compliance

Conclusion

By following this step-by-step internal process with all layers, you can efficiently retrieve, process, and
store data from the web.

Table of Contents


o What Is the Internet?
o How Does the Internet Work?
o Types of Internet Services

What Is the Internet?

The internet is a global network of interconnected computers, servers, phones, and smart appliances that
communicate with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP) standard to enable a fast
exchange of information and files, along with other types of services.

How-Internet-Works

The internet is a global hub of computer networks — a network of connections wherein users at any
workstation may, with authorization, receive data from every other system (and often interact with users
working on other computers).

Internet infrastructure comprises optical fiber data transmission cables or copper wires, as well as numerous
additional networking infrastructures, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN),
metropolitan area networks (MAN), etc. Sometimes wireless services such as 4G and 5G or WiFi necessitate
similar physical cable installations for internet access.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) in the United States controls the internet
and its associated technologies, such as IP addresses.

How was the internet developed?

The internet was first envisioned in the form of ARPANET by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969. The initial goal was to create a network that would enable users of
a research computer at one institution to “communicate” with research computers at another institution.
Since communications can be sent or diverted across several directions, ARPANet could continue to operate
even if a military strike or any other calamity damages portions of the network.

ARPANET used the new packet switching technology to create low-cost, interactive interactions between
computers, which generally communicate in short data bursts. Packet switching broke down large
transmissions (or portions of computer data) into smaller, more manageable parts (called packets) that could
travel independently across any accessible circuit to the destination where they were reassembled.
Consequently, unlike conventional voice services, packet switching doesn’t require a separate dedicated
connection between a pair of users.

In the 1970s, corporate packet networks were launched, although their primary purpose was to enable
efficient access to distant computers through specialized terminals. They replaced expensive long-distance
modem connections with “virtual” lines via packet networks.

Today, the internet is a globally accessible, collaborative, and self-sustaining public resource available to
tens of millions of individuals. Countless people utilize it as their primary source of data consumption,
spurring the development and expansion of their own community through social networking and content
exchange. However, private versions of the internet do exist, which are primarily used by large
organizations for secure and regulated information exchange.

See More: What Is NAS (Network Attached Storage)? Working, Features, and Use Cases

Key features of the internet

The internet is a vast, interconnected network of computers and other network-enabled devices, which is:

 Globally available: The internet is an international service with universal access. People living in
isolated areas of an archipelago or even in the depths of Africa can now access the internet.
 Easy to use: The software used to connect to the internet (web browser) is user-friendly and easy to
understand. It’s also relatively easy to create.
 Compatible with other types of media: The internet provides a high level of engagement with
photos and videos, among other media.
 Affordable: Internet service development, as well as maintenance costs, are modest.
 Flexible: Internet-based communication is highly adaptable. It supports text, audio, and video
communication. These services are available at both individual and organizational levels.

How Does the Internet Work?

The internet delivers different types of information and media across networked devices. It operates using an
internet protocol (IP) and a transport control protocol (TCP) packet routing network. Whenever you visit a
website, your computer or mobile device requests the server using such protocols.

A server is where web pages are stored, and it functions similarly to the hard drive of a computer, except
with far greater processing power. The server accesses the web page and delivers the right information to
your computer whenever the request arrives. This is broadly the end-to-end user experience. Let us now look
at the more technical details of how the internet works.
1. Connecting computers

The basic foundation of the internet is an interconnected network of computers. When two computers
interact, they must be physically (often via an Ethernet connection) or wirelessly connected (via Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth). All modern systems can support any of these connections to establish a core network.

2. Scaling computer networks

The computer network, as described above, is not restricted to two PCs. One can link several computers.
However, as you expand, it may get more complex. Every machine on a network is connected to a tiny
computing device known as a router to address this problem. This router’s only function is to operate as a
signaler. It ensures that a message transmitted from a particular computer reaches its intended recipient.
With the addition of a router, a system of 10 computers needs merely ten wires instead of 10 × 10 = 100
connections.

3. Enabling infinite scaling

Let us now discuss interconnecting hundreds of thousands to billions of machines. A single router cannot
scale to that extent; nonetheless, a router is an independently programmable computer unit. This implies that
two or more routers may be connected, enabling infinite scaling.

4. Utilizing ubiquitous public infrastructure via a modem

By now, we have constructed a network identical to the internet, although it is only intended for individual
use and cannot connect with the outside world. This is where public infrastructure comes in. The telephone
system links an office to everyone worldwide, making it the ideal wiring configuration for the internet. A
modem is necessary for connecting networks to the telephone system. This modem converts data from a
network into data that can be managed by the telephony architecture and vice versa.

5. Sending messages from one network to another

The following step is to transmit the information from your network to the target network. To accomplish
this, the network must establish a connection with an internet service provider (ISP). An ISP is a service that
administers specified routers that are interconnected and also have access to the routers of other ISPs.
Therefore, the data from the host network is delivered to the target network via the web of ISP networks.

To deliver a message to a system, it is important to identify which computer it should be sent to. Therefore,
every machine connected to a network has a unique identifying address known as an “IP address” (here, IP
refers to internet protocol). It is an address consisting of four integers separated by periods, such as
192.168.2.10. There are several versions of IP; currently, we are in IPv4 and IPv6 iterations, depending on
the region.

6. Assigning domain name to IP addresses

IP addresses are intended for computers, but in an infinitely extensible internet, it would be difficult for
people to keep count of an ever-growing number of addresses. To simplify matters, one may designate an IP
address with a domain name, a human-readable name. Google.com is an excellent example of this — the
domain name is used in conjunction with the IP address 142.250.190.78. Therefore, typing the domain name
is the simplest way to access a computer online.

7. Connected the internet to the web

The internet is a network architecture that enables millions of machines to communicate with one another.
Several of these machines (web servers) can feed web browsers intelligible messages. The web is an
application constructed on top of the internet’s infrastructure. It is important to note that additional services,
like email, have been developed on top of the internet.

8. Connecting the internet to a private intranet or extranet

Intranets are personal and bespoke networks confined to an organization’s members. They offer participants
a secure gateway to access shared information, collaborate, and communicate.

Extranets are quite similar to intranets, except that they enable collaboration and sharing with other
businesses. Typically, they are employed to safely and confidentially transmit information to customers and
other enterprise stakeholders. Frequently, their functions resemble those of an intranet: file and information
sharing, collaboration tools, message boards, etc.

Intranets and extranets operate on the same infrastructure and adhere to the same protocols as the internet.

How does the web work?

When we discuss the internet in common parlance, we typically refer to the web – although the two terms
are not interchangeable. If the internet can be understood as a network of highways, then the web will be the
network of restaurants, toll booths, gas stations, etc., built along it. The main job of the internet is to access
the web. However, it can perform other tasks like supporting cloud storage on computers, keeping the
software as a service (SaaS) apps online, automatically updating the computer’s time, etc.

On the other hand, the web comprises multiple computers connected to the internet called clients and
servers.

 Clients are internet-connected devices of a web user (such as a computer linked to Wi-Fi or a mobile
phone) and the online-accessing software installed on such systems (generally a web browser).
 Servers store websites, applications, and their associated data and activities. When a client device
requests access to a website, a replica of the webpage is received from the server to the client’s
computer. The webpage is then exhibited in the client’s web browser.

When a user inputs a domain name or uniform resource locator (URL) in the browser, the domain name
system (DNS server) is contacted to get the actual IP address of the website’s server.

The browser then transmits an HTTP or HTTPS request message back to the server, asking the server to
transmit a copy of the web page to the client. This message and all other data transferred between the client
and server are sent via the TCP/IP protocol across your internet connection.

If the server authorizes the client’s request, it returns a “200 OK” status code. The server then begins
transmitting the site’s contents to the client as a sequence of data packets. The browser constructs an entire
web page from the packets and starts displaying it. This request, response, and information exchange
happens via the internet infrastructure.

Types of Internet Services

As mentioned earlier, the internet can enable various services, not just web access. Some of the key types of
internet services are:

1. Communication services

To exchange data/information among individuals or organizations, the internet enables communication

services. This mainly includes VoIP and video conferencing.

Voice over internet protocol (VoIP) enables users to place voice calls over the internet compared to a
conventional (or analog) phone connection. Other VoIP services allow you to contact anybody with a mobile
number, encompassing long-distance, cellular, and even local/international connections.

Video conferencing technology enables two or more individuals in separate locations to connect visually and
in real time. It includes persons in different places using video-enabled devices and broadcasting real-time
speech, video, texts, and slideshows via the internet.

Other communication services based on the internet include email, internet relay chat (IRC), and list server
(LISTSERV) used for asynchronous text communication, instant messaging, and group announcements,
respectively.

2. File transfer services

We utilize file transfer to exchange, transmit, or send a document or logical data item among many
individuals or computers, both locally and remotely. Data files may comprise documents, videos, photos,
text, or PDFs. They may be shared via internet downloading and uploading. File transfer protocol (FTP) is
one of the most common internet protocols used for this purpose.

3. Directory services

A directory service is a collection of software that maintains information about the organization, its
customers, or both. Directory services are responsible for mapping network resource names to network
addresses. It offers administrators and users transparent access to all network computers, printers, servers,
and other devices. It is also an important backend service provider for and by the internet.

Domain number system (DNS) and lightweight directory access protocol (LDAP) are the most commonly
used directory services. A DNS server stores a map of computer hostnames and other domain names to IP
addresses. LDAP is a collection of open protocols to obtain centralized network access to stored data. It is
also a mechanism for cross-platform authentication.
See More: What Is Web Real-Time Communication (WebRTC)? Definition, Design, Importance, and
Examples

4. Ecommerce and online transactions

Ecommerce allows the customer to purchase a service or product directly from the vendor, at any time or
anywhere on the planet. When IBM started offering hardware and software for computers over the internet,
it was one of the first instances of ecommerce. Since then, this service has grown in use tremendously.
Ecommerce uses the web to enable financial exchanges so that data packets can translate into their real-
world monetary equivalents.

5. Services for network management

Network management services are some of the most critical and valuable internet services for IT
administrators. They assist in avoiding, monitoring, diagnosing, and resolving network-related issues. Two
services are mainly used for this purpose – ping and traceroute.

The ping utility checks the host machine’s availability and the time required to react to any and all internet
control message protocol (ICMP) transmissions. It guarantees that all requests issued by a computer reach
the web server without packet loss. In the meantime, the traceroute identifies and displays all potential paths
from query to response, as well as the turnaround time for each route.

6. Time services

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Coordinated Universal Time synchronizes computer clocks (UTC).
Network time protocol (NTP) is an established internet time service that syncs and adjusts the computer
clock accurately to all these standards. All Windows time variants released after Windows 2000 synchronize
with an NTP server. NTPsec is primarily a secured version of NTP.

7. Search engine services on the web

When users search for a web page through a search engine rather than the domain name, the search engine
examines the web crawler’s index of all pages. It will study the search phrase and compare it to the database,
including how often the search terms appear on a webpage, where they appear on the site, whether they
appear together, etc. It analyzes this information to determine which websites best fit your search query.

The results are then shown in order, with those that best fit the search keyword appearing initially. It is
important to note that search engines can accept funds from commercial entities to prioritize their websites
in the results of a particular query. This is an advert, and the search engine results will be labeled as such.

What Is a Subnet Mask?

A subnet mask is a 32-bit address that segregates/separates/isolates an IP address into network bits
that identify the network and host bits that identify the host device operating on that network. It
encapsulates a range of IP addresses that a subnet can use, wherein the subnet refers to a smaller
network within a more extensive network.

Technically, subnet masks are used internally within a network. Routing devices or switches rely on subnet
masks to route data packets to suitable destinations. Data packets that traverse over the internet or any
network do not indicate the subnet mask but only reveal the IP address of the destination. However, the
routers match this destination IP address to the data packet’s subnet mask to deliver the data packet to the
right place.

Let’s consider an analogy to understand the subnet mask concept better. Suppose a user named ‘Davis’
writes a letter to his friend ‘Tom’. Davis sends this letter to Tom’s office rather than his residence. Tom’s
place of employment is a large enterprise with several co-located departments. The administrative team at
Tom’s office sorts the mail by department rather than by employee name to ensure that the
correspondence isn’t missed and there is no confusion in the process. On receiving Davis’s letter, the
team identifies that Tom works in the HR department. As a result, the letter is sent to the HR department
instead of Tom. The HR department then hands the letter over to Tom.

In the above example, Tom represents an IP address while the HR department serves as a subnet mask.
Since the letter was matched to Tom’s department in the initial stages, Davis’s mail was quickly sorted
into a group of potential recipients. Without this initial sorting, the administrative team would have to
invest more time in looking for the exact location of Tom’s desk, which could have been in any corner of
the enterprise building.

Now let’s look at a real-world example. A data packet addresses the IP address 192.0.4.16, representing a
class C network. Since the IP address is split into a network and host address, here, in a class C network, the
network portion is represented by ‘192.0.4’. Thus, the network routers deliver the data packet to the network
identified by 192.0.4.

Upon arrival at the right network, the router within the network then consults the routing table for
forwarding the packet further. It uses the data packet’s subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 to perform some
binary mathematics, observe the device address ‘16’, and thereby calculate which subnet it should forward
the data packet to. On determining the target subnet, it sends the packet to the router that is responsible for
delivering data packets within that very subnet. As such, the data packet is eventually delivered to the
destination IP address of 192.0.4.16.

Let’s look at an example: The IP address for a device may be:

192.168.123.132
11000000. 10101000. 01111011. 10000100

The subnet mask for the IP network above:

255.255.255.0
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 00000000

A subnet mask of 255.255. 255.0 means that the device can connect with any other device on the network with an
IP address containing identical values in the first three octets. 255 means that the value of that octet must be
identical. 0 means that the value can be anything.

255.255. 255.0 means that u have 24 bits enabled for network part and last 8 bits for hosts. It means, if I use the ip
address 192.168.1.x. This x can be from 0-255. So u can have total 256 hosts in this network.

The table below reveals the different network classes, their subnet masks, address range, and the number of
hosts that they support.

Class A, Class B, and Class C Ranges

Network Layer Protocols
Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data or communication from one host to another host
connected in a network. Rather than describing how data is transferred, it implements the technique for
efficient transmission. In order to provide efficient communication protocols are used at the network layer.
The data is being grouped into packets or in the case of extremely large data it is divided into smaller sub
packets. Each protocol used has specific features and advantages. The below article covers in detail the
protocols used at the network layer.

Functions of Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for providing the below-given tasks:

 Logical Addressing: Each device on the network needs to be identified uniquely. Therefore network
layer provides an addressing scheme to identify the device. It places the IP address of every sender
and the receiver in the header. This header consists of the network ID and host ID of the network.
  Host-to-host Delivery of Data: The network layer ensures that the packet is being delivered
successfully from the sender to the receiver. This layer makes sure that the packet reaches the
intended recipient only.

 Fragmentation: In order to transmit the larger data from sender to receiver, the network layer
fragments it into smaller packets. Fragmentation is required because every node has its own fixed
capacity for receiving data.

 Congestion Control: Congestion is defined as a situation where the router is not able to route the
packets property which results in aggregation of packets in the network. Congestion occurs when a
large amount of packets are flooded in the network. Therefore network layer controls the congestion
of data packets in the network.

 Routing and Forwarding: Routing is the process that decides the route for transmission of packets
from sender to receiver. It mostly chooses the shortest path between the sender and the receiver.
Routing protocols that are mostly used are path vector, distance vector routing, link state routing, etc.

Network Layer Protocols

There are various protocols used in the network layer. Each protocol is used for a different task. Below are
the protocols used in the network layer:

Protocols at each Layer

1. IP (Internet Protocol)

IP stands for Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol helps to uniquely identify each device on the network.
Internet protocol is responsible for transferring the data from one node to another node in the network.
Internet protocol is a connectionless protocol therefore it does not guarantee the delivery of data. For the
successful delivery higher level protocols such as TCP are used to guarantee the data transmission. The
Internet Protocol is divided in two types. They are:

 IPv4: IPv4 provides with the 32 bit address scheme. IPv4 addressing has four numeric fields and are
separated by dot. IPv4 can be configured either using DHCP or manually. IPv4 does not provide with
more security features as it does not support authentication or encryption techniques. IPv4 is further
divided into five classes as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E.
  IPv6: IPv6 is the most recent version of IP. If provided with a 128 bit addressing scheme. IP address
has eight fields that are separated by colon, and these fields are alphanumeric. The IPv6 address is
represented in hexadecimal. IPv6 provides with more security features such as authentication and
encryption. IPv6 supports end-to-end connection integrity. IPv6 provides with more range of IP
address as compared to IPv4.

Difference between IPv4 and IPv6: IPv4 vs IPv6

2. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. ARP is used to convert the logical address ie. IP address into
physical address ie. MAC address. While communicating with other nodes, it is necessary to know the MAC
address or physical address of the destination node. If any of the node in a network wants to know the
physical address of another node in the same network, the host then sends an ARP query packet. This ARP
query packet consists of IP address and MAC address of source host and only the IP address of destination
host. This ARP packet is then received to every node present in the network. The node with its own IP
address recognises it and sends it MAC address to the requesting node. But sending and receiving such
packets to know the MAC address of destination node it increases the traffic load. Therefore in order to
reduce this traffic and improve the performance, the systems that makes use of ARP maintain a cache of
recently acquired IP into MAC address bindings.

How Does ARP Work?

 The host broadcasts an ARP inquiry packet containing the IP address over the network in order to
find out the physical address of another computer on its network.

 The ARP packet is received and processed by all hosts on the network; however, only the intended
recipient can identify the IP address and reply with the physical address.

 After adding the physical address to the datagram header and cache memory, the host storing the
datagram transmits it back to the sender.

ARP

Types of ARP Entries

 Static Entry: This type of entry is created when a user uses the ARP command utility to manually
enter the IP to MAC address association.
  Dynamic Entry: A dynamic entry is one that is automatically formed when a sender broadcasts their
message to the whole network. Dynamic entries are periodically removed and are not permanent.

3. RARP

RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. RARP works opposite of ARP. Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol is used to convert MAC address ie. physical address into IP address ie. logical address.
RARP provides with a feature for the systems and applications to get their own IP address from a
DNS( Domain Name System) or router. This type of resolution is required for various tasks such as
executing reverse DNS lookup. As Reverse Address Resolution Protocol works at low level it requires direct
network addresses. The reply from the server mostly carries a small information but the 32 bit internet
address is used and it does not exploit the full potential of a network such as ethernet.

How Does RARP Work?

 Data is sent between two places in a network using the RARP, which is on the Network Access
Layer.

 Every user on the network has two distinct addresses: their MAC (physical) address and their IP
(logical) address.

 Software assigns the IP address, and the hardware then builds the MAC address into the device.

 Any regular computer connected to the network can function as the RARP server, answering to
RARP queries. It must, however, store all of the MAC addresses' associated IP addresses. Only these
RARP servers are able to respond to RARP requests that are received by the network. The
information package must be transmitted over the network's lowest tiers.

 Using both its physical address and Ethernet broadcast address, the client transmits a RARP request.
In response, the server gives the client its IP address.

RARP

Difference between ARP and RARP: ARP vs RARP

4. ICMP

ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. ICMP is a part of IP protocol suite. ICMP is an error
reporting and network diagnostic protocol. Feedback in the network is reported to the designated host.
Meanwhile, if any kind of error occur it is then reported to ICMP. ICMP protocol consists of many error
reporting and diagnostic messages. ICMP protocol handles various kinds of errors such as time exceeded,
redirection, source quench, destination unreachable, parameter problems etc. The messages in ICMP are
divided into two types. They are given below:

 Error Message: Error message states about the issues or problems that are faced by the host or
routers during processing of IP packet.

 Query Message: Query messages are used by the host in order to get information from a router or
another host.

How Does ICMP Work?

 The main and most significant protocol in the IP suite is called ICMP. However, unlike TCP and
UDP, ICMP is a connectionless protocol, meaning it doesn't require a connection to be established
with the target device in order to transmit a message.

 TCP and ICMP operate differently from one another; TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, while
ICMP operates without a connection. Every time a connection is made prior to a message being sent,
a TCP Handshake is required of both devices.

 Datagrams including an IP header containing ICMP data are used to transmit ICMP packets. An
independent data item like a packet is comparable to an ICMP datagram.

ICMP

5. IGMP

IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol. IGMP is a multicasting communication protocol. It
utilizes the resources efficiently while broadcasting the messages and data packets. IGMP is also a protocol
used by TCP/IP. Other hosts connected in the network and routers makes use of IGMP for multicasting
communication that have IP networks. In many networks multicast routers are used in order to transmit the
messages to all the nodes. Multicast routers therefore receives large number of packets that needs to be sent.
But to broadcast this packets is difficult as it would increase the overall network load. Therefore IGMP helps
the multicast routers by addressing them while broadcasting. As multicast communication consists of more
than one senders and receivers the Internet Group Message Protocol is majorly used in various applications
such as streaming media, web conference tools, games, etc.

How Does IGMP Work?

 Devices that can support dynamic multicasting and multicast groups can use IGMP.
  The host has the ability to join or exit the multicast group using these devices. It is also possible to
add and remove customers from the group using these devices.

 The host and local multicast router use this communication protocol. Upon creation of a multicast
group, the packet's destination IP address is changed to the multicast group address, which falls
inside the class D IP address range.

What is IPv4?

IP stands for Internet Protocol version v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4), is the most widely used system
for identifying devices on a network. It uses a set of four numbers, separated by periods (like 192.168.0.1),
to give each device a unique address. This address helps data find its way from one device to another over
the internet.

IPv4 was the primary version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983. IP version
four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation. Example- 192.0.2.126 could
be an IPv4 address.

What is an IP Address?

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves two main purposes:

 Identification: It uniquely identifies a device on a network.

 Location Addressing: It indicates where a device is located within a network, making data routing
possible.

Understanding IPv4 Addressing

An IPv4 address consists of series of four eight-bit binary numbers which are separated by decimal point.
Although any numbering system can be used to represent a unique 32- bit number, most commonly you see
IP address expressed in dot decimal notation. Some of the examples are :

Site Dot-decimal Binary

Twitter.com 104.244.42.129 01101000.11110100.00101010.10000001
Reddit.com 151.101.65.140 10010111.01100101.01000001.10001100
Linkedin.com 108.174.10.10 01101100.10101110.00001010.00001010

IPv4 Address Format

An IPv4 address consists of 32 bit (binary digit), grouped into four section of known as octets or bytes.
Each octet has 8 bits and this bits can be represented only in 0 or 1 form, and when they grouped together,
they form a binary number. Since each octet has 8 bits, it can represent 256 numbers ranging from o to 255.
These four octets are represented as decimal numbers, separated by periods known as dotted decimal
notation. For example IPv4 address 185.107.80.231 consists of four octets.

Binary Representation

IPv4 is basically converted into binary form by computer although these are usually seen in decimal form
for human readability. Each octet is converted into 8 bit binary number . For instance 185.107.80.231 in
binary looks like:

 185: 10111001
  107: 01101011

 80: 01010000

 231: 11100111

So 185.107.80.231 in binary is: 10111001.01101011.01010000.11100111

IPv4 Address Format

Parts of IPv4

IPv4 addresses consist of three parts:

 Network Part: The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to the network.
The network part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s assigned.

 Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of the IPv4
address is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half must vary.

 Subnet Number: This is the non obligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have massive numbers
of hosts are divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed to that.

Types of IPv4 Addressing

IPv4 basically supports three different types of addressing modes:

 Unicast Addressing Mode: This addressing mode is used to specify single sender and single
receiver. Example: Accessing a website.

 Broadcast Addressing Mode: This addressing mode is used to send messages to all devices in a
network. Example: sending a message in local network to all the devices.

 Multicast Addressing Mode: This addressing mode is typically used within a local network or
across networks and sends messages to a group of devices. Example: Streaming audio to multiple
devices at once.
Characteristics of IPv4

 IPv4 could be a 32-bit IP Address.

 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.

 The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.

 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast-style addresses.

 IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).

 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.

 RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.

 Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.

 Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causes host.

Advantages of IPv4

 IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.

 IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical routers.

 It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while not NAT.

 This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as economical knowledge

transfer.

 IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.

 IPv4 has high System Management prices and it’s labor-intensive, complex, slow & prone to errors.

 Routing is scalable and economical as a result of addressing its collective more effectively.

 Data communication across the network becomes a lot of specific in multicast organizations.

Limitations of IPv4

 IP relies on network layer addresses to identify end-points on the network, and each network has a
unique IP address.

 The world’s supply of unique IP addresses is dwindling, and they might eventually run out
theoretically.

 If there are multiple hosts, we need the IP addresses of the next class.

 Complex host and routing configuration, non-hierarchical addressing, difficult to re-numbering

addresses, large routing tables, non-trivial implementations in providing security, QoS (Quality of
Service), mobility, and multi-homing, multicasting, etc. are the big limitations of IPv4 so that’s why
IPv6 came into the picture.

What is IPv6?
The most common version of the Internet Protocol currently is IPv6. The well-known IPv6 protocol is being
used and deployed more often, especially in mobile phone markets. IP address determines who and where
you are in the network of billions of digital devices that are connected to the Internet. It is a network layer
protocol which allows communication to take place over the network. IPv6 was designed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) in December 1998 with the purpose of superseding IPv4 due to the global
exponentially growing internet of users. In this article we will see IPv6 protocol in detail.

IPv6

The next generation Internet Protocol (IP) address standard, known as IPv6, is meant to work in cooperation
with IPv4. To communicate with other devices, a computer, smartphone, home automation component,
Internet of Things sensor, or any other Internet-connected device needs a numerical IP address. Because so
many connected devices are being used, the original IP address scheme, known as IPv4, is running out of
addresses. This new IP address version is being deployed to fulfil the need for more Internet addresses. With
128-bit address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address space. IPv6 support a theoretical maximum
of 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463, 463, 374, 607, 431, 768, 211, 456.

Difference between IPv6 and IPv4

IPv6 IPv4
IPv6 has a 128-bit address length. IPv4 has a 32-bit address length.
It supports Auto and renumbering address It Supports Manual and DHCP(dynamic host
configuration. configuration protocol) address configuration.
The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can It can generate 4.29×109 address space.
produce 3.4×1038 address space.
Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal. Address representation of IPv4 is in decimal.
In IPv6 checksum field is not available. In IPv4 checksum field is available.
IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed. IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
IPv6 does not support VLSM. IPv4 supports VLSM(Variable Length subnet
mask).

Representation of IPv6

An IPv6 address consists of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by ‘ . ‘ and each Hex digit
representing four bits so the total length of IPv6 is 128 bits. Structure given below.
IPV6-Representation

gggg.gggg.gggg.ssss.xxxx.xxxx.xxxx.xxxx

The first 48 bits represent Global Routing Prefix. The next 16 bits represent the student ID and the last 64
bits represent the host ID. The first 64 bits represent the network portion and the last 64 bits represent the
interface id.

 Global Routing Prefix: The Global Routing Prefix is the portion of an IPv6 address that is used to
identify a specific network or subnet within the larger IPv6 internet. It is assigned by an ISP or a
regional internet registry (RIR).

 Student Id: The portion of the address used within an organization to identify subnets. This usually
follows the Global Routing Prefix.

 Host Id: The last part of the address, is used to identify a specific host on a network.

Example: 3001:0da8:75a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

Types of IPv6 Address

Now that we know about what is IPv6 address let’s take a look at its different types.

 Unicast Addresses : Only one interface is specified by the unicast address. A packet moves from
one host to the destination host when it is sent to a unicast address destination.

 Multicast Addresses: It represents a group of IP devices and can only be used as the destination of a
datagram.

 Anycast Addresses: The multicast address and the anycast address are the same. The way the
anycast address varies from other addresses is that it can deliver the same IP address to several
servers or devices. Keep in mind that the hosts do not receive the IP address. Stated differently,
multiple interfaces or a collection of interfaces are assigned an anycast address.

Advantages

 Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in IPv4.This feature allows bandwidth-
intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple destinations all at once.
  Stronger Security: IPSecurity, which provides confidentiality, and data integrity, is embedded into
IPv6.

 Routing efficiency

 Reliability

 Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-network.

 The device allocates addresses on its own.

 Internet protocol security is used to support security.

 Enable simple aggregation of prefixes allocated to IP networks; this saves bandwidth by enabling the
simultaneous transmission of large data packages.

Disadvantages

 Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a long period to completely shift
to IPv6.

 Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each other.

 Not Going Backward Compatibility: IPv6 cannot be executed on IPv4-capable computers because
it is not available on IPv4 systems.

 Conversion Time: One significant drawback of IPv6 is its inability to uniquely identify each device
on the network, which makes the conversion to IPV4 extremely time-consuming.

 Cross-protocol communication is forbidden since there is no way for IPv4 and IPv6 to communicate
with each other.

UNIT IV

Transport Layer

What is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)?

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps
in the exchange of messages between different devices over a network. It is one of the main protocols of the
TCP/IP suite. In OSI model, it operates at the transport layer(Layer 4). It lies between the Application and
Network Layers which are used in providing reliable delivery services. The Internet Protocol (IP), which
establishes the technique for sending data packets between computers, works with TCP.

 TCP establishes a reliable connection between sender and receiver using the three-way handshake
(SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK) and it uses a four-step handshake (FIN, ACK, FIN, ACK) to close
connections properly.

 It ensures error-free, in-order delivery of data packets.

 It uses acknowledgments (ACKs) to confirm receipt.

 It prevents data overflow by adjusting the data transmission rate according to the receiver’s buffer
size.
  It prevents network congestion using algorithms like Slow Start, Congestion Avoidance, Fast
Retransmit, and Fast Recovery.

 TCP header uses checksum to detect corrupted data and requests retransmission if needed.

 It is used in applications requiring reliable and ordered data transfer, such as web browsing, email,
and remote login.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) is a method that is useful for sending data from one device to another from all over the
internet. It is a set of rules governing how data is sent and received over the internet. It is responsible for
addressing and routing packets of data so they can travel from the sender to the correct destination across
multiple networks. Every device contains a unique IP Address that helps it communicate and exchange data
across other devices present on the internet.

Working of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) model breaks down the data into small bundles and afterward
reassembles the bundles into the original message on the opposite end to make sure that each message
reaches its target location intact. Sending the information in little bundles of information makes it simpler to
maintain efficiency as opposed to sending everything in one go.

After a particular message is broken down into bundles, these bundles may travel along multiple routes if
one route is jammed but the destination remains the same.

TCP

For Example: When a user requests a web page on the internet, somewhere in the world, the server
processes that request and sends back an HTML Page to that user. The server makes use of a protocol called
the HTTP Protocol. The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to set the required connection and send the
HTML file.

Now, the TCP breaks the data into small packets and forwards it toward the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The
packets are then sent to the destination through different routes.
The TCP layer in the user’s system waits for the transmission to get finished and acknowledges once all
packets have been received.

Features of TCP

Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are mentioned below.

 Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by
assigning numbers to each and every single one of them. A specific Byte Number is assigned to data
bytes that are to be transferred while segments are assigned sequence numbers. Acknowledgment
Numbers are assigned to received segments.

 Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each other till the completion
of the process. The order of the data is maintained i.e. order remains same before and after
transmission.

 Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or vice – versa at the same
time. It increases efficiency of data flow between sender and receiver.

 Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is done to ensure
reliable delivery. The receiver continually hints to the sender on how much data can be received
(using a sliding window).

 Error Control: TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data transfer. Error control
is byte-oriented. Segments are checked for error detection. Error Control includes – Corrupted
Segment & Lost Segment Management, Out-of-order segments, Duplicate segments, etc.

 Congestion Control: TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network. Congestion
level is determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.

Advantages of TCP

 It is a reliable protocol.

 It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.

 It gives flow control.

 It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order that it was sent.

 It is a well-documented and widely implemented protocol, maintained by standards organizations

like the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force).

 It works in conjunction with IP (Internet Protocol) to establish connections between devices on a

network.

Disadvantages of TCP

 TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become an issue for small networks with low
resources.

 TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.

 It is not generic in nature. It cannot represent any protocol stack other than the TCP/IP suite. E.g., it
cannot work with a Bluetooth connection.
  No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol suite,
referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no
need to establish a connection before data transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-
tolerating connections over the network. The UDP enables process-to-process communication.

What is User Datagram Protocol?

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite. It is a
communication protocol used across the internet for time-sensitive transmissions such as video playback or
DNS lookups . Unlike Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), UDP is connectionless and does not guarantee
delivery, order, or error checking, making it a lightweight and efficient option for certain types of data
transmission.

UDP Header

UDP header is an 8-byte fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes to 60 bytes. The
first 8 Bytes contain all necessary header information and the remaining part consists of data. UDP port
number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore the range for port numbers is defined from 0 to 65535; port
number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to distinguish different user requests or processes.

UDP Header

 Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to identify the port number of the source.

 Destination Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of the destined packet.
  Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a 16-bits field.

 Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of the one’s
complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of information from the IP header, and the
data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of two octets.

Notes – Unlike TCP, the Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP. No Error control or flow control is
provided by UDP. Hence UDP depends on IP and ICMP for error reporting. Also UDP provides port
numbers so that is can differentiate between users requests.

Applications of UDP

 Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less and hence there is
lesser concern about flow and error control.

 It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.

 UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information Protocol).

 Normally used for real-time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between sections of a
received message.

 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) services, such as Skype and WhatsApp, use UDP for real-time
voice communication. The delay in voice communication can be noticeable if packets are delayed
due to congestion control, so UDP is used to ensure fast and efficient data transmission.

 DNS (Domain Name System) also uses UDP for its query/response messages. DNS queries are
typically small and require a quick response time, making UDP a suitable protocol for this
application.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) uses UDP to dynamically assign IP addresses to
devices on a network. DHCP messages are typically small, and the delay caused by packet loss or
retransmission is generally not critical for this application.

 Following implementations uses UDP as a transport layer protocol:

o NTP (Network Time Protocol)

o DNS (Domain Name Service)

o BOOTP, DHCP.

o NNP (Network News Protocol)

o Quote of the day protocol

o TFTP, RTSP, RIP.

 The application layer can do some of the tasks through UDP-

o Trace Route

o Record Route

o Timestamp
  UDP takes a datagram from Network Layer , attaches its header, and sends it to the user. So, it works
fast.

TCP vs UDP

Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Type of ServiceTCP is a connection-oriented protocol. UDP is the Datagram-oriented protocol.
Connection orientation means that the This is because there is no overhead for
communicating devices should establish a opening a connection, maintaining a
connection before transmitting data and connection, or terminating a connection.
should close the connection after UDP is efficient for broadcast and
transmitting the data. multicast types of network transmission.
Reliability TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery The delivery of data to the destination
of data to the destination router. cannot be guaranteed in UDP.
Error checking TCP provides extensive error-checking UDP has only the basic error-checking
mechanism mechanisms. It is because it provides flow mechanism using checksums.
control and acknowledgment of data.
Acknowledgme An acknowledgment segment is present. No acknowledgment segment.
nt
Sequence Sequencing of data is a feature of There is no sequencing of data in UDP.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). this If the order is required, it has to be
means that packets arrive in order at the managed by the application layer.
receiver.
Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. UDP is faster, simpler, and more
efficient than TCP.
Retransmission Retransmission of lost packets is possible There is no retransmission of lost
in TCP, but not in UDP. packets in the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
Header Length TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable length UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length header.
header.
Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.
Handshaking Uses handshakes such as SYN, ACK, It’s a connectionless protocol i.e. No
Techniques SYN-ACK handshake
Broadcasting TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.
Protocols TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs , FTP , UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, TFTP,
SMTP and Telnet . SNMP , RIP, and VoIP.
Stream Type The TCP connection is a byte stream. UDP connection is a message stream.
Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.
Applications This protocol is primarily utilized in This protocol is used in situations where
situations when a safe and trustworthy quick communication is necessary but
communication procedure is necessary, where dependability is not a concern,
such as in email, on the web surfing, and such as VoIP, game streaming, video,
in military services. and music streaming, etc.

Advantages of UDP

 Speed: UDP is faster than TCP because it does not have the overhead of establishing a connection
and ensuring reliable data delivery.

 Lower latency: Since there is no connection establishment, there is lower latency and faster response
time.

 Simplicity: UDP has a simpler protocol design than TCP, making it easier to implement and
manage.
  Broadcast support: UDP supports broadcasting to multiple recipients, making it useful for
applications such as video streaming and online gaming.

 Smaller packet size: UDP uses smaller packet sizes than TCP, which can reduce network
congestion and improve overall network performance.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and bandwidth.

Disadvantages of UDP

 No reliability: UDP does not guarantee delivery of packets or order of delivery, which can lead to
missing or duplicate data.

 No congestion control: UDP does not have congestion control, which means that it can send packets
at a rate that can cause network congestion.

 Vulnerable to attacks: UDP is vulnerable to denial-of-service attacks , where an attacker can flood
a network with UDP packets, overwhelming the network and causing it to crash.

 Limited use cases: UDP is not suitable for applications that require reliable data delivery, such as
email or file transfers, and is better suited for applications that can tolerate some data loss, such as
video streaming or online gaming.

Transport Layer responsibilities

The transport Layer is the second layer in the TCP/IP model and the fourth layer in the OSI model. It is an
end-to-end layer used to deliver messages to a host. It is termed an end-to-end layer because it provides a
point-to-point connection rather than hop-to-hop, between the source host and destination host to deliver the
services reliably. The unit of data encapsulation in the Transport Layer is a segment.

Working of Transport Layer

The transport layer takes services from the Application layer and provides services to the Network layer.

The transport layer ensures the reliable transmission of data between systems. Understanding protocols
like TCP and UDP is crucial. If you’re aiming for a deeper understanding of transport layer protocols, the
GATE CS Self-Paced Course offers comprehensive modules on networking, including detailed
explanations of transport layer responsibilities and how they operate in real-world applications.

At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives data (message) from the Application layer and then
performs Segmentation, divides the actual message into segments, adds the source and destination’s port
numbers into the header of the segment, and transfers the message to the Network layer.

At the receiver’s side: The transport layer receives data from the Network layer, reassembles the segmented
data, reads its header, identifies the port number, and forwards the message to the appropriate port in the
Application layer.

Responsibilities of a Transport Layer

 The Process to Process Delivery

 End-to-End Connection between Hosts

 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

  Congestion Control

 Data integrity and Error correction

 Flow control

1. The Process to Process Delivery

While Data Link Layer requires the MAC address (48 bits address contained inside the Network Interface
Card of every host machine) of source-destination hosts to correctly deliver a frame and the Network layer
requires the IP address for appropriate routing of packets, in a similar way Transport Layer requires a Port
number to correctly deliver the segments of data to the correct process amongst the multiple processes
running on a particular host. A port number is a 16-bit address used to identify any client-server program
uniquely.

Process to Process Delivery

2. End-to-end Connection between Hosts

The transport layer is also responsible for creating the end-to-end Connection between hosts for which it
mainly uses TCP and UDP. TCP is a secure, connection-orientated protocol that uses a handshake protocol
to establish a robust connection between two end hosts. TCP ensures the reliable delivery of messages and is
used in various applications. UDP, on the other hand, is a stateless and unreliable protocol that ensures best-
effort delivery. It is suitable for applications that have little concern with flow or error control and requires
sending the bulk of data like video conferencing. It is often used in multicasting protocols.
End to End Connection.

3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Multiplexing(many to one) is when data is acquired from several processes from the sender and merged into
one packet along with headers and sent as a single packet. Multiplexing allows the simultaneous use of
different processes over a network that is running on a host. The processes are differentiated by their port
numbers. Similarly, Demultiplexing(one to many) is required at the receiver side when the message is
distributed into different processes. Transport receives the segments of data from the network layer
distributes and delivers it to the appropriate process running on the receiver’s machine.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

4. Congestion Control

Congestion is a situation in which too many sources over a network attempt to send data and the router
buffers start overflowing due to which loss of packets occurs. As a result, the retransmission of packets from
the sources increases the congestion further. In this situation, the Transport layer provides Congestion
Control in different ways. It uses open-loop congestion control to prevent congestion and closed-loop
congestion control to remove the congestion in a network once it occurred. TCP provides AIMD – additive
increases multiplicative decrease and leaky bucket technique for congestion control.

Leaky Bucket Congestion Control Technique

5. Data integrity and Error Correction

The transport layer checks for errors in the messages coming from the application layer by using error
detection codes, and computing checksums, it checks whether the received data is not corrupted and uses the
ACK and NACK services to inform the sender if the data has arrived or not and checks for the integrity of
data.

Error Correction using Checksum

6. Flow Control

The transport layer provides a flow control mechanism between the adjacent layers of the TCP/IP model.
TCP also prevents data loss due to a fast sender and slow receiver by imposing some flow control
techniques. It uses the method of sliding window protocol which is accomplished by the receiver by sending
a window back to the sender informing the size of data it can receive.

Congestion Control in Computer Networks

Congestion control is a crucial concept in computer networks. It refers to the methods used to prevent
network overload and ensure smooth data flow. When too much data is sent through the network at once, it
can cause delays and data loss. Congestion control techniques help manage the traffic, so all users can enjoy
a stable and efficient network connection. These techniques are essential for maintaining the performance
and reliability of modern networks.
What is Congestion?

Congestion in a computer network happens when there is too much data being sent at the same time, causing
the network to slow down. Just like traffic congestion on a busy road, network congestion leads to delays
and sometimes data loss. When the network can’t handle all the incoming data, it gets “clogged,” making it
difficult for information to travel smoothly from one place to another.

Causes of Network Congestion

1. Excessive bandwidth consumption: Particular users or devices on the network may occasionally use
more bandwidth than the average user or device. This can put a pressure on the network and its
routing equipment (routers, switches, and cables), causing network congestion.

2. Poor subnet management: For better resource management, a big network is divided into subnets.
However, network congestion could arise if the subnets are not scaled according to usage patterns
and resource requirements.

3. Broadcast Storms: A broadcast storm happens when there is a sudden rise in the number of demands
to a network. As a result of this, a network may be unable to handle all of the requests at the same
time.

4. Multi-casting: Multi-casting happens when a network allows multiple computers to interact with
each other at the same time. In multi-casting, a collision can occur collisions may cause a network to
be congested.

5. Border Gateway Protocol: All traffic is routed by BGP via the shortest possible path. However, while
routing a packet, it doesn’t consider the amount of traffic present in the route. In such scenarios,
there is a possibility all the packets are being routed via the same route which may lead to network
congestion.

6. Too many devices: Every network has a limit on the amount of data it can manage. This capacity
establishes a limit on how much bandwidth and traffic your network can handle before performance
degrades. If the network has too many devices linked to it, the network may become burdened with
data requests.

7. Outdated Hardware: When data is transmitted over old switches, routers, servers, and Internet
exchanges, bottlenecks can emerge. Data transmission can get hampered or slowed down due to
outdated hardware. As a result, network congestion occurs.

8. Over-subscription: A cost-cutting tactic that can result in the network being compelled to
accommodate far more traffic than it was designed to handle (at the same time).

Effects of Network Congestion

1. Queueing delay

2. Packet Loss
 3. Slow Network

4. Blocking of new connections

5. Low throughput

Effects of Congestion in Computer Network

 Improved Network Stability: Congestion control helps keep the network stable by preventing it
from getting overloaded. It manages the flow of data so the network doesn’t crash or fail due to too
much traffic.

 Reduced Latency and Packet Loss: Without congestion control, data transmission can slow
down, causing delays and data loss. Congestion control helps manage traffic better, reducing these
delays and ensuring fewer data packets are lost, making data transfer faster and the network more
responsive.

 Enhanced Throughput: By avoiding congestion, the network can use its resources more effectively.
This means more data can be sent in a shorter time, which is important for handling large amounts of
data and supporting high-speed applications.

 Fairness in Resource Allocation: Congestion control ensures that network resources are shared
fairly among users. No single user or application can take up all the bandwidth, allowing everyone to
have a fair share.

 Better User Experience: When data flows smoothly and quickly, users have a better experience.
Websites, online services, and applications work more reliably and without annoying delays.

 Mitigation of Network Congestion Collapse: Without congestion control, a sudden spike in data
traffic can overwhelm the network, causing severe congestion and making it almost unusable.
Congestion control helps prevent this by managing traffic efficiently and avoiding such critical
breakdowns.

Congestion Control Algorithm

 Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of data packets into the network, enabling
a better use of a shared network infrastructure and avoiding congestive collapse.

 Congestive-avoidance algorithms (CAA) are implemented at the TCP layer as the mechanism to
avoid congestive collapse in a network.

 There are two congestion control algorithms which are as follows:

What is the Token Bucket Algorithm?

The Token Bucket Algorithm is a network traffic management mechanism used to control the amount of
data that can be sent over a network. It allows for burst traffic while ensuring that the average data
transmission rate does not exceed a specified limit. Here’s how it works:

How Does It Work?

 Token Generation: Tokens are generated at a fixed rate and added to the bucket until it reaches its
maximum capacity.
  Data Transmission: To send data, tokens are required. For each unit of data to be sent, an equivalent
number of tokens is removed from the bucket.

 Burstiness: If the bucket has accumulated tokens (when data transmission was low or idle), a burst
of data can be sent all at once as long as there are enough tokens.

 Rate Limiting: If the bucket is empty (no tokens available), data transmission must wait until more
tokens are generated, ensuring that the average transmission rate is regulated.

What is the Leaky Bucket Algorithm?

The Leaky Bucket Algorithm is a network traffic management mechanism used to control the rate at which
data packets are transmitted over a network. It is designed to smooth out bursts of traffic and ensure a
steady, predictable data flow. Here’s how it works:

How Does It Work?

 Incoming Data: Data packets arrive and are added to the bucket.

 Leak Process: Packets are removed from the bucket at a constant rate, simulating a leaking bucket.
This rate is predefined and does not change.

 Overflow Handling: If the incoming data rate exceeds the leak rate and the bucket becomes full, any
additional incoming packets are discarded (lost), simulating an overflow.

Differences Between Token Bucket and Leaky Bucket Algorithm

Below are the differences between the token bucket and leaky bucket algorithm:

Feature Token Bucket Algorithm Leaky Bucket Algorithm

Allows for burst traffic by saving Smooths traffic by enforcing a constant
Traffic Handling
tokens rate
Uses tokens to control data Uses a leaky bucket to control data
Token/Bucket Concept
transmission transmission
Data waits until enough tokens are Excess data is discarded if the bucket
Data Dropping
available overflows
Rate Flexibility More flexible with bursts More rigid, enforces a steady rate
Suitable for bursty traffic and rate Suitable for steady rate enforcement and
Use Case
limiting shaping
Implementation
Generally more complex Generally simpler
Complexity
Data can be buffered until tokens are Limited buffering, excess data is
Buffering
available dropped

Leaky Bucket Algorithm

 The leaky bucket algorithm discovers its use in the context of network traffic shaping or rate-
limiting.

 A leaky bucket execution and a token bucket execution are predominantly used for traffic shaping
algorithms.
  This algorithm is used to control the rate at which traffic is sent to the network and shape the burst
traffic to a steady traffic stream.

 The disadvantages compared with the leaky-bucket algorithm are the inefficient use of available
network resources.

 The large area of network resources such as bandwidth is not being used effectively.

Let us consider an example to understand Imagine a bucket with a small hole in the bottom. No matter at
what rate water enters the bucket, the outflow is at constant rate. When the bucket is full with water
additional water entering spills over the sides and is lost.

Similarly, each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the following steps are involved in leaky
bucket algorithm:

 When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.

 The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface transmits packets at a constant
rate.

 Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.

 In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.

Token Bucket Algorithm

 The leaky bucket algorithm has a rigid output design at an average rate independent of the bursty
traffic.

 In some applications, when large bursts arrive, the output is allowed to speed up. This calls for a
more flexible algorithm, preferably one that never loses information. Therefore, a token bucket
algorithm finds its uses in network traffic shaping or rate-limiting.

 It is a control algorithm that indicates when traffic should be sent. This order comes based on the
display of tokens in the bucket.

 The bucket contains tokens. Each of the tokens defines a packet of predetermined size. Tokens in the
bucket are deleted for the ability to share a packet.
  When tokens are shown, a flow to transmit traffic appears in the display of tokens.

 No token means no flow sends its packets. Hence, a flow transfers traffic up to its peak burst rate in
good tokens in the bucket.

Need of Token Bucket Algorithm

The leaky bucket algorithm enforces output pattern at the average rate, no matter how bursty the traffic is.
So in order to deal with the bursty traffic we need a flexible algorithm so that the data is not lost. One such
algorithm is token bucket algorithm.

Steps of this algorithm can be described as follows:

 In regular intervals tokens are thrown into the bucket. ƒ

 The bucket has a maximum capacity. ƒ

 If there is a ready packet, a token is removed from the bucket, and the packet is sent.

 If there is no token in the bucket, the packet cannot be sent.

Let’s understand with an example, In figure (A) we see a bucket holding three tokens, with five packets
waiting to be transmitted. For a packet to be transmitted, it must capture and destroy one token. In figure (B)
We see that three of the five packets have gotten through, but the other two are stuck waiting for more
tokens to be generated.

Token Bucket vs Leaky Bucket

The leaky bucket algorithm controls the rate at which the packets are introduced in the network, but it is
very conservative in nature. Some flexibility is introduced in the token bucket algorithm. In the token bucket
algorithm, tokens are generated at each tick (up to a certain limit). For an incoming packet to be transmitted,
it must capture a token and the transmission takes place at the same rate. Hence some of the busty packets
are transmitted at the same rate if tokens are available and thus introduces some amount of flexibility in the
system.

Formula: M * s = C + ? * s where S – is time taken M – Maximum output rate ? – Token arrival rate C –
Capacity of the token bucket in byte

Let’s understand with an example,

Advantages

 Stable Network Operation: Congestion control ensures that networks remain stable and operational
by preventing them from becoming overloaded with too much data traffic.

 Reduced Delays: It minimizes delays in data transmission by managing traffic flow effectively,
ensuring that data packets reach their destinations promptly.

 Less Data Loss: By regulating the amount of data in the network at any given time, congestion
control reduces the likelihood of data packets being lost or discarded.

 Optimal Resource Utilization: It helps networks use their resources efficiently, allowing for better
throughput and ensuring that users can access data and services without interruptions.

 Scalability: Congestion control mechanisms are scalable, allowing networks to handle increasing
volumes of data traffic as they grow without compromising performance.

 Adaptability: Modern congestion control algorithms can adapt to changing network conditions,
ensuring optimal performance even in dynamic and unpredictable environments.

Disadvantages

 Complexity: Implementing congestion control algorithms can add complexity to network

management, requiring sophisticated systems and configurations.

 Overhead: Some congestion control techniques introduce additional overhead, which can consume
network resources and affect overall performance.

 Algorithm Sensitivity: The effectiveness of congestion control algorithms can be sensitive to

network conditions and configurations, requiring fine-tuning for optimal performance.

 Resource Allocation Issues: Fairness in resource allocation, while a benefit, can also pose
challenges when trying to prioritize critical applications over less essential ones.
  Dependency on Network Infrastructure: Congestion control relies on the underlying network
infrastructure and may be less effective in environments with outdated or unreliable equipment.

Conclusion

Congestion control is essential for keeping computer networks running smoothly. It helps prevent network
overloads by managing the flow of data, ensuring that information gets where it needs to go without delays
or loss. Effective congestion control improves network performance and reliability, making sure that users
have a stable and efficient connection. By using these techniques, networks can handle high traffic volumes
and continue to operate effectively.

How to fix/avoid Network Congestion

To solve network congestion, there are a few steps you can carry out. These network congestion solutions
are simple in theory, but can get complicated when actually working through them.

If you’re looking to take your IT management to the next level, read more about how to reduce network
traffic using Atera. Learn how we can help with our remote management capabilities, network monitoring,
and IT automation capabilities.

1. Monitor and Analyze Network Traffic

In many cases, the first step in preventing network congestion is usually monitoring network traffic. Once
you find a way to monitor and manage the traffic flowing through your network, you’ll be able to analyze it
and take steps to reduce network congestion.

A common way to reduce network congestion is to look at the periods throughout the day that are generally
the busiest when it comes to your network. For most businesses, this will be when the most people are in the
office. That’s because this time period sees the most amount of devices connected to the internet or the
largest activity regarding companywide calls.

If your company is experiencing network congestion and you don’t know the source, a network management
system like Atera can help provide the necessary solution to fight the congestion. IT asset discovery tools
can also be beneficial in diagnosing the devices and their network usage.

In this case, a network management system can help determine how and where bandwidth is being used.
This is important because, in many cases of network congestion, there are unnecessary devices and/or
unnecessary network activity that is occurring.

Once you’ve identified any problematic devices and/or network activity happening, you can update your
network’s infrastructure in ways that help to better allocate bandwidth during busy times. Additionally,
integrating Endpoint Detection and Response tools can further enhance your network security by identifying
and mitigating threats that might otherwise contribute to network inefficiencies.

2. Prioritize Network Traffic

To address network congestion and ensure that the functions required to run your company have the
necessary bandwidth to be carried out, you can prioritize network traffic. This will help reserve the
necessary bandwidth power for the devices and functions that need it.

Many companies will prioritize network traffic for software programs or devices considered critical to
company operations. For example, you might prioritize network traffic to a server storing all of your
company’s secure files. If your company is set to host a large-scale webinar or video conference, you might
prioritize network traffic for a specific video communication platform.
Prioritizing network traffic means you might need to slow down network connections for non-essential
functions or devices. Inform individuals who fulfill lower-priority tasks, or with multiple devices connected
to the same network, that they might experience slower connection speeds.

Another great way to limit network congestion is by prioritizing network traffic by scheduling or carrying
out any activities that require large amounts of available bandwidth in off-hours.

For example, if you know that your company’s intranet needs a major update, you can reallocate bandwidth
usage by scheduling the update for a time when the network is not already under stress, like through the
night. Many companies schedule internal network updates for early morning hours, to avoid network
downtimes, network congestions and keep network bandwidth high during the day.

3. Increase Bandwidth

Another network congestion fix is, if you find that there is little to no wasted bandwidth within your
company’s network, you may simply need to increase the available bandwidth. This simply means that your
network will have the ability to handle a larger volume of data and more hosts (also known as devices) at
once. Increasing your bandwidth will allow your company’s network functions to run faster and smoother, if
your bandwidth is insufficient for the current load.

Bandwidth can be viewed as the number of lanes that a highway has. The more lanes a highway has, the
more cars it can handle. The more network congestion bandwidth a network has, the more activity it can
handle with minimized interruptions.

To enhance your network’s bandwidth, here are some steps to take:

 Change router locations

 Ensure your routers are constantly updated
 Invest in routers with a higher bandwidth capacity
 Utilize repeaters to enhance the network reception
 Use broadband accelerators to boost signal speeds
 Utilize a VPN to optimize your network browsing

Many companies will increase their bandwidth because of the direct effect network congestion bandwidth
has on data processing. Even though upload and download speeds likely won’t increase, improving network
congestion bandwidth essentially allows for more simultaneous data use.

4. Assess Your Devices

There are a number of factors that can affect your network congestion with regard to the devices connected
to it. These include the type of devices, quantity, and amount of bandwidth usage. Although it can take a
significant amount of time, going through a device list of your network can be pivotal in reducing network
congestion.

Through no fault of their own, some network users might be using devices incorrectly. In other cases, these
same users might be using “legacy devices” that are a number of years old. Inefficient device usage and
older devices can easily make network congestion worse.

To assess device usage across your network, consider employing network discovery processes that help you
diagnose device health and assess bandwidth usage rates. Even a quick network security scan can help you
identify unsecured devices, protect remote access connections, and identify any outdated disks.

If you can help network users correctly use devices from day one, you’ll protect your company long-term
against network congestion. When onboarding a new client or employee onto a network, familiarize them
with network use best practices. Make sure they understand how to assess and correct their own network
usage rates.

After onboarding new users, run instant scans to regularly ensure that devices stay within an acceptable
bandwidth usage range.

5. Assess Your Network Architecture

Your network’s architecture — the framework in which devices are organized within a system — should be
constructed in a way that allocates appropriate network bandwidth to each user.

Incorrect network architecture often leads to network congestion. For example, if your large company
deploys a “peer-to-peer” network. All users have equal network bandwidth. Employees may be able to
access files reserved for executives.

That same large company should instead use a “client/server” network architecture, where workstations are
allocated access to specific “tiers” depending on employee needs. Users have access to all files required for
their position. The internal IT department or company’s executives control file access levels, processing
speeds, and other network permissions. This helps to preserve network access across all users and reduces
the potential for network congestion.

"congestion discarding" refers to the practice where a router actively drops (discards) packets
when the network becomes overloaded with traffic, preventing further congestion and ensuring smoother
data flow across the network; essentially, it's a mechanism to manage network congestion by selectively
discarding packets when buffers are full.

Key points about congestion discarding:

 Purpose:

To prevent network collapse by preventing excessive queuing of packets at routers when traffic exceeds
available bandwidth.

  How it works:

Routers monitor the queue length of packets waiting to be transmitted; when the queue reaches a certain
threshold, the router starts dropping packets, usually based on a specific discarding policy.

  Discarding policies:

 Tail-drop: The oldest packet in the queue is dropped first (FIFO principle).

  Random drop: Packets are randomly selected and discarded.

  Priority-based drop: Packets with lower priority are dropped first.

 

 Impact on applications:

 Positive: Helps to maintain overall network performance by preventing severe congestion and
delays.

  Negative: Can lead to packet loss, which can impact applications sensitive to data reliability like
video streaming or online gaming.
Quality of Service(QoS)
Quality of Service(QoS) is basically data. the ability to provide different priority to different applications,
users, or data flows, or in order to guarantee a certain level of performance to the flow of

QoS is basically the overall performance of the computer network. Mainly the performance of the network is
seen by the user of the Network.

Let us know first take a look at the characteristics of the Flow:

Flow Characteristics

Given below are four types of characteristics that are mainly attributed to the flow and these are as follows:

 Reliability
 Delay
 Jitter
 Bandwidth

Reliability

It is one of the main characteristics that the flow needs. If there is a lack of reliability then it simply means
losing any packet or losing an acknowledgement due to which retransmission is needed.

Reliability becomes more important for electronic mail, file transfer, and for internet access.

Delay

Another characteristic of the flow is the delay in transmission between the source and destination. During
audio conferencing, telephony, video conferencing, and remote conferencing there should be a minimum
delay.

Jitter

It is basically the variation in the delay for packets that belongs to the same flow. Thus Jitter is basically the
variation in the packet delay. Higher the value of jitter means there is a large delay and the low jitter means
the variation is small.

Bandwidth

The different applications need different bandwidth.

How to achieve Quality of Service?

Let's get into some details and say, your organization wants to achieve Quality of Service, which can be
done by using some tools and techniques, like jitter buffer and traffic shaping.

Jitter buffer

This is a temporary storage buffer which is used to store the incoming data packets, it is used in packet-
based networks to ensure that the continuity of the data streams doesn't get disturbed, it does that by
smoothing out the packet arrival times during periods of network congestion.
Traffic shaping

This technique which is also known as packet shaping is a congestion control or management technique
that helps to regulate network data transfer by delaying the flow of least important or least necessary data
packets.

QoS is included in the service-level agreement when an organization signs it with its network service
provider which guarantees the selected performance level.

There are 2 types of Quality of Service Solutions:

1. Stateless solution: Here, the server is not required to keep or store the server information or session
details to itself. The routers maintain no fine-grained state about traffic , one positive factor of this is,
that it's scalable and robust. But also, it has weak services as there is no guarantee about the kind
of performance delay in a particular application which we encounter. In the stateless solution, the
server and client are loosely coupled and can act.
2. Stateful solution: Here, the server is required to maintain the current state and session
information, the routers maintain per-flow state as the flow is very important in providing the
Quality-of-Service which is providing powerful services such as guaranteed services and high
resource utilization, provides protection, and is much less scalable and robust. Here, the server and
client are tightly bounded.

Quality of Service Parameters:

QoS can be measured quantitatively by using several parameters

 Packet loss: it happens when the network links become congested and the routers and switches start
dropping the packets. When these packets are dropped during real-time communication, such as
audio or video, these sessions can experience jitter and gaps in speech.
 Jitter: occurs as the result of network congestion, timing drift, and route changes. And also, too
much jitter can degrade the quality of audio communication.
 Latency: is the time delay, which is taken by a packet to travel from its source to its destination. For
a great system, latency should be as low as possible, ideally, it should be close to zero.
 Bandwidth: is the capacity of a network channel to transmit maximum possible data through the
channel in a certain amount of time. QoS optimizes a network by managing its bandwidth and setting
the priorities for those applications which require more resources as compared to other applications.
 Mean opinion score: it is a metric for rating the audio quality which uses a five-point scale, with a
five indicating the highest or best quality.

Implementing Quality of Service:

We can implement Quality of service through three of the following existing models:

a) Best Effort (No QoS)

 Default mode in networks where all traffic is treated equally.

 Not recommended for critical applications.

b) Integrated Services (IntServ)

 Uses Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) to reserve bandwidth for specific applications.
 Ensures strict QoS guarantees but is not scalable for large networks.

c) Differentiated Services (DiffServ)

  Uses Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) to classify and mark packets.
 Provides a balance between performance and scalability.
 Most commonly used model.

Let us understand the difference between Integrated Services and Differentiated Services:

Integrated Services Differentiated Services

This Architecture mainly specifies a simple and scalable

This Architecture mainly specifies the
mechanism for classifying and managing the traffic of the
elements to guarantee Quality of Service
network and also provides QoS on the modern IP
(QoS) on the network.
networks.

These services mainly involve the prior These services mark the packets with the priority and then
reservation of the resources before sending sends it to the network and there is no concept of prior
in order to achieve Quality of Service. reservation.

It is also known as IntServ. It is also known as DiffSer.

These are not Scalable These are Scalable.

These involve per flow Setup These involve long term Setup

In this end to end service scope is

In this domain service scope is involved
available.

UNIT V

Application layer

DNS

Domain Name System (DNS)

Domain Name System (DNS) is a system that translates human-readable domain names, like
www.google.com, into machine-readable IP addresses, such as 142.250.190.14, enabling computers to
locate and communicate with each other on the internet. It operates as a distributed database, working
through a hierarchical structure of servers.

When a user requests a domain, the query passes through multiple levels—starting with the Root server,
then the Top-Level Domain (TLD) server and finally the authoritative server that holds the specific IP
address for the domain. This seamless process ensures users can access websites using easy-to-remember
names instead of numerical IP addresses.

How Does DNS Work?

 When we type a website like https://www.geeksforgeeks.org in our browser, our computer tries to
find the IP address.

 First, it checks the local cache (our browser, operating system, or router) to see if it already knows
the IP address.
  If the local cache doesn’t have the IP, the query is sent to a DNS resolver to find it.

 DNS resolver may check host files (used for specific manual mappings), but usually, it moves on.

 Resolver sends the query to a Root DNS server, which doesn’t know the exact IP address but points
to the TLD server (e.g., .org server for this example).

 TLD(top level domain server) server then directs the resolver to the authoritative nameserver for
geeksforgeeks.org.

 Authoritative nameserver knows the exact IP address for geeksforgeeks.org and sends it back to the
resolver.

 Resolver passes the IP address to our computer.

 Our computer uses the IP address to connect to the real server where the website is hosted.

 The website loads in our browser.

For more, we can refer to Working of DNS Server .

How Does DNS Works?

DNS (Domain Name System) is the system that translates human-readable domain names (like
example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.168.1.1) that computers use to communicate over the internet. It's
often called the "phonebook of the internet."

How DNS Works:

1. User Request: You enter a domain name in a browser.

2. Recursive Resolver: Your device contacts a DNS resolver (usually provided by your ISP or a third-
party service like Google DNS or Cloudflare DNS).
3. Root Servers: If the resolver doesn't have the IP cached, it queries root DNS servers.
4. TLD Servers: The root server directs the query to the Top-Level Domain (TLD) server
(e.g., .com, .org).
5. Authoritative DNS Server: The TLD server points to the authoritative DNS server for the domain,
which holds the actual IP address.
6. Response: The IP address is returned to the resolver and then to your browser, which connects to the
website.

Structure of DNS

It is very difficult to find out the IP address associated with a website because there are millions of websites
and with all those websites we should be able to generate the IP address immediately, there should not be a
lot of delays for that to happen organization of the database is very important.

Root DNS Server

 DNS Record: Domain name, IP address what is the validity? what is the time to live? and all the
information related to that domain name. These records are stored in a tree-like structure.

 Namespace: Set of possible names, flat or hierarchical. The naming system maintains a collection of
bindings of names to values – given a name, a resolution mechanism returns the corresponding
value.
  Name Server: It is an implementation of the resolution mechanism.

DNS = Name service in Internet – A zone is an administrative unit, and a domain is a subtree.

Types of Domain

There are various kinds of domains:

 Generic Domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(nonprofit

organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domains.

 Country Domain: .in (India) .us .uk

 Inverse Domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. IP to domain name
mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the IP addresses of
geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type

Types of DNS

Domain Name Server

The client machine sends a request to the local name server, which, if the root does not find the address in its
database, sends a request to the root name server, which in turn, will route the query to a top-level domain
(TLD) or authoritative name server. The root name server can also contain some hostName to IP address
mappings. The Top-level domain (TLD) server always knows who the authoritative name server is. So
finally the IP address is returned to the local name server which in turn returns the IP address to the host.
Domain Name Server

DNS Lookup

DNS Lookup, also called DNS Resolution, is the process of translating a human-readable domain name (like
www.example.com) into its corresponding IP address (like 192.0.2.1), which computers use to locate and
communicate with each other on the internet. It allows users to access websites easily using names instead of
remembering numeric IP addresses.

 DNS Lookup starts when a user types a domain name into their browser.

 The query goes through a series of servers: the DNS resolver, Root server, TLD server, and
authoritative server.

 Each server plays a role in finding the correct IP address for the domain.

 Once the IP address is found, the browser connects to the website’s server and loads the page.

DNS Resolver

DNS Resolver is simply called a DNS Client and has the functionality for initiating the process of DNS
Lookup which is also called DNS Resolution. domain names By using the DNS Resolver, applications can
easily access different websites and services present on the Internet by using that are very much friendly to
the user and that also resolves the problem of remembering IP Address.

Types of DNS Queries

There are basically three types of DNS Queries that occur in DNS Lookup. These are stated below.
  Recursive Query: In this query, if the resolver is unable to find the record, in that case, DNS client
wants the DNS Server will respond to the client in any way like with the requested source record or
an error message.

 Iterative Query: Iterative Query is the query in which DNS Client wants the best answer possible
from the DNS Server.

 Non-Recursive Query: Non-Recursive Query is the query that occurs when a DNS Resolver queries
a DNS Server for some record that has access to it because of the record that exists in its cache.

DNS Caching

DNS Caching can be simply termed as the process used by DNS Resolvers for storing the previously
resolved information of DNS that contains domain names, and IP Addresses for some time. The main
principle of DNS Caching is to speed up the process of future DNS lookup and also help in reducing the
overall time of DNS Resolution.

 Speeds Up Access: It stores previous website lookups, so your device can quickly load frequently
visited sites without asking the network for the IP address each time.

 Reduces Internet Traffic: This storage cuts down on the number of requests sent across the internet,
helping reduce overall network congestion.

 Enhances User Experience: With faster loading times for websites and less waiting, browsing the
internet becomes a smoother, more enjoyable experience.

The DNS Name Space

DNS Namespace Overview

The DNS namespace is a hierarchical structure used to organize domain names in the Domain Name
System (DNS). It ensures that every domain name is unique and can be resolved to an IP address.

1. Structure of DNS Namespace

The DNS namespace follows a tree-like hierarchy, with different levels separated by dots (.).

Root Level (.)

 The highest level in DNS.

  Represented as a single dot (.), though it’s usually implicit in domain names.

Top-Level Domains (TLDs)

 Located below the root.

 Examples:
o Generic TLDs (gTLDs): .com, .org, .net, .gov, .edu
o Country Code TLDs (ccTLDs): .us, .uk, .in, .de
o Sponsored TLDs (sTLDs): .mil (military), .museum, .aero

Second-Level Domains (SLDs)

 Directly below TLDs.

 Usually the name of an organization or brand.
 Example: google.com (where google is the SLD).

Subdomains

 Parts of a domain added before the SLD.

 Example: mail.google.com (where mail is a subdomain of google.com).

Hostnames

 The lowest level, representing specific devices or services.

 Example: www.example.com (where www is a hostname).

2. Types of DNS Namespace

1. Public Namespace
o Used on the internet, managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers).
o Examples: google.com, microsoft.com
2. Private Namespace
o Used inside private networks (e.g., companies, organizations).
o Examples: company.local, internal.network

3. Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)

An FQDN is a complete domain name that uniquely identifies a resource on the internet.

 Example: www.example.com.
 Ends with a dot (.) representing the root.

The DNS name space is the set of all domain names that are registered in the DNS. These domain names are
organized into a tree-like structure, with the top of the tree being the root domain. Below the root domain,
there are a number of top-level domains, such as .com, .net, and .org. Below the top-level domains, there are
second-level domains, and so on. Each domain name in the DNS name space corresponds to a set of
resource records, which contain information about that domain name, such as its IP address, mail servers,
and other information.
The DNS name space is hierarchical, meaning that each domain name can have subdomains beneath it. For
example, the domain name "example.com" could have subdomains such as "www.example.com" and
"mail.example.com". This allows for a very flexible and scalable naming structure for the Internet.

The DNS name space is managed by a number of organizations, including the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which is responsible for coordinating the allocation of unique
domain names and IP addresses.

DNS Namespace Hierarchy

The DNS namespace is organized hierarchically, with the root of the hierarchy at the top. At the root of the
DNS namespace, there are a number of top-level domains (TLDs), such as .com, .net, and .org. These TLDs
are further divided into second-level domains, and so on.

For example, consider the domain name "example.com". "com" is the top-level domain, and "example" is
the second-level domain. "Example.com" can have subdomains beneath it, such as "www.example.com" and
"mail.example.com". Each subdomain can also have further subdomains beneath it, forming a tree-like
structure.

The DNS namespace is decentralized, meaning that there is no central authority that controls the entire
namespace. Instead, different organizations are responsible for managing different parts of the namespace.
For example, ICANN is responsible for coordinating the allocation of unique domain names and IP
addresses, while individual registrars are responsible for selling domain names to customers and maintaining
records of those domain names in the DNS.

DNS Hierarchy in a Local Domain

In a local domain, the DNS hierarchy can be used to organize the domain's resources and make them easier
to find. For example, a local domain might have a structure like this −

Root domain: example.local

Subdomain: servers.example.local
Subdomain: clients.example.local
Subdomain: printers.example.local
In this example, the root domain is "example.local", and there are three subdomains beneath it:
"servers.example.local", "clients.example.local", and "printers.example.local". Each of these subdomains
can contain resource records that describe the resources within that subdomain.

For example, the "servers.example.local" subdomain might contain resource records for the domain's
servers, such as their hostnames and IP addresses. The "clients.example.local" subdomain might contain
resource records for the domain's client computers, and the "printers.example.local" subdomain might
contain resource records for the domain's printers.

By organizing the resources in a local domain using the DNS hierarchy, it becomes easier for users to locate
and access the resources they need.

DNS Hierarchy and the Internet

The DNS hierarchy is used to organize domain names on the Internet as well. At the top of the Internet's
DNS hierarchy is the root domain, which is represented by a single dot ("."). Below the root domain, there
are a number of top-level domains (TLDs), such as .com, .net, and .org. These TLDs are further divided into
second-level domains, and so on.

For example, consider the domain name "example.com". "com" is the top-level domain, and "example" is
the second-level domain. "Example.com" can have subdomains beneath it, such as "www.example.com" and
"mail.example.com". Each subdomain can also have further subdomains beneath it, forming a tree-like
structure.

The DNS hierarchy on the Internet is decentralized, meaning that there is no central authority that controls
the entire namespace. Instead, different organizations are responsible for managing different parts of the
namespace. For example, ICANN is responsible for coordinating the allocation of unique domain names and
IP addresses, while individual registrars are responsible for selling domain names to customers and
maintaining records of those domain names in the DNS.

Domain Names
A domain name is a unique name that identifies a website or other resource on the Internet. Domain names
are used to locate and identify resources, such as websites, on the Internet. They are made up of a series of
labels separated by periods (also known as "dots"), and are organized in a hierarchical manner.

For example, the domain name "example.com" is made up of two labels: "example" and "com". The "com"
part of the domain name is known as the top-level domain (TLD), while "example" is the second-level
domain. Domain names can also have subdomains, such as "www.example.com" or "mail.example.com".

Domain names are used in conjunction with the Domain Name System (DNS) to locate resources on the
Internet. When you type a domain name into your web browser's address bar, your computer contacts a DNS
server to translate the domain name into an IP address, which is then used to locate and access the desired
resource.,

Domain names are typically registered through a domain name registrar, which is an organization that is
accredited by ICANN (the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) to sell domain names to
the public. Domain names can be purchased for a fee, and are typically registered for a period of one to ten
years.

Fully-Qualified Domain Names

A fully-qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that specifies the complete path to a particular
domain in the Domain Name System (DNS) hierarchy. An FQDN consists of a series of labels separated by
periods, and includes the top-level domain (TLD) at the end.

For example, the FQDN "www.example.com" specifies the domain "www" within the "example.com"
domain. The FQDN "mail.example.com" specifies the domain "mail" within the "example.com" domain.

In order for a domain name to be fully-qualified, it must include the entire path from the root of the DNS
hierarchy to the specific domain. This means that it must include not only the top-level domain, but also all
intermediate domains and subdomains.

FQDNs are used to uniquely identify a domain within the DNS hierarchy and to locate resources on the
Internet. They are often used in combination with the Domain Name System (DNS) to translate domain
names into IP addresses, which are then used to locate and access the desired resource.

DNS Server and Name Space distribution

The information contained in the domain name space should be stored. However, it is not efficient as well as
unreliable to store information on a single computer system. Inefficient because requests for all over the
world would put heavy load on a system. It is not reliable because any failiure makes the data unavailable.

DNS Servers
The solution of above problem is to distribute the information among many computers called DNS Servers.
One way to do this is to divide the whole name space into many domains based on the first level. In other
words, we let the root stand alone and create as many domains (subtrees) as there are first-level nodes.
Because a domain created this way could be very large, DNS allows domains to be divided further into
smaller domains (subdomains). Each server can be responsible (authoritative) for either a large or small
domain. In other words, we have a hierarchy of servers in the same way that we have a hierarchy of names.

Zone
What a server is responsible for or has authority over it is called a zone. If a server accepts responsibility for
a domain and does not divide the domain into smaller domains (subdomains), the "domain" and the 'zone"
refers to the same thing. the server makes a database called a zone file and keeps all the information for
every noe under that domain. However, if a server divides its domain into subdomains and delegates part of
its authority to other servers, "domain" and "zone" refer to different things. The information about the nodes
in the subdomains is stored in the servers at the lower levels, with the original server keeping some sort of
reference to these lower-level servers. Of course the original server does not free itself from responsibility
totally: It still has a zone, but the detailed information is kept by lower level servers.

A server can also dividepart of its domain and delegate responsibility but still keep part of domain for itself.
In this case, its zone is made of detailed information for the part of the domain that is not delegated and
references to those parts that are delegated.

Root Server
A root server is a server whose zone consists of whole tree. A root server usually does not store any
information abotdomains but delegates its authority to other servers , keeping references to those servers.
Currently there are more than 13 root serverscovering th whole domain space. The servers are distributed all
around the world.

Primary and Secondary Servers

DNS defines two types of servers, primary and secondary. A primary server is a server taht stores the file
about the zone for whih it is an authority. It is responsible for creating, maintaining, and updating the zone
file. It store sthe zone file on a local disk.

A secondary server is a server that transfers the complete information about a zone from another server
(primary or secondary) and stores the file on its local disk. the secondary server neither creates nor updates
the zone files. If udating is required, it must be done by primary server, which sends the updated version to
secondary.

The primary and secondary servers are both authoritative for the zone they serve. The idea is not to put the
seconadary server at alower level of authority but to create redundancy for data so that if one server fails, the
other can continue serving clients. Note also that a server can be a primary server for a specific zone and a
secondary server for another zone

Zone Transfer
A primary server loads all information from the disk file; the secondary DNS Server loads all information
from the primary server. When the primary DNS server downloads information from the secondary, it is
called zone transfer.

The distribution of name space in computer networks is managed by the Domain Name
System (DNS). DNS uses a hierarchical structure to organize names into domains and subdomains, which
are then distributed across many DNS servers.

How it works

 Hierarchical structure: The DNS namespace is organized like an inverted tree, with the root at the
top.

  Domains and subdomains: Each branch of the tree is a domain, and each subbranch is a subdomain.

  Authoritative name servers: Each domain is assigned an authoritative name server that is
responsible for mapping the domain name to the associated resources.

  Distribution of information: The information in the DNS namespace is stored across many DNS
servers.

  Translation services: DNS provides translation services between the domain name hierarchy and IP
address spaces.

Why it's important

  The DNS namespace is important for usability because it allows users to remember domain names
easily.

  The DNS namespace is important for reliability because it distributes the information across many
servers, making it less likely that a single computer will become overloaded.

Internet Domain Name System

Overview

DNS (Domain Name System) in the Internet

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a crucial part of the internet infrastructure that translates human-
readable domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses (like 142.250.190.14) that computers use
to identify each other on networks.

How DNS Works

1. User Request
o A user types a website URL (www.example.com) into a browser.
2. DNS Query is Sent
o The request is sent to a DNS resolver (often provided by an Internet Service Provider or a
public DNS service like Google DNS 8.8.8.8 or Cloudflare DNS 1.1.1.1).
3. Recursive Resolution
o If the resolver does not have the IP address cached, it queries DNS servers in the following
order:
1. Root DNS Servers (.) – Directs the query to the correct TLD (Top-Level Domain)
server.
2. TLD Servers (.com, .org, .net, etc.) – Directs to the domain's authoritative DNS
server.
3. Authoritative DNS Server – Holds the actual IP address of the domain.
4. IP Address Returned
o The authoritative DNS server sends back the corresponding IP address.
5. Accessing the Website
o The browser uses the IP address to connect to the web server and load the requested website.

Types of DNS Servers

 Recursive Resolver: Handles DNS queries and resolves them fully.

 Root Name Servers: Direct queries to the appropriate TLD servers.
 TLD Name Servers: Manage specific domain extensions (.com, .net, etc.).
 Authoritative Name Servers: Store domain name records (e.g., A, CNAME, MX).

Common DNS Records

 A Record: Maps a domain to an IPv4 address.

 AAAA Record: Maps a domain to an IPv6 address.
 CNAME Record: Redirects one domain name to another.
  MX Record: Specifies mail servers for email handling.
 TXT Record: Stores text data for verification (e.g., SPF, DKIM).

Public DNS Providers

 Google DNS: 8.8.8.8 / 8.8.4.4

 Cloudflare DNS: 1.1.1.1
 OpenDNS: 208.67.222.222 / 208.67.220.220

When DNS was not into existence, one had to download a Host file containing host names and their
corresponding IP address. But with increase in number of hosts of internet, the size of host file also
increased. This resulted in increased traffic on downloading this file. To solve this problem the DNS system
was introduced.

Domain Name System helps to resolve the host name to an address. It uses a hierarchical naming scheme
and distributed database of IP addresses and associated names

IP Address

IP address is a unique logical address assigned to a machine over the network. An IP address exhibits the
following properties:

 IP address is the unique address assigned to each host present on Internet.

 IP address is 32 bits (4 bytes) long.
 IP address consists of two components: network component and host component.
 Each of the 4 bytes is represented by a number from 0 to 255, separated with dots. For example
137.170.4.124

IP address is 32-bit number while on the other hand domain names are easy to remember names. For
example, when we enter an email address we always enter a symbolic string such as
[email protected].

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) refers to a web address which uniquely identifies a document over the
internet.

This document can be a web page, image, audio, video or anything else present on the web.

For example, www.tutorialspoint.com/internet_technology/index.html is an URL to the index.html which

is stored on tutorialspoint web server under internet_technology directory.

URL Types

There are two forms of URL as listed below:

 Absolute URL
 Relative URL
Absolute URL

Absolute URL is a complete address of a resource on the web. This completed address comprises of protocol
used, server name, path name and file name.

For example http:// www.tutorialspoint.com / internet_technology /index.htm. where:

 http is the protocol.

 tutorialspoint.com is the server name.
 index.htm is the file name.

The protocol part tells the web browser how to handle the file. Similarly we have some other protocols also
that can be used to create URL are:

 FTP
 https
 Gopher
 mailto
 news

Relative URL

Relative URL is a partial address of a webpage. Unlike absolute URL, the protocol and server part are
omitted from relative URL.

Relative URLs are used for internal links i.e. to create links to file that are part of same website as the
WebPages on which you are placing the link.

For example, to link an image on tutorialspoint.com/internet_technology/internet_referemce_models, we can

use the relative URL which can take the form like /internet_technologies/internet-osi_model.jpg.

Difference between Absolute and Relative URL

Absolute URL Relative URL

Used to link web pages on different websites Used to link web pages within the same website.
Difficult to manage. Easy to Manage
Changes when the server name or directory Remains same even of we change the server name or
name changes directory name.
Take time to access Comparatively faster to access.

Domain Name System Architecture

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name Space, Name Server that have
been described below:

Domain Names

Domain Name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are several domain names available;
some of them are generic such as com, edu, gov, net etc, while some country level domain names such as
au, in, za, us etc.

The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

Domain Name Meaning
Com Commercial business
Edu Education
Gov U.S. government agency
Int International entity
Mil U.S. military
Net Networking organization
Org Non profit organization

The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning

au Australia
in India
cl Chile
fr France
us United States
za South Africa
uk United Kingdom
jp Japan
es Spain
de Germany
ca Canada
ee Estonia
hk Hong Kong

Domain Name Space

The domain name space refers a hierarchy in the internet naming structure. This hierarchy has multiple
levels (from 0 to 127), with a root at the top. The following diagram shows the domain name space
hierarchy:

In the above diagram each subtree represents a domain. Each domain can be partitioned into sub domains
and these can be further partitioned and so on.
Name Server

Name server contains the DNS database. This database comprises of various names and their corresponding
IP addresses. Since it is not possible for a single server to maintain entire DNS database, therefore, the
information is distributed among many DNS servers.

 Hierarchy of server is same as hierarchy of names.

 The entire name space is divided into the zones

Zones

Zone is collection of nodes (sub domains) under the main domain. The server maintains a database called
zone file for every zone.

If the domain is not further divided into sub domains then domain and zone refers to the same thing.

The information about the nodes in the sub domain is stored in the servers at the lower levels however; the
original server keeps reference to these lower levels of servers.

Types of Name Servers

Following are the three categories of Name Servers that manages the entire Domain Name System:

 Root Server
 Primary Server
 Secondary Server

Root Server

Root Server is the top level server which consists of the entire DNS tree. It does not contain the information
about domains but delegates the authority to the other server

Primary Servers
Primary Server stores a file about its zone. It has authority to create, maintain, and update the zone file.

Secondary Server

Secondary Server transfers complete information about a zone from another server which may be primary or
secondary server. The secondary server does not have authority to create or update a zone file.

DNS Working

DNS translates the domain name into IP address automatically. Following steps will take you through the
steps included in domain resolution process:

 When we type www.tutorialspoint.com into the browser, it asks the local DNS Server for its IP
address.

Here the local DNS is at ISP end.

 When the local DNS does not find the IP address of requested domain name, it forwards the request
to the root DNS server and again enquires about IP address of it.
 The root DNS server replies with delegation that I do not know the IP address of
www.tutorialspoint.com but know the IP address of DNS Server.
 The local DNS server then asks the com DNS Server the same question.
 The com DNS Server replies the same that it does not know the IP address of
www.tutorialspont.com but knows the address of tutorialspoint.com.
 Then the local DNS asks the tutorialspoint.com DNS server the same question.
 Then tutorialspoint.com DNS server replies with IP address of www.tutorialspoint.com.
 Now, the local DNS sends the IP address of www.tutorialspoint.com to the computer that sends the
request.

Domain Name Providers (Registrars)

A domain name provider (also called a domain registrar) is a company that allows individuals and businesses to
register and manage domain names. These providers are accredited by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers), which oversees the global domain name system.

Top Domain Name Providers

Here are some of the most popular and reliable domain registrars:

Registrar Website Key Features

Large selection, web hosting, email services, and marketing

GoDaddy www.godaddy.com
tools.

Affordable pricing, free WHOIS privacy, and user-friendly

Namecheap www.namecheap.com
interface.

Google Domains (Now part of Simple domain management, free WHOIS privacy, and
www.squarespace.com
Squarespace) integration with Google services.

No markup on domain prices, free WHOIS protection,

Cloudflare Registrar www.cloudflare.com
security-focused.

Clean interface, email forwarding, and excellent customer

Hover www.hover.com
support.
 Registrar Website Key Features

Web hosting, email, and domain marketplace for premium

Name.com www.name.com
domains.

Competitive pricing, free WHOIS privacy, and modern

Porkbun www.porkbun.com
interface.

Bulk registration discounts, domain auctions, and free

Dynadot www.dynadot.com
website builder.

Hostinger www.hostinger.com Cheap domain + hosting bundles, good for beginners.

Best for WordPress hosting, free domain with hosting

Bluehost www.bluehost.com
plans.

Key Features to Consider When Choosing a Domain Provider

✅ Pricing & Renewal Rates – Some providers offer low initial prices but high renewal costs.
✅ WHOIS Privacy Protection – Prevents your personal details from being publicly visible.
✅ Ease of Management – User-friendly dashboard for DNS settings, email, and domain transfers.
✅ Customer Support – 24/7 support via chat, email, or phone is essential.
✅ Additional Services – Hosting, SSL certificates, email services, and security features.

Best Domain & Hosting Providers (2024)

If you're looking for a company that provides both domain registration and web hosting, here are some
top options based on pricing, features, and reliability.

🌍 Global Domain & Hosting Providers

Provider Website Key Features

GoDaddy www.godaddy.com Popular for domains & hosting, user-friendly, business emails.
Namecheap www.namecheap.com Free WHOIS privacy, affordable domains & hosting.
Bluehost www.bluehost.com Recommended for WordPress, free domain with hosting.
Hostinger www.hostinger.com Budget-friendly, fast servers, free SSL, great for beginners.
Cloudflare www.cloudflare.com Security-focused, no price markups on domains.
SiteGround www.siteground.com Excellent customer support, optimized for WordPress.
IONOS by 1&1 www.ionos.com Affordable plans, enterprise-level features.

🇮🇳 Best Domain & Hosting Providers in India

Provider Website Key Features

BigRock www.bigrock.in India-based, affordable .in domains & hosting.
HostGator India www.hostgator.in Local servers, scalable hosting plans.
MilesWeb www.milesweb.com Budget hosting, good for startups.
ResellerClub www.resellerclub.com Best for domain resellers, multiple hosting options.
ZNetLive www.znetlive.com Indian cloud hosting with domain services.
🔥 Things to Consider When Choosing a Domain & Hosting Provider

✅ Pricing & Renewal Rates – Some companies have cheap intro rates but higher renewals.
✅ Server Performance – Look for uptime guarantees (99.9% or higher).
✅ Customer Support – 24/7 chat or phone support is a must.
✅ Free Features – SSL certificates, WHOIS privacy, email, backups, etc.
✅ Scalability – Choose a provider that allows upgrades as your business grows.

SMTP

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is a standard protocol that allows users to send and
receive emails over the internet. SMTP is used by most email clients, including Gmail, Outlook, Apple Mail,
and Yahoo Mail.

How does SMTP work?

 SMTP uses a client-server model.

  The client is the computer or web application that users use to write, send, and access emails.

  The server is a specialized computer that sends, receives, and forwards emails.

  SMTP ensures that undeliverable emails bounce back to the sender.

How SMTP Works?

1. User Sends an Email → The email client (e.g., Outlook) connects to the SMTP server.
2. SMTP Server Processes the Email → It checks sender authentication and the recipient’s email
address.
3. Relay to Recipient’s Mail Server → If the recipient is on another domain (e.g., from @gmail.com
to @yahoo.com), the SMTP server forwards the email.
4. Email Delivered via POP3/IMAP → The recipient’s email server receives and stores the email,
which can be retrieved via POP3 or IMAP.

⚙️SMTP Server Settings

How can I use SMTP?

 You can use SMTP to send emails from an email application through a specific server.

  For example, if you want to use your Zoho Mail account to send emails through another email client,
you can configure the settings in that client with Zoho's SMTP information.

  You can also use an SMTP service like SendGrid to deliver your emails via their servers instead of
your own client or server.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Mail Transfer mechanism (SMTP) is a mechanism for exchanging email messages between servers.
It is an essential component of the email communication process and operates at the application layer of the
TCP/IP protocol stack. SMTP is a protocol for transmitting and receiving email messages. In this article, we
are going to discuss every point about SMTP.

What is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol?

SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to the
SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP server is an always-on listening
mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection
through port 25. After successfully establishing a TCP connection the client process sends the mail
instantly.

SMTP

SMTP Protocol

The SMTP model is of two types:

 End-to-End Method

 Store-and-Forward Method

The end-to-end model is used to communicate between different organizations whereas the store and
forward method is used within an organization. An SMTP client who wants to send the mail will contact the
destination’s host SMTP directly, to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail to
itself until it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one that initiates the session so let us call it the client-SMTP and the server SMTP is
the one that responds to the session request so let us call it receiver-SMTP. The client-SMTP will start the
session and the receiver SMTP will respond to the request.

Before diving deeper into the Model of SMTP System, it’s important to understand how SMTP is leveraged
by service providers like SMTP.com in the real-world scenario.
SMTP.com is a platform that caters to all your transaction, email relay and email delivery needs at a very
affordable price. With decades of experience, SMTP.com is regarded as the most trusted sender in the
industry by ISPs. SMTP.com had been trusted by over 100,000 customers over the years.

SMTP.com is extremely intuitive and easy to set up. It can be integrated seamlessly into your current
business system. If you need to migrate from another provider, SMTP.com makes it effortless.

Features

 Dedicated IP

 Email API: Integrating SMTP.com with your business can be easy with the email API feature. They
have complete API documentation on their website that can help you integrate your business in just 5
minutes.

 24×7 Customer Support: The round-the-clock support is one of the best features of SMTP.com.
Support is available both on the website and also for paid customers. 24×7, all human support is
available for all customers across all plans. No third party is involved and solutions are provided fast
for easy implementation. Online chat support is also available for those who are looking for more
information about SMTP.com

 High Volume Sending Solutions: This newly launched feature is great for those businesses who
want to send more than 250 million emails a month. Customized quotations and solutions are
available.

 Reputation Defender: This is an add-on feature that helps clean up your email lists. It doesn’t need
any integration but actively monitors your lists and provides a report.

Pricing

SMTP.com offers affordable delivery services and caters to all kinds of businesses. Their plans range from
$25 to $500 and above. The best part about this platform is that all the features are available in all the plans.
The prices change only based on the volume of emails sent monthly. Even with the lowest price pack, users
can get access to 24×7 customer support and all the SMTP tools. The Reputation Defender for list cleaning
is an add-on feature available for all users.

Model of SMTP System

In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA), for example, Microsoft Outlook, Netscape,
Mozilla, etc. To exchange the mail using TCP, MTA is used. The user sending the mail doesn’t have to deal
with MTA as it is the responsibility of the system admin to set up a local MTA. The MTA maintains a small
queue of mail so that it can schedule repeat delivery of mail in case the receiver is not available. The MTA
delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the information can later be downloaded by the user agents.
SMTP Model

Components of SMTP

 Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending and retrieving mail.
It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to the mail transfer agent(MTA).

 Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that receives mail from a Mail User
Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer Agent(MTA) for the transfer of the mail.

 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): It is software that has the work to transfer mail from one system to
another with the help of SMTP.

 Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is basically a system
that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.

How does SMTP Work?

 Communication between the sender and the receiver: The sender’s user agent prepares the
message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s responsibility is to transfer the mail across the
network to the receiver’s MTA. To send mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive mail,
a system must have a server MTA.

 Sending Emails: Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages between the client and
the server. The message which is sent across consists of a header and a body. A null line is used to
terminate the mail header and everything after the null line is considered the body of the message,
which is a sequence of ASCII characters. The message body contains the actual information read by
the receipt.

 Receiving Emails: The user agent on the server-side checks the mailboxes at a particular time of
intervals. If any information is received, it informs the user about the mail. When the user tries to
read the mail it displays a list of emails with a short description of each mail in the mailbox. By
selecting any of the mail users can view its contents on the terminal.
Working of SMTP

What is an SMTP Envelope?

 Purpose

o The SMTP envelope contains information that guides email delivery between servers.

o It is distinct from the email headers and body and is not visible to the email recipient.

 Contents of the SMTP Envelope

o Sender Address: Specifies where the email originates.

o Recipient Addresses: Indicates where the email should be delivered.

o Routing Information: Helps servers determine the path for email delivery.

 Comparison to Regular Mail

o Think of the SMTP envelope as the address on a physical envelope for regular mail.

o Just like an envelope guides postal delivery, the SMTP envelope directs email servers on
where to send the email.

What are SMTP Commands?

S.No. Keywor Command form Description Usage
It provides the identification of the
1. HELO HELO<SP><domain><CRLF> Mandatory
sender i.e. the host name.
MAIL<SP>FROM : <reverse- It specifies the originator of the
2. MAIL Mandatory
path><CRLF> mail.
RCPT<SP>TO : <forward-
3. RCPT It specifies the recipient of mail. Mandatory
path><CRLF>
It specifies the beginning of the
4. DATA DATA<CRLF> Mandatory
mail.
5. QUIT QUIT<CRLF> It closes the TCP connection. Mandatory
It aborts the current mail transaction
Highly
6. RSET RSET<CRLF> but the TCP connection remains
recommended
open.
It is use to confirm or verify the user Highly
7. VRFY VRFY<SP><string><CRLF>
name. recommended
Highly
8. NOOP NOOP<CRLF> No operation
recommended
It reverses the role of sender and
9. TURN TURN<CRLF> Seldom used
receiver.
It specifies the mailing list to be
10. EXPN EXPN<SP><string><CRLF> Seldom used
expanded.
It send some specific documentation
11. HELP HELP<SP><string><CRLF> Seldom used
to the system.
SEND<SP>FROM : <reverse-
12. SEND It send mail to the terminal. Seldom used
path><CRLF>
SOML<SP>FROM : <reverse- It send mail to the terminal if
13. SOML Seldom used
path><CRLF> possible; otherwise to mailbox.
SAML<SP>FROM : <reverse- It send mail to the terminal and
14. SAML Seldom used
path><CRLF> mailbox.

What port does SMTP use?

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) commonly uses port 587 for secure transmission via TLS.
While port 465 was previously supported by many providers, it is no longer an accepted standard.
Additionally, port 25 is mainly used for SMTP relay, not for SMTP submission. Although port 2525 is not
an official SMTP port, it can serve as a good alternative

Difference Between SMTP and Extended SMTP

SMTP Extended SMTP

Users were not verified in SMTP as a result of In Extended SMTP, authentication of the sender is
massive-scale scam emails being sent. done.
We cannot attach a Multimedia file in SMTP directly
We can directly attach Multimedia FIle in ESMTP.
without the help of MMIE.
We can reduce the size of the email in Extended
We cannot reduce the size of the email in SMTP.
SMTP.
The main identification feature for ESMTP clients is
SMTP clients open transmission with the command
to open a transmission with the command EHLO
HELO.
(Extended HELLO).

Advantages of SMTP

 If necessary, the users can have a dedicated server.

  It allows for bulk mailing.

 Low cost and wide coverage area.

 Offer choices for email tracking.

 Reliable and prompt email delivery.

Disadvantages of SMTP

 SMTP’s common port can be blocked by several firewalls.

 SMTP security is a bigger problem.

 Its simplicity restricts how useful it can be.

 Just 7-bit ASCII characters can be used.

 If a message is longer than a certain length, SMTP servers may reject the entire message.

 Delivering your message will typically involve additional back-and-forth processing between
servers, which will delay sending and raise the likelihood that it won’t be sent.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a widely used protocol for network management that
provides a standardized framework for monitoring and managing network devices such as routers, switches,
servers, printers, firewalls, and load balancer. It operates within the application layer of the Internet protocol
suite and allows network administrators to manage network performance, find and solve network problems,
and plan for network growth.

What is Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)?

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a standard protocol used to monitor and manage
devices on a network, such as routers, switches, servers, printers, and IoT devices. It allows network
administrators to collect data, track performance, and troubleshoot issues remotely.

📡 How SNMP Works?

SNMP operates using a client-server model, where:

1. SNMP Manager (Client)

o The central system that sends requests and collects data from devices.
o Example: Network monitoring software like PRTG, Zabbix, Nagios.
2. SNMP Agent (Server)
o Runs on network devices (routers, switches, etc.).
o Responds to SNMP Manager’s queries and sends status updates.
3. MIB (Management Information Base)
o A database containing structured information about a device (CPU usage, bandwidth,
temperature, etc.).
o Uses Object Identifiers (OIDs) to specify different device metrics.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet Standard protocol used for managing and
monitoring network-connected devices in IP networks. SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP
port number 161/162. SNMP is used to monitor the network, detect network faults, and sometimes even to
configure remote devices.

Architecture of SNMP

There are mainly three main components in SNMP architecture:

 SNMP Manager: It is a centralized system used to monitor the network. It is also known as a
Network Management Station (NMS). A router that runs the SNMP server program is called an
agent, while a host that runs the SNMP client program is called a manager.

 SNMP agent: It is a software management software module installed on a managed device. The
manager accesses the values stored in the database, whereas the agent maintains the information in
the database. To ascertain if the router is congested or not, for instance, a manager can examine the
relevant variables that a router stores, such as the quantity of packets received and transmitted.

 Management Information Base:MIB consists of information on resources that are to be managed.

This information is organized hierarchically. It consists of objects instances which are essentially
variables. A MIB, or collection of all the objects under management by the manager, is unique to
each agent. System, interface, address translation, IP, UDP , and EGP , ICMP , TCP are the eight
categories that make up MIB. The MIB object is home to these groups.

SNMP Messages: SNMP defines five types of messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest,
GetResponse, and Trap.
GetRequest: The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client) to the agent (server) to retrieve
the value of a variable.

GetNextRequest: The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to agent to retrieve the value
of a variable. This type of message is used to retrieve the values of the entries in a table. If the
manager does not know the indexes of the entries, then it will not be able to retrieve the values. In
such situations, GetNextRequest message is used to define an object.

GetResponse: The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the manager in response to the
GetRequest and GetNextRequest message. This message contains the value of a variable requested by
the manager.

SetRequest: The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the agent to set a value in a variable.

Trap: The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an event. For example, if the
agent is rebooted, then it informs the manager as well as sends the time of rebooting.

SNMP Security Levels

 noAuthNoPriv: This (no authentication, no privacy) security level uses a community string for
authentication and no encryption for privacy.

 authNopriv: This security level ( authentication , no privacy) uses HMAC with Md5 for
authentication and no encryption is used for privacy.

 authPriv: This security level (authentication, privacy) uses HMAC with MD5 or SHA for
authentication and encryption uses the DES-56 algorithm.

Versions of SNMP
  SNMPv1: It uses community strings for authentication and uses UDP only. SNMPv1 is the first
version of the protocol. It is described in RFCs 1155 and 1157 and is simple to set up.

 SNMPv2c: It uses community strings for authentication. It uses UDP but can be configured to use
TCP. Improved MIB structure elements, transport mappings, and protocol packet types are all
included in this updated version. However, it also makes use of the current “community-based”
SNMPv1 administrative structure, which is why the version is called SNMPv2c. RFC 1901, RFC
1905, and RFC 1906 all describe it.

 SNMPv3: It uses Hash-based MAC with MD5 or SHA for authentication and DES-56 for privacy.
This version uses TCP. Therefore, the conclusion is the higher the version of SNMP, the more secure
it will be. NMPv3 provides the remote configuration of SNMP entities. This is the most secure
version to date because it also includes authentication and encryption, which may be used alone or in
combination. RFC 1905, RFC 1906, RFC 2571, RFC 2572, RFC 2574, and RFC 2575.6 are the
RFCs for SNMPv3.

Characteristics of SNMP

 SNMP is used to monitor network.

 It detects any network faults.

 It can also be used to configure remote devices.

 It allows a standardized way of collecting information about all kinds of devices from various
manufacturers among the networking industry.

Advantages of SNMP

 It is easy to implement.

 Agents are widely implemented.

 Agent level overhead is minimal.

 It is robust and extensible.

 Polling approach is good forLAN based managed object.

 It offers the best direct manager agent interface.

Limitation of SNMP

 It does not scale well.

 There is no object orietned data view.

 It has no standard control definition.

 It has many implementation specific (private MIB) extensions.

 It has high communication overhead due to polling

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) in Application Layer

FTP or File Transfer Protocol is said to be one of the earliest and also the most common forms of
transferring files on the internet. Located in the application layer of the OSI model, FTP is a basic system
that helps in transferring files between a client and a server. It is what makes the FTP unique that the system
provides a reliable and efficient means of transferring files from one system to another even if they have
different file structures and operating systems. Contrary to other protocols such as http that cover hypertexts
and web resources in general, ftp is dedicated to the management and the transfer of text, binary, or image
files.

What is File Transfer Protocol?

FTP is a standard communication protocol. There are various other protocols like HTTP which are used to
transfer files between computers, but they lack clarity and focus as compared to FTP. Moreover, the systems
involved in connection are heterogeneous, i.e. they differ in operating systems, directories, structures,
character sets, etc the FTP shields the user from these differences and transfers data efficiently and reliably.
FTP can transfer ASCII, EBCDIC, or image files. The ASCII is the default file share format, in this, each
character is encoded by NVT ASCII. In ASCII or EBCDIC the destination must be ready to accept files in
this mode. The image file format is the default format for transforming binary files.

File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is widely used in the application layer of networking. It works at the
application layer, ensuring that files are sent and received securely.

Types of FTP

There are different ways through which a server and a client do a file transfer using FTP. Some of
them are mentioned below:

 Anonymous FTP: Anonymous FTP is enabled on some sites whose files are available for public
access. A user can access these files without having any username or password. Instead, the
username is set to anonymous, and the password is to the guest by default. Here, user access is very
limited. For example, the user can be allowed to copy the files but not to navigate through
directories.
  Password Protected FTP: This type of FTP is similar to the previous one, but the change in it is the
use of username and password.

 FTP Secure (FTPS): It is also called as FTP Secure Sockets Layer (FTP SSL). It is a more secure
version of FTP data transfer. Whenever FTP connection is established, Transport Layer Security
(TLS) is enabled.

What is FTP Useful For?

FTP is especially useful for:

 Transferring Large Files: FTP can transfer large files in one shot; thus applicable when hosting
websites, backing up servers, or sharing files in large quantities.

 Remote File Management: Files on a remote server can be uploaded, downloaded, deleted,
renamed, and copied according to the users’ choices.

 Automating File Transfers: FTP is a great protocol for the execution of file transfers on predefined
scripts and employments.

 Accessing Public Files: Anonymous FTP means that everybody irrespective of the identity is
allowed to download some files with no permissions needed.

How to Use FTP?

To use FTP, follow these steps:

 Connect to the FTP Server: One can connect to the server using the address, username and
password through an FTP client or a command line interface. Anonymous Information may not need
a username and password.

 Navigate Directories: Some commands include ls that is used to list directories and cd that is used
to change directories.

 Transfer Files: File transfer may be done by using the commands such as get for downloading files,
and put for uploading files.

 Manage Files: Make operations like deletion (Delete), renaming (Rename) as well as copying
(Copy) of files.

 Close the Connection: Once file transfer has been accomplished, terminate the connection by giving
the bye or quit command.

How Does FTP Work?

FTP is a client server protocol that has two communication channel, command channel for conversation
control and data channel for file content.

Here are steps mentioned in which FTP works:

 A user has to log in to FTP Server first, there may be some servers where you can access to content
without login, known as anonymous FTP.

 Client can start a conversation with server, upon requesting to download a file.
  The user can start different functions like upload, delete, rename, copy files, etc. on server.

FTP can work on different modes like Active and Passive modes. For more, you can refer to Difference
between Active and Passive FTP.

Types of Connection in FTP

 Control Connection

 Data Connection

Control Connection

For sending control information like user identification, password, commands to change the remote
directory, commands to retrieve and store files, etc., FTP makes use of a control connection. The control
connection is initiated on port number 21.

Data connection

For sending the actual file, FTP makes use of a data connection. A data connection is initiated on port
number 20.
FTP sends the control information out-of-band as it uses a separate control connection. Some protocols send
their request and response header lines and the data in the same TCP connection. For this reason, they are
said to send their control information in-band. HTTP and SMTP are such examples.
FTP Session

When an FTP session is started between a client and a server, the client initiates a control TCP connection
with the server side. The client sends control information over this. When the server receives this, it initiates
a data connection to the client side. But the control connection remains active throughout the user session.
As we know HTTP is stateless . But FTP needs to maintain a state about its user throughout the session.

FTP Clients

FTP works on a client-server model. The FTP client is a program that runs on the user’s computer to enable
the user to talk to and get files from remote computers. It is a set of commands that establishes the
connection between two hosts, helps to transfer the files, and then closes the connection.

Some of the commands are:

get the filename(retrieve the file from the server)

get the filename(retrieve multiple files from the server )

ls(list files available in the current directory of the server)

There are also built-in FTP programs, which makes it easier to transfer files and it does not require
remembering the commands.

FTP Data Types

The data type of a file, which determines how the file is represented overall, is the first piece of information
that can be provided about it. The FTP standard specifies the following four categories of data:

 ASCII: Describes an ASCII text file in which each line is indicated by the previously mentioned
type of end-of-line marker.

 EBCDIC: For files that use IBM’s EBCDIC character set, this type is conceptually identical to
ASCII.
  Image: This is the “black box” mode I described earlier; the file has no formal internal structure and
is transferred one byte at a time without any processing.

 Local: Files containing data in logical bytes with a bit count other than eight can be handled by this
data type.

FTP Replies

Some of the FTP replies are:

 200 – Command okay.

 530 – Not logged in.

 331 – User name okay, need a password.

 221 – Service closing control connection.

 551 – Requested action aborted: page type unknown.

 502 – Command not implemented.

 503 – Bad sequence of commands.

 504 – Command not implemented for that parameter.

Characteristics of FTP

 FTP uses TCP as a transport layer protocol.

 It is good for simple file transfers, such as during boot time.

 Errors in the transmission (lost packets, checksum errors) must be handled by the TFTP server.

 It uses only one connection through well-known port 69.

 TFTP uses a simple lock-step protocol (each data packet needs to be acknowledged). Thus the
throughput is limited.

FTP’s Security Issues

 Information could not go across a secure tunnel since FTP was not intended to do so. Thus,
encryption is not present. A hacker would not need to struggle with encryption to access or alter data
that is usable if they could intercept an FTP transaction.

 Even with FTP cloud storage, data can still be intercepted and misused if the service provider’s
system is attacked.

 As a result, data sent via FTP is a target for spoofing, sniffing, brute force, and other types of attacks
that move somewhat slowly. A hacker might examine an FTP transmission and try to take advantage
of any flaws by simply port scanning.

 The fact that FTP uses clear-text passwords—passwords that haven’t been encrypted—is one of its
main security flaws. Put differently, “Jerry1992” appears exactly like “Jerry1992.” The real
password is hidden via an algorithm in more secure protocols. As a result, “Jerry1992” might appear
 as “dj18387saksng8937d9d8d7s6a8d89.” Passwords like this are not secured by FTP, which makes
them more easily cracked by malicious actors.

What is an FTP Port?

FTP operates using two ports:

 Port 21: As mentioned earlier this is where the commands are issued.

 Port 20: This is the special port required for data connection where the real transfer of file is made.

How to Change FTP Port Numbers

To change the default FTP port numbers, follow these steps:

 Access Server Configuration: Connect the control panel of your FTP server well as the FTP server
configuration file used.

 Modify the Port Number: Find out the possible port settings from the configuration file. Alter the
control port, default port is 21 and that of the data is 20.

 Restart the FTP Service: Finally once you have saved your changes you need to stop and restart the
FTP service so that the new port settings can be implemented.

 Update Client Settings: Make certain that all the FTP clients that connect with the server are
notified of the new port numbers.

Advantages of FTP

 File sharing also comes in the category of advantages of FTP in this between two machines files can
be shared on the network.

 Speed is one of the main benefits of FTP.

 Since we don’t have to finish every operation to obtain the entire file, it is more efficient.

 Using the username and password, we must log in to the FTP server. As a result, FTP might be
considered more secure.

 We can move the files back and forth via FTP. Let’s say you are the firm manager and you provide
information to every employee, and they all reply on the same server.

Disadvantages of FTP

 File size limit is the drawback of FTP only 2 GB size files can be transferred.

 More then one receivers are not supported by FTP.

 FTP does not encrypt the data this is one of the biggest drawbacks of FTP.

 FTP is unsecured we use login IDs and passwords making it secure but they can be attacked by
hackers.

Difference Between FTP and SFTP

FTP SFTP
It stands for File Transfer Protocol. It stands for Secure File Transfer Protocol.
In FTP, secure channel is not provided to transfer the In SFTP, a secure channel is provided to transfer the
files between the hosts. files between the hosts.
It usually runs on port no-21. It usually runs on port no-22.
It does not encrypt the data before sending It encrypted data before sending.
It makes uploading and downloading of files without It maintains full security of the data by using SSH
any security. keys.

FTP Security Challenges

FTP was not designed with security in mind, leading to several vulnerabilities:

 Lack of Encryption: This is because data such as usernames and passwords are transmitted without
encryption and hence easily vulnerable to different attacks.

 Vulnerabilities to Attacks: FTP transmissions are vulnerable to attacks such as spoofing, sniffing,
brute force , and the likes are slow attacks. They suggested that the data can be intercepted and
changed easily by hackers .

 Clear-Text Passwords: Unfortunately, FTP client authentication employs non encrypted passwords,
which makes them vulnerable to hacking.

Conclusion

FTP is still a powerful and effective method for transferring files between systems and still prevails in cases
of transferring large files, and in the course of automated systems. Nevertheless, it does not come with
security enhancements making it fairly inadequate for sensitive information exchange. In the case of
transfers, safer modes like SFTP or FTPS should be encouraged since they make transfers secure. Hence,
despite these drawbacks, FTP remains useful to this day since it is simple and stabilized.

What is POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)?

Today email is the most widely used platform for personal and professional business communication. Email
protocol is defined as a set of rules for the secure transmission of emails over the Internet. SMTP, IMAP,
POP, and POP3 are some of the email protocols. Each type of protocol used has a specific mechanism. The
below article covers in detail the POP3 protocol.

Introduction to POP

POP stands for Post Office Protocol. The POP protocol was published in the year 1984. POP has been
updated two times namely “POP2” and “POP3”. The POP protocol is an Internet Standard Protocol that
works on the application layer. It is used to get an access email from the mail server. The need for POP
mainly arises when the user or client does not have a continuous internet connection and wants to receive
email messages. The Pop client makes use of POP to pull email messages from the POP server. POP3 is the
updated version of POP.

What is POP3?

POP 3 stands for Post Office Protocol Version 3. POP3 protocol is used to provide access to the mail inbox
that is stored in the email server. POP3 protocol can download and delete messages. Once the POP3 client
has established a connection with the mail server it can easily retrieve all the messages from the server. The
user can access the messages locally even if the user is offline. The protocol does not inherently support
real-time synchronization or automatic checking for new messages, users can configure their email clients to
check for new messages at intervals or manually. Many email programs, including Apple Mail, Gmail, and
Microsoft Outlook, support the POP3 protocol, although IMAP is often preferred for its synchronization
features.

When a message is sent, SMPT is used to transfer it from the client to the server and ultimately to the server
of the recipient. However, the Message Access Agent facilitates the transmission of the message from the
receiving server to the host server. POP3 and IMAP are the two types of protocols that are included in the
Message Access Agent.

POP3 Email Protocol

POP3 Ports

POP3 makes use of two network ports. They are:

 Port 110: Port 110 is a default TCP port used by POP3. But It has a disadvantage that it does not
support encrypted communication.

 Port 995: Port 995 is majorly used for more secure applications. Port 995 is a TLS or SSL port used
to provide more security.

History of POP3

In 1984, the Internet Engineering Task Force published RFC 918, the initial version of post office protocol.
The POP3 protocol was created by the engineers as a straightforward and efficient email protocol that is
used to retrieve emails from the server. Instead of accessing the mailbox offline, this offers the option to
access the mails offline.

RFC 937 introduced the post office protocol version 2, which was superseded by RFC 1081 in 1988, which
introduced the post office protocol version 3. Before POP3 was released, it underwent ten more years of
revisions. After it was fully polished, it was released in 1996.
The POP3 protocol was developed with the fundamental idea that when a client and a server retrieve mail, it
goes through three stages. This is true even if the protocol has experienced many improvements. They made
an effort to keep this protocol as simple as possible, and because of its simplicity, it is now widely used.

Working of POP3

 Initially POP3 needs to establish a connection between the POP client and the POP server.

 Once a secure connection is established several commands are exchanged between them to perform
the task.

 Once a connection is established client requests available email messages.

 The Server sends the available messages along with their size and unique identifier number.

 Once the client receives the message, it makes a request to the server for downloading the messages.
The user marks such messages and sends them to the server.

 Upon receiving from the client-server sends the messages selected by the client and accordingly
marks them as read or unread.

 The client if want sends a request for deleting the messages.

 Once the tasks are completed the client sends a close connection request to the server

 The server then sends an acknowledgment to the client and closes the connection.

Advantages of POP3

 The message can be read offline also.

 POP3 requires less storage space.

 POP3 is easy to use and configure.

 POP3 is supported by many email applications.

 Since our PC already has the emails stored there, accessing them is quick and simple.

 The size of emails we send and receive is unrestricted.

 Since all emails are kept locally, less server storage space is needed.

Disadvantages of POP3

 POP3 does not provide the feature of real-time synchronization.

 If an email consists of virus attachments it can affect the system easily.

 POP3 does not support accessing the same email at the same time on different systems.

 At a time entire email folder can be discarded.

 It is also possible for the email folder that is downloaded from the mail server to get corrupted.
  Since the emails are kept locally, anyone using your computer can access the email folder.

Difference Between POP3 and IMAP

POP3 IMAP
POP is a simple protocol that only allows IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is much
downloading messages from your Inbox to your local more advanced and allows the user to see all the
computer. folders on the mail server.
The IMAP server listens on port 143, and the IMAP
The POP server listens on port 110, and the POP with
with SSL secure (IMAPDS) server listens on port
SSL secure (POP3DS) server listens on port 995
993.
In POP3 the mail can only be accessed from a single
Messages can be accessed across multiple devices.
device at a time.
To read the mail it has to be downloaded on the local The mail content can be read partially before
system. downloading
The user can not create, delete or rename email on the The user can create, delete or rename an email on the
mail server. mail server.

HTTP Full Form – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is the main way web browsers and servers communicate
to share information on the internet. Tim Berner invents it. HyperText is the type of text that is specially
coded with the help of some standard coding language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML).
HTTP/2 is the new version of HTTP. HTTP/3 is the latest version of HTTP, which is published in 2022.

When you visit a website, HTTP helps your browser request and receive the data needed to display the web
pages you see. It is a fundamental part of how the internet works, making it possible for us to browse and
interact with websites. In this article, we are going to discuss the Full form of HTTP along with its working,
advantages, and disadvantages.

What is the Full Form of HTTP?

HTTP stands for “Hypertext Transfer Protocol.” It is a set of rules for sharing data on the World Wide Web
(WWW). HTTP helps web browsers and servers communicate, allowing people to access and share
information over the internet.

Key Points

 Basic Structure: HTTP forms the foundation of the web, enabling data communication and file
sharing.

 Web Browsing: Most websites use HTTP, so when you click on a link or download a file, HTTP is
at work.

 Client-Server Model: HTTP works on a request-response system. Your browser (client) asks for
information, and the website’s server responds with the data.

 Application Layer Protocol: HTTP operates within the Internet Protocol Suite, managing how data
is transmitted and received.

What is HyperText?

The protocol used to transfer hypertext between two computers is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol.
HTTP provides a standard between a web browser and a web server to establish communication. It is a set of
rules for transferring data from one computer to another. Data such as text, images, and other multimedia
files are shared on the World Wide Web. Whenever a web user opens their web browser, the user indirectly
uses HTTP. It is an application protocol that is used for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information
systems.

Working of HTTP [HyperText Transfer Protocol]

First of all, whenever we want to open any website we first open a web browser after that we will type the
URL of that website (e.g., www.facebook.com ). This URL is now sent to the Domain Name Server (DNS).
Then DNS first checks records for this URL in their database, and then DNS will return the IP address to the
web browser corresponding to this URL. Now the browser is able to send requests to the actual server.

After the server sends data to the client, the connection will be closed. If we want something else from the
server we should have to re-establish the connection between the client and the server.

Working off HTTPs

What is an HTTP Request?

HTTP request is simply termed as the information or data that is needed by Internet browsers for loading a
website. This is simply known as HTTP Request.

There is some common information that is generally present in all HTTP requests. These are mentioned
below.

 HTTP Version

 URL

 HTTP Method

 HTTP Request Headers

 HTTP Body
HTTP Request Headers

HTTP Request Headers generally store information in the form of key-value and must be present in each
HTTP Request. The use of this Request Header is to provide core information about the client’s information,
etc.

HTTP Request Body

HTTP Request Body simply contains the information that has to be transferred. HTTP Request has the
information or data to be sent to these browsers.

HTTP Method

HTTP Methods are simply HTTP Verb. In spite of being present so many HTTP Methods, the most
common HTTP Methods are HTTP GET and HTTP POST. These two are generally used in HTTP cases. In
HTTP GET, the information is received in the form of a website.

What is HTTP Response?

HTTP Response is simply the answer to what a Server gets when the request is raised. There are various
things contained in HTTP Response, some of them are listed below.

 HTTP Status Code

 HTTP Headers

 HTTP Body

HTTP Response

HTTP Response Headers

HTTP Response headers are simply like an HTTP Request where it has that work to send some important
files and data to the HTTP Response Body.

HTTP Response Body

HTTP Responses are the responses that are received successfully upon the request. Generally, it comes
under the requests generated by the web. In most cases, the request is to transfer the HTML data into a
webpage.

What is an HTTP Status Code?

HTTP Status Codes are the 3-digit codes that tell the message or simply tell us about the HTTP Request
whether it has been completed or not. There are simply 5 types of status codes.

 Informational

 Successful

 Re-directional

 Client-Error
  Server-Error

History of HTTP

Tim Berners Lee and his team at CERN get credit for inventing original HTTP and associated technologies.

 HTTP version 0.9: This was the first version of HTTP which was introduced in 1991.

 HTTP version 1.0: In 1996, RFC 1945 (Request For Comments) was introduced in HTTP version
1.0.

 HTTP version 1.1: In January 1997, RFC 2068 was introduced in HTTP version 1.1. Improvements
and updates to the HTTP version 1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999.

 HTTP version 2.0: The HTTP version 2.0 specification was published as RFC 7540 on May 14,
2015.

 HTTP version 3.0: HTTP version 3.0 is based on the previous RFC draft. It is renamed as Hyper-
Text Transfer Protocol QUIC which is a transport layer network protocol developed by Google.

Characteristics of HTTP

HTTP is IP based communication protocol that is used to deliver data from server to client or vice-versa.

 The server processes a request, which is raised by the client, and also server and client know each
other only during the current bid and response period.

 Any type of content can be exchanged as long as the server and client are compatible with it.

 Once data is exchanged, servers and clients are no longer connected.

 It is a request and response protocol based on client and server requirements.

 It is a connection-less protocol because after the connection is closed, the server does not remember
anything about the client and the client does not remember anything about the server.

 It is a stateless protocol because both client and server do not expect anything from each other but
they are still able to communicate.

Cookies in HTTP

An HTTP cookie (web cookie, browser cookie) is a little piece of data that a server transmits to a user’s web
browser. When making subsequent queries, the browser may keep the cookie and transmit it back to the
same server. An HTTP cookie is typically used, for example, to maintain a user’s login state, and to
determine whether two requests originate from the same browser. For the stateless HTTP protocol, it retains
stateful information.

HTTP status code

Three-digit codes known as HTTP status codes are most frequently used to show if an HTTP request has
been fulfilled successfully. The five blocks below represent the breakdown of status codes:

 1x Informative

 2xx Achievement
  3xx Reorientation

 4xx Client Mistake

 5xx Error on the Server

Different numbers between 00 and 99 are denoted by the “xx”. Status codes that begin with “2” denote a
successful outcome. For instance, the most typical answers sent after a client requests a webpage have a
status code of “200 OK,” which denotes that the request was successfully fulfilled.

Can DDoS attacks be launched over HTTP?

Remember that because HTTP is a “stateless” protocol, every command executed over it operates
independently of every other operation. Each HTTP request opened and terminated a TCP connection
according to the original specification. Multiple HTTP requests can now flow over a persistent TCP
connection in HTTP 1.1 and later versions of the protocol, which improves resource use. Large-scale HTTP
requests are regarded as application layer or layer 7 attacks in the context of DoS or DDoS attacks, and they
can be used to mount an attack on a target device.

Advantages of HTTP

 Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of fewer simultaneous connections.

 Since there are few TCP connections hence network congestion is less.

 Since handshaking is done at the initial connection stage, then latency is reduced because there is no
further need for handshaking for subsequent requests.

 The error can be reported without closing the connection.

 HTTP allows HTTP pipe-lining of requests or responses.

Disadvantages of HTTP

 HTTP requires high power to establish communication and transfer data.

 HTTP is less secure because it does not use any encryption method like HTTPS and uses TLS to
encrypt regular HTTP requests and responses.

 HTTP is not optimized for cellular phones and it is too gabby.

 HTTP does not offer a genuine exchange of data because it is less secure.

 The client does not close the connection until it receives complete data from the server; hence, the
server needs to wait for data completion and cannot be available for other clients during this time.

Conclusion

In summary, HTTP stands for “Hypertext Transfer Protocol” and is essential for web communication. It
enables your browser to request and receive information from websites, making online browsing possible.
HTTP is the basic method used by web browsers and servers to communicate and share information on the
internet, making it possible for us to browse and interact with websites.

HTTP Architecture
The HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) architecture follows a client-server model, where clients
(such as web browsers) communicate with web servers to exchange data. It operates over the TCP/IP
protocol and follows a request-response model.

1. Components of HTTP Architecture

a) Client (User Agent)

 The client is usually a web browser, mobile app, or any software that sends HTTP requests to a
server.
 Examples: Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Postman, cURL.

b) Web Server

 A web server hosts websites, applications, and APIs, handling requests from clients and sending
back responses.
 Examples: Apache, Nginx, Microsoft IIS.

c) Proxy Servers (Optional)

 Forward Proxy: Sits between the client and the server to filter requests, provide caching, or enforce
security policies.
 Reverse Proxy: Sits in front of the server to balance load, improve performance, and enhance
security (e.g., Cloudflare, Nginx).

d) Application Server (Optional)

 Processes business logic and interacts with databases before responding to clients.
 Examples: Node.js, Django, Ruby on Rails.

e) Database Server (Optional)

 Stores and retrieves data needed for dynamic web applications.

 Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB.

2. HTTP Request-Response Cycle

The HTTP architecture follows a request-response model:

1. Client sends a request

o Example: A browser requests a webpage (GET /index.html).
2. DNS Resolution (if needed)
o The domain name (e.g., example.com) is converted into an IP address.
3. TCP Connection Establishment
o The client and server establish a TCP connection (port 80 for HTTP, 443 for HTTPS).
4. Server Processes the Request
o The server retrieves the requested resource or interacts with a database.
5. Server Sends a Response
o The server responds with:
 Status Code (e.g., 200 OK, 404 Not Found)
 Headers (Metadata like content type)
  Body (HTML, JSON, etc.)
6. Client Renders the Response
o If it's an HTML page, the browser renders it.
o If it's an API response (JSON), a frontend app processes it.

3. HTTP Methods

HTTP defines different request methods, each serving a specific purpose.

Method Purpose
GET Retrieve data (e.g., a webpage)
POST Send data (e.g., form submission)
PUT Update existing data
DELETE Remove data
PATCH Partially update data
HEAD Retrieve headers without the body
OPTIONS Check allowed methods on a resource

4. HTTP Status Codes

Servers respond with status codes indicating success, failure, or redirection.

Category Status Codes Meaning

1xx 100-199 Informational (Request received)
2xx 200-299 Success (Request succeeded)
3xx 300-399 Redirection (Resource moved)
4xx 400-499 Client errors (Bad request, not found)
5xx 500-599 Server errors (Server failure)

5. HTTP vs HTTPS

Feature HTTP HTTPS

Security Unencrypted Encrypted using SSL/TLS
Port 80 443
Data Protection Vulnerable to attacks Secure against eavesdropping

6. Key Features of HTTP

✅ Stateless: Each request is independent; no built-in memory between requests.

✅ Text-Based: Uses human-readable text for requests and responses.
✅ Flexible: Supports various content types (HTML, JSON, XML, images, etc.).
✅ Extensible: Supports headers for extra functionality (e.g., authentication, caching).

World Wide Web (WWW)

World Wide Web (WWW) - Overview

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked documents and resources, accessed via the
internet using web browsers. It was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and revolutionized how people
access and share information.

1. How the WWW Works

1. User Requests a Website

o The user enters a URL (e.g., https://www.example.com) in a browser.
2. DNS Resolves the Domain
o The Domain Name System (DNS) translates the domain (e.g., example.com) into an IP
address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
3. HTTP(S) Request Sent to the Web Server
o The browser sends an HTTP or HTTPS request to the web server hosting the website.
4. Web Server Responds
o The server processes the request and responds with an HTML page, images, JavaScript,
CSS, etc.
5. Browser Renders the Page
o The browser interprets the received data and displays the webpage to the user.

2. Key Components of the WWW

Component Description
Web Browser Software to access websites (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Edge)
Web Server Hosts websites and serves content (e.g., Apache, Nginx)
HTTP/HTTPS Protocols for communication between browsers and servers
HTML Language for structuring webpages
URLs Addresses used to locate resources on the web
DNS Translates domain names into IP addresses
Search Engines Help users find web pages (e.g., Google, Bing)

3. Difference Between WWW and the Internet

Feature WWW Internet

Definition A collection of web pages and resources A global network connecting computers
Main Protocol HTTP/HTTPS TCP/IP
Access Method Web browsers Various applications (email, FTP, gaming, etc.)

4. Evolution of the WWW

 Web 1.0 (1990s): Static pages, minimal interaction.

 Web 2.0 (2000s - Now): Dynamic content, social media, user-generated content.
 Web 3.0 (Future): AI-driven, decentralized web (blockchain, semantic web).
WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web. The WWW was started by CERN
in 1989. WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing different
information shared via local servers(or computers).

Web pages are linked together using hyperlinks which are HTML-formatted and, also referred to as
hypertext, these are the fundamental units of the Internet and are accessed through Hypertext Transfer
Protocol(HTTP). Such digital connections, or links, allow users to easily access desired information by
connecting relevant pieces of information. The benefit of hypertext is it allows you to pick a word or phrase
from the text and click on other sites that have more information about it. This data may be presented in text,
picture, audio, or video formats on the internet.

History of the WWW

It is a project created, by Tim Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at CERN. It is
an organization, named the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further
development of the web. This organization is directed by Tim Berner’s Lee, aka the father of the web.
CERN, where Tim Berners worked, is a community of more than 1700 researchers from more than 100
countries. These researchers spend a little time on CERN and the rest of the time they work at their colleges
and national research facilities in their home country, so there was a requirement for solid communication so
that they can exchange data.

System Architecture

From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of documents or web pages.
Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the world. The pages can be retrieved and viewed
by using browsers of which internet explorer, Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome, etc are the popular ones.
The browser fetches the page requested interprets the text and formatting commands on it, and displays the
page, properly formatted, on the screen.

The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure below. Here the browser is displaying a web
page on the client machine. When the user clicks on a line of text that is linked to a page on the abd.com
server, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a message to the abd.com server asking it for the page.

Here the browser displays a web page on the client machine when the user clicks on a line of text that is
linked to a page on abd.com, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a message to the abd.com server
asking for the page.
Working of WWW

A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs which display text,
data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be
accessed using software interfaces provided by Web browsers. Initially, Web browsers were used only for
surfing the Web but now they have become more universal.

The below diagram indicates how the Web operates just like client-server architecture of the internet. When
users request web pages or other information, then the web browser of your system request to the server for
the information and then the web server provide requested services to web browser back and finally the
requested service is utilized by the user who made the request.

World Wide Web

Web browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and
much more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google Chrome.

Features of WWW

 WWW is open source.

 It is a distributed system spread across various websites.

 It is a Hypertext Information System.

 It is Cross-Platform.

 Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services.

 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.

Components of the Web

There are 3 components of the web:

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL): URL serves as a system for resources on the web.
  Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP specifies communication of browser and server.

 Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): HTML defines the structure, organisation and content of
a web page.

Difference Between WWW and Internet

WWW Internet
It is originated in 1989. It is originated in 1960.
WWW is an interconnected network of websites and documents Internet is used to connect a computer
that can be accessed via the Internet. with other computer .
WWW used protocols such as HTTP Internet used protocols such as TCP/IP
It is based on software. It is based on hardware.
There is a entire infrastructure in
It is a service contained inside an infrastructure.
internet.

Web Browser Evolution and the Growth of the World Wide Web

In the early 1990s, Tim Berners-Lee and his team created a basic text web browser. It was the release of the
more user-friendly Mosaic browser in 1993 that really sparked widespread interest in the World Wide Web
(WWW). Mosaic had a clickable interface similar to what people were already familiar with on personal
computers, which made it easier for everyone to use the internet.

Mosaic was developed by Marc Andreessen and others in the United States. They later made Netscape
Navigator, which became the most popular browser in 1994. Microsoft’s Internet Explorer took over in 1995
and held the top spot for many years. Mozilla Firefox came out in 2004, followed by Google Chrome in
2008, both challenging IE’s dominance. In 2015, Microsoft replaced Internet Explorer with Microsoft Edge.

Challenges of the World Wide Web

 Privacy Concerns: Personal data is often collected and misused.

 Security Risks: Vulnerable to hacking, phishing, and malware.

 Digital Divide: Unequal access to the internet globally.

 Misinformation: Spread of fake news and unreliable content.

 Cyberbullying: Online harassment and abuse.

 Addiction: Overuse of the web leading to reduced productivity.

 Dependence: Heavy reliance on the web for daily activities.

 Copyright Issues: Unauthorized sharing of copyrighted material.

 Environmental Impact: High energy consumption of servers and data centers.

 Complexity of Regulation: Difficult to enforce laws across countries.

Difference Between Internet and WWW

Last Updated : 20 Aug, 2024

 



In day-to-day life, we often interchangeably use the web and the internet. Most of the people around us don’t
understand that the web and the internet are two different things. Whenever we say we are searching for
something on the internet then we are not actually searching on the internet. At that time we are searching on
the Web(WWW) with the help of the Internet. So in this article, we understand the Internet, the
web(WWW), and the difference between these two.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a globally connected network system facilitating worldwide communication and access to
data resources through a huge collection of personal, public, business, academic, and government networks.
it’s governed by agencies just like the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA) that establish
universal protocols.

What is WWW?

World Wide Web (WWW), by the name Web, is the leading information retrieval service of the web (the
worldwide computer network). Online gives users access to a huge array of documents that are connected to
every other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links—i.e., hyperlinks, electronic connections that link
related pieces of data so as to permit a user quick access to them. Hypertext allows the user to pick a word or
phrase from text and thereby access other documents that contain additional information concerning that
word or phrase.

Difference Between the Internet and WWW

INTERNET WWW
Internet is a global network of networks. WWW stands for World wide Web.
Internet is a means of connecting a computer to any World Wide Web which is a collection of
other computer anywhere in the world. information which is accessed via the Internet.
Internet is infrastructure. WWW is service on top of that infrastructure.
Web can be viewed as collection of books on that
Internet can be viewed as a big book-store.
store.
At some advanced level, to understand we can think At some advanced level, to understand we can think
of the Internet as hardware. of the WWW as software.
WWW is more software-oriented as compared to the
Internet is primarily hardware-based.
Internet.
English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the
It is originated sometimes in late 1960s.
World Wide Web in 1989.
Internet is superset of WWW. WWW is a subset of the Internet.
The first version of the Internet was known as
In the beginning WWW was known as NSFNET.
ARPANET.
Internet uses IP address. WWW uses HTTP.

Conclusion

Hence, WWW and the internet are both important for today’s world. The Internet is the global network that
works as an infrastructure on which WWW works. Web(WWW) can’t be accessed without the internet. So
both are different from each other but they are also interrelated with each other. Understanding this
difference is very important in this rapidly changing digital world.
Difference between Unicast, Broadcast and
Multicast in Computer Network
The cast term here signifies some data(stream of packets) is being transmitted to the recipient(s) from the
client(s) side over the communication channel that helps them to communicate. Let’s see some of the “cast”
concepts that are prevailing in the computer networks field.

What is Unicast?
This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of a single sender and a single
recipient. So, in short, you can term it a one-to-one transmission. For example, if a device having IP address
10.1.2.0 in a network wants to send the traffic stream(data packets) to the device with IP address 20.12.4.2
in the other network, then unicast comes into the picture. This is the most common form of data transfer
over networks.

What is Broadcast?
Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types:

Limited Broadcasting: Suppose you have to send a stream of packets to all the devices over the network
that your reside, this broadcasting comes in handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all
the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called Limited Broadcast Address in the destination address of the
datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to all the recipients from a single client
(sender) over the network.
Direct Broadcasting: This is useful when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to all the
devices over the other network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the destination
address to 1, referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information transfer.

This mode is mainly utilized by television networks for video and audio distribution. One important protocol
of this class in Computer Networks is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) which is used for resolving an IP
address into a physical address which is necessary for underlying communication.

What is Multicast?
In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer traffic. In this method
traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all). Multicast lets
servers direct single copies of data streams that are then simulated and routed to hosts that request it. IP
multicast requires the support of some other protocols like IGMP (Internet Group Management
Protocol), Multicast routing for its work. Also in Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for multicast
groups.

Mechanisms of Network Addressing: How It Works

The Role of Routers and Switches in Network Addressing

Routers and switches form the backbone of network addressing. They direct data packets based on
destination addresses, acting as the ‘traffic controllers’ of the digital world. A router is responsible for
forwarding data packets between networks, while a switch connects devices within a network. They ensure
that data packets reach their designated destinations swiftly and accurately.

Router vs Switch
A router's main objective is to establish a connection between various networks in a simultaneous manner.
Also, it works on the network layer. A switch's main objective is to establish a simultaneous connection
among various devices. It basically functions on the data link layer.

Address Resolution: Converting Logical Addresses to Physical Addresses

Address resolution is a vital process in network addressing. It involves converting logical addresses, such as
IP addresses, to physical addresses like MAC addresses. This essential conversion allows IP addresses to
help route data packets over large networks like the internet, while MAC addresses deliver data packets
within a local network. Address resolution ensures data packets reach the correct device within a specific
network.

when a local device wants to send information to a device at an IP address on another network, it first sends
its packets to the gateway, which then forwards the data on to its destination outside of the local network.
MAC Address vs IP Address
Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a device on the internet. NIC Card’s
Manufacturer provides the MAC Address, on the other hand, the Internet Service Provider provides the IP
Address.

What is MAC Address?

MAC, or Media Access Control is a unique identifier that is carved on the computer hardware to connect the
system to other systems of the network address. It uses the NIC – Network Interface Controller to create a
communication segment to establish communication between systems on the same network. MAC Address
works for a local network.

What is a MAC Address?

MAC address stands for "Media Access Control Address." It is used to ensure the physical address of the
device and is a permanent address that does not change with place and time. It is provided by NIC (Network
Interface Controller/Card) card manufacturers. MAC address comes along with hardware from the device
manufacturer. It is a six-byte hexadecimal format address. That is a 48-Bit address. (1 Byte = 8 bits).

Example: 00:FF:FF:AB:BB:AA

The two LAN technologies - Token rings and Ethernet both use MAC addresses as physical addresses.
MAC addresses can also be used to track devices.
What is an IP Address?
IP Address, or Internet Protocol Address is a unique identifier for every system that has internet
connectivity. The major difference between MAC address & IP address is that IP address has a global
network, whereas MAC address operates only in a local network. It is used to establish a communication
between networks & systems of several networks. The IP address can be used for broadcasting or
multicasting.

What is an IP address?
IP address stands for Internet Protocol (IP) address. It is used to identify the network device connected to
the internet. The Internet sends information using an IP address. IP address is assigned by the Internet
Service Provider(ISP) or Network Administrator, which varies based on time and location.

IP addresses are of two types:

 IPv4 Address: It is a 4-byte address or 32-bit address

 IPv6 Address: It is a 16-byte address or 128-bit address in hexadecimal notation. Example:
FFFF:F200:3204:0B00

Why do we need a MAC address?

 The work of the link layer is to carry datagrams between the host and routers.
 When the Network adapter wants to send frames to a receiver adapter the sending adapter puts the
receiver adapter's MAC address into the frame and sends it into the LAN.
 The receiver adapter checks the receiver MAC address in the frame, and if it matches, it extracts the
datagram in it and passes the datagram up the protocol stack; otherwise, it just discards the frame.
 So, we need a MAC address to communicate at the link-layer level, which establishes the basic difference
between a MAC address and an IP address.

How to find the MAC address of your laptop/PC?

 Open "Command prompt" by typing "cmd" in search beside the windows icon.
 Then type this command "ipconfig/all" in the command prompt and press the "Enter" button.
 After that, the MAC address of your network connection will be displayed with the name Physical Address.

Why do we need an IP address?

 We need the IP address to uniquely identify the device or domains which is connected to the internet or
available on the internet.
 Many websites, domains, and electronic devices will have their IP addresses. When we send a request or
query through the search engine it will give the results as URLs but when we click URLs it will be directed to a
specific IP address.
 By this, we can uniquely access content over the internet.
 DNS (Domain Name System) will convert the domain names to IP addresses and direct your device in a
specific direction.

How to find the IP address of your laptop/PC?

 Open "Command prompt" by typing "cmd" in search beside the windows icon.
 Then type this command "ipconfig" in the command prompt and press the "Enter" button.
 After that, all your IPv4 and IPv6 addresses of your network connection will be displayed.
What Is a Subnet Mask?
A subnet mask is a 32-bit address that segregates/separates/isolates an IP address into network bits
that identify the network and host bits that identify the host device operating on that network. It
encapsulates a range of IP addresses that a subnet can use, wherein the subnet refers to a smaller
network within a more extensive network.

Technically, subnet masks are used internally within a network. Routing devices or switches rely on subnet
masks to route data packets to suitable destinations. Data packets that traverse over the internet or any
network do not indicate the subnet mask but only reveal the IP address of the destination. However, the
routers match this destination IP address to the data packet’s subnet mask to deliver the data packet to the
right place.

Let’s consider an analogy to understand the subnet mask concept better. Suppose a user named ‘Davis’
writes a letter to his friend ‘Tom’. Davis sends this letter to Tom’s office rather than his residence. Tom’s
place of employment is a large enterprise with several co-located departments. The administrative team at
Tom’s office sorts the mail by department rather than by employee name to ensure that the
correspondence isn’t missed and there is no confusion in the process. On receiving Davis’s letter, the
team identifies that Tom works in the HR department. As a result, the letter is sent to the HR department
instead of Tom. The HR department then hands the letter over to Tom.

In the above example, Tom represents an IP address while the HR department serves as a subnet mask.
Since the letter was matched to Tom’s department in the initial stages, Davis’s mail was quickly sorted
into a group of potential recipients. Without this initial sorting, the administrative team would have to
invest more time in looking for the exact location of Tom’s desk, which could have been in any corner of
the enterprise building.

Now let’s look at a real-world example. A data packet addresses the IP address 192.0.4.16, representing a
class C network. Since the IP address is split into a network and host address, here, in a class C network, the
network portion is represented by ‘192.0.4’. Thus, the network routers deliver the data packet to the network
identified by 192.0.4.

Upon arrival at the right network, the router within the network then consults the routing table for
forwarding the packet further. It uses the data packet’s subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 to perform some
binary mathematics, observe the device address ‘16’, and thereby calculate which subnet it should forward
the data packet to. On determining the target subnet, it sends the packet to the router that is responsible for
delivering data packets within that very subnet. As such, the data packet is eventually delivered to the
destination IP address of 192.0.4.16.

Let’s look at an example: The IP address for a device may be:

192.168.123.132
11000000. 10101000. 01111011. 10000100

The subnet mask for the IP network above:

255.255.255.0
11111111. 11111111. 11111111. 00000000

A subnet mask of 255.255. 255.0 means that the device can connect with any other device on the network with an
IP address containing identical values in the first three octets. 255 means that the value of that octet must be
identical. 0 means that the value can be anything.

255.255. 255.0 means that u have 24 bits enabled for network part and last 8 bits for hosts. It means, if I use the ip
address 192.168.1.x. This x can be from 0-255. So u can have total 256 hosts in this network.

The table below reveals the different network classes, their subnet masks, address range, and the number of
hosts that they support.

Class A, Class B, and Class C Ranges

Introduction of Gateways
A gateway is a network node or device that connects two networks that use different transmission protocols.
Gateways play an important role in connecting two networks. It works as the entry-exit point for a
network because all traffic that passes across the networks must pass through the gateway.

What are Gateways?

A network gateway is a device that connects different networks by translating messages from one protocol
into another protocol. The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic.
Gateways are also known as protocol converters because they play an important role in converting
protocols supported by traffic on different networks. As a result, it allows smooth communication between
two networks.
Features of Gateways
Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of these are:

 A gateway is situated at a network’s edge and manages all data that enters or exits the network.

 A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer of the OSI model.

 Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and divided it into small packets
of data rather than sending it bulk.

 Gateways provide security within the network.

Types of Gateways
These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of direction of flow of data:

 Unidirectional Gateways: Data can only pass through unidirectional gateways in one direction. The
destination node replicates changes made in the source node but not the other way around. They are tools
for archiving the packets.

 Bidirectional Gateway: Data can pass through bidirectional gateways in both directions. They are tools for
synchronisation.

These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of functionality of Gateway:

 Network Gateway: The most popular kind of gateway, known as a network gateway acts as an interface
between two disparate networks using distinct protocols. Anytime the word gateway is used without a type
designation, it refers to a network gateway.

 Cloud Storage Gateway: A network node or server known as a cloud storage gateway translates storage
requests made using various cloud storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or
REST (Representational State Transfer). Data communication is made simpler since it makes it easier to
integrate private cloud storage into applications without first moving those programmes to a public cloud.

 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O): Project HERMES and Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations
(GENSO) are two well-known I2O gateways that connect devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft
orbiting the earth.

 IoT Gateway: Before delivering sensor data to the cloud network, IoT gateways assimilate it from Internet of
Things (IoT) devices in the field and translate between sensor protocols. They link user applications, cloud
networks, and IoT devices.

 VoIP Trunk Gateway: By using a VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network, it makes data transmission
between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices like landlines and fax machines easier.

How Gateways Work?

 The gateway receives data from devices within the network.

 After receiving data the gateway intercept and analyse data packets, which include analyzing packet header,
payload etc.
  Based on the analysis of the data packets, the gateway calculate an appropriate destination address of data
packet. It then routes the data packets to their destination address.

 In some cases, the gateway might also want to transform the format of the obtained data to ensure
compatibility at the receiver.

 Once the data packets have been analyzed, routed, and converted, then the gateway sends the last packets
to their respective destinations address inside the network.

Gateways

Advantages of Gateways
 Gateway helps in connecting two different network.

 Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to the network.

 Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.

 Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external attacks.

Limitations of Gateways
There are few limitations of gateways as well. Here are some of them:

 Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the network requires time.

 Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other networks.

 The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost efficient.

 Gateway is hard to manage

Conclusion
In conclusion gateway plays an important role for managing the flow od data between various networking
device. It works as the entry-exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the networks must
pass through the gateway.
TCP/IP Addressing scheme Extra
TCP/IP includes an Internet addressing scheme that allows users and applications to identify a specific network or
host with which to communicate. An Internet address works like a postal address, allowing data to be routed to the
chosen destination.

IP addresses: Networks and hosts

An IP address is a 32-bit number. It uniquely identifies a host (computer or other device, such as a printer or
router) on a TCP/IP network.

IP addresses are normally expressed in dotted-decimal format, with four numbers separated by periods, such
as 192.168.123.132. To understand how subnet masks are used to distinguish between hosts, networks, and
subnetworks, examine an IP address in binary notation.

For example, the dotted-decimal IP address 192.168.123.132 is (in binary notation) the 32-bit number
11000000101010000111101110000100. This number may be hard to make sense of, so divide it into four
parts of eight binary digits.

These 8-bit sections are known as octets. The example IP address, then, becomes
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100. This number only makes a little more sense, so for most uses,
convert the binary address into dotted-decimal format (192.168.123.132). The decimal numbers separated by
periods are the octets converted from binary to decimal notation.

For a TCP/IP wide area network (WAN) to work efficiently as a collection of networks, the routers that pass
packets of data between networks don't know the exact location of a host for which a packet of information
is destined. Routers only know what network the host is a member of and use information stored in their
route table to determine how to get the packet to the destination host's network. After the packet is delivered
to the destination's network, the packet is delivered to the appropriate host.

For this process to work, an IP address has two parts. The first part of an IP address is used as a network
address, the last part as a host address. If you take the example 192.168.123.132 and divide it into these two
parts, you get 192.168.123. Network .132 Host or 192.168.123.0 - network address. 0.0.0.132 - host address.

Subnet mask
The second item, which is required for TCP/IP to work, is the subnet mask. The subnet mask is used by the
TCP/IP protocol to determine whether a host is on the local subnet or on a remote network.

In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are used as the network and host addresses aren't fixed. Unless
you have more information, the network and host addresses above can't be determined. This information is
supplied in another 32-bit number called a subnet mask. The subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 in this example.
It isn't obvious what this number means unless you know 255 in binary notation equals 11111111. So, the
subnet mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.

Lining up the IP address and the subnet mask together, the network, and host portions of the address can be
separated:

11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100 - IP address (192.168.123.132)

11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 - Subnet mask (255.255.255.0)

The first 24 bits (the number of ones in the subnet mask) are identified as the network address. The last 8
bits (the number of remaining zeros in the subnet mask) are identified as the host address. It gives you the
following addresses:

11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000 - Network address (192.168.123.0)

00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100 - Host address (000.000.000.132)

So now you know, for this example using a 255.255.255.0 subnet mask, that the network ID is
192.168.123.0, and the host address is 0.0.0.132. When a packet arrives on the 192.168.123.0 subnet (from
the local subnet or a remote network), and it has a destination address of 192.168.123.132, your computer
will receive it from the network and process it.

Almost all decimal subnet masks convert to binary numbers that are all ones on the left and all zeros on the
right. Some other common subnet masks are:

Decimal Binary

255.255.255.192 1111111.11111111.1111111.11000000

255.255.255.224 1111111.11111111.1111111.11100000

Internet RFC 1878 (available from InterNIC-Public Information Regarding Internet Domain Name
Registration Services) describes the valid subnets and subnet masks that can be used on TCP/IP networks.

Network classes
Internet addresses are allocated by the InterNIC, the organization that administers the Internet. These IP
addresses are divided into classes. The most common of them are classes A, B, and C. Classes D and E
exist, but aren't used by end users. Each of the address classes has a different default subnet mask. You can
identify the class of an IP address by looking at its first octet. Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C
Internet addresses, each with an example address:

 Class A networks use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 and have 0-127 as their first octet. The
address 10.52.36.11 is a class A address. Its first octet is 10, which is between 1 and 126, inclusive.
 Class B networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their first octet. The
address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address. Its first octet is 172, which is between 128 and 191,
inclusive.
  Class C networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as their first octet.
The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address. Its first octet is 192, which is between 192 and
223, inclusive.

In some scenarios, the default subnet mask values don't fit the organization needs for one of the following
reasons:

 The physical topology of the network

 The numbers of networks (or hosts) don't fit within the default subnet mask restrictions.

The next section explains how networks can be divided using subnet masks.

OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a
software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

Application related – Transportation related

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer
just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
 the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

simplex, half duplex, and full duplex

The main differences between simplex, half duplex, and full duplex are the direction and timing
of data transmission:
Simplex: Data is sent in one direction only.
Half duplex: Data is sent in one direction at a time, alternating between devices.
Full duplex: Data is sent in both directions simultaneously.

Here's some more information about each mode:

Simplex
In simplex mode, one device is the sender and the other is the receiver. The sender cannot receive data, and the
receiver cannot send data.

Half duplex
In half duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data, but only one at a time.

Full duplex
In full duplex mode, both devices can send and receive data simultaneously. Full duplex is the fastest method of
device communication.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:
8. Physical Layer
9. Data-Link Layer
10. Network Layer
11. Transport Layer
12. Session Layer
13. Presentation Layer
14. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode
between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer

 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
  Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It
ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed
the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment
for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then
the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given
time.
3) Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions,
the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols
are IP and Ipv6.
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Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out
of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into packets. This
process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Packetizing involves encapsulating data into packets suitable for transmission .
4) Transport Layer
  The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
 Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
 User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer
but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer,
it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number
that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
  Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at
the destination without any error.
5) Session Layer

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes
or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place
again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
6) Presentation Layer

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
  This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
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 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.
OSI Layer Model for concentrators
Hubs/Repeaters are found in the Physical Layer

Switches /Bridges/Wireless Access Point are found in the Data Link Layer

Multilayer Switch are found in both the Data Link Layer and Network Layer

Routers are found in the Network Layer

Gateway are found in All 7 of the OSI Layers

B router are found in both the Data Link and Network Layer

OSI OSI 7 Layer Model

7. Application Layer - DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP4, NNTP, POP3,
SMTP, SNMP, SSH, TELNET and NTPmore)
6. Presentation layer – SSL, WEP, WPA, Kerberos,
5. Session layer – Logical Ports 21, 22, 23, 80 etc…
4. Transport - TCP, SPX and UDPmore)
3. Network - IPv4, IPV6, IPX, OSPF, ICMP, IGMP and ARPMP
2. Data Link- 802.11 (WLAN), Wi-Fi, WiMAX, ATM, Ethernet, Token Ring,
Frame Relay, PPTP, L2TP and ISDN-ore)
1. Physical-Hubs, Repeaters, Cables, Optical Fiber, SONET/SDN,Coaxial
Cable, Twisted Pair Cable and Connectors (more)
Network Protocols

Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data between various devices in
the network. These protocols define guidelines and conventions for transmitting and receiving data, ensuring
efficient and reliable data communication.

Types of Network Protocols and Their Uses

Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data between various
devices in the network. These protocols define guidelines and conventions for transmitting and receiving
data, ensuring efficient and reliable data communication.
What is Network Protocol?
A network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices in the
network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated, and when it is being
communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with each other, irrespective of internal and
structural differences.

How do Network Protocols Work?

It is essential to understand how devices communicate over a network by recognizing network protocols.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the most widely used model, illustrates how computer systems
interact with one another over a network. The communication mechanism between two network devices is
shown by seven different layers in the OSI model. Every layer in the OSI model works based on different
network protocols. At every layer, one or more protocols are there for network communication. To enable
network-to-network connections, the Internet Protocol (IP), for instance, routes data by controlling
information like the source and destination addresses of data packets. It is known as a network layer
protocol.

Types of Network Protocols

In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model. The OSI model has a
total of seven layers. Secured connections, network management, and network communication are the three
main tasks that the network protocol performs. The purpose of protocols is to link different devices.

The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:

 Network Communication

 Network Management

 Network Security

1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are really important for the functioning of a network. They are so crucial that it is
not possible to have computer networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and formats
through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error detection,
synchronization, and authentication. Below mentioned are some network communication protocol:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext(text which contains links to other texts)
between two or more systems. HTTP works on a client-server model, most of the data sharing over the web
is done through using HTTP.

Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-oriented

protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any data. It is used for
communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP, streaming media, etc.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable message service. It adds no flow control,
reliability, or error-recovery functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not required. It is used
when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and broadcasting connections, etc.

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets pass through the router in an independent system one or
more networks run by a single organization and connect to different networks. It connects the endpoints of a
LAN with other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different LANs to one another.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical addresses to the physical addresses acknowledged in a local
network. For mapping and maintaining a correlation between these logical and physical addresses a table
known as ARP cache is used.

Internet Protocol(IP)

It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet. It is used for addressing
and routing data packets so that they can reach their destination.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP)

it’s a protocol for network management and it’s used for the method of automating the process of
configuring devices on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and various other
configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with other IP networks. it also
allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any other protocol based on TCP or UDP.

2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in monitoring, maintaining,
and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in communicating these requirements across
the network to ensure stable communication. Network management protocols can also be used for
troubleshooting connections between a host and a client.

Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)

It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward operational information and error
messages. ICMP is used for reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes, and timeouts.

Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)

It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main components
in the SNMP protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device. SNMP agent has the local
knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a form that is compatible with the SNMP
manager. The manager presents data acquired from SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network
glitches, and network performance, and troubleshooting them.

Gopher

It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description for easy
management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote computer in a stratified
manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or from a host computer, it allows users to
download files, programs, web pages, and other things that are available on other services.

Post Office Protocol(POP3)

It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email messages from a remote email server over a TCP/IP
connection. Email servers hosted by ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold and receive emails intended for
their users. Eventually, these users will use email client software to look at their mailbox on the remote
server and to download their emails. After the email client downloads the emails, they are generally deleted
from the servers.

Telnet

It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program and to use it i.e., it is designed
for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection between a host machine and a remote endpoint to
enable a remote session.

3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These protocols also determine how the network
secures data from any unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make sure that no
unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on
encryption to secure data.

Secure Socket Layer(SSL)

It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting sensitive data and securing internet connections.
SSL allows both server-to-server and client-to-server communication. All the data transferred through SSL
is encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)

It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol ensures secure communication between two computers
where one sends the request through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.

Transport Layer Security(TLS)

It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over the internet, its functionality is
encryption, checking the integrity of data i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and authentication.
It is generally used for encrypted communication between servers and web apps, like a web browser loading
a website, it can also be used for encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP.

Some Other Protocols

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

 ICMP protocol is used to retrieve message from the mail server. By using ICMP mail user can view and
manage mails on his system.

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

 SIP is used in video, voice, and messaging application. This protocol is used to initiating, Managing,
Terminating the session between two users while they are communicating.

Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP)

 This protocol is used to forward audio, video over IP network. This protocol is used with SIP protocol to send
audio, video at real-time.

Rout Access Protocol (RAP)

 RAP is used in network management. It helps to user for accessing the nearest router for communication.
RAP is less efficient as compared to SNMP.

Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP)

 It is used to implement VPN ( Virtual Private Network ). PPTP protocol append PPP frame in IP datagram for
transmission through IP based network.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

 TFTP is the simplified version of FTP. TFTP is also used to transfer file over internet
Resource Location Protocol (RLP)

 RLP is used to assign the resource such as server, printer, or other devices over the internet to the user. It is
used to locate the resource to the client for broadcast query.

Extra
Protocol being classified:

 SIP
 SSI
 DNS
 FTP
 Gopher
 MIME
 XDR
 HTTP
 NFS
 NTP
 SMPP
 SMTP
 SNMP
 Telnet
 DHCP
 Netconf
 IP
 IPv4
 ATM
 SDLC
 SCTP
 DCCP
 SPX
 SAP
 PPTP
 RTP
 IEEE 802.2
 LLC
 L2TP
 IEEE 802.3
 PDH
 SONET/SDH
 PON
 OTN
 DSL
 IEEE 802.3
 IPv6
 ARP
 ICMP
 IGMP
 IPX
 Frame Relay
 TCP
 UDP
  HDLC
 CSLIP
 SLIP
 IEEE 802.11
 IEEE 802.15
 IEEE 802.16
 Bluetooth
 RS-232
 RS-449
 TLS/SSL
 USB

Only short descriptions are provided here, you need to learn about each protocal your interested through
other resources out there.

SIP
The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is an Application layer protocol. SIP was designed to initiate
interactive sessions on an IP network. Programs that provide real-time communication between participants
can use SIP to setup modify, and terminate a connection between two or more computers, allowing them to
interact and exchange data.

SSI
The Simple Sensor Interface is an Application layer protocol. The SSI communications protocol is intented
to be used to transfer data between sensor unit(s) and a terminal. It can also be used for point-to-point
(UART) and networking (nanoIP) applications.

DNS
The Domain Name System is an Application layer protocol. DNS was designed for the Internet as a
hierarchical and distributed database system to resolve the Internet's IP addresses from their corresponding
domain names, and vice versa. DNS uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) on port 53 to serve DNS
queries. UDP is preferred because it is fast and has low overhead.

FTP
The File Transfer Protocol is an Application layer Protocol. It is a protocol used to transfer files between an
FTP host/server and an FTP client computer on the Internet. FTP uses port 20 for data transfer and port 21
for control transfer.

Gopher
The Gopher protocol is a communications protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving
documents in Internet Protocol networks. Gopher uses port 70.

MIME
The Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is an Presentation layer protocol. It allows the users to exchange
different kinds of data files on the Internet: audio, video, images, application programs as well. MIME
allows non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP.
XDR
External Data Representation (XDR) is a standard data serialization format, for uses such as computer
network protocols. It allows data to be transferred between different kinds of computer systems.

HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an Application layer protocol. HTTP is a TCP/IP based communication
protocol, that is used to deliver data (HTML files, image files, query results, etc.) on the World Wide Web.
The default port is TCP 80. HTTP3 uses QUIC, transport layer protocol on top of UDP.

NFS
The Network File Transfer is an Application layer protocol. This distributed file system protocol allows a
user on a client computer to access files over a network in the same way they would access a local storage
file.

NTP
The Network Time Protocol is an Application layer protocol. NTP is a networking protocol for clock
synchronization between computer systems over packet-switched, variable-latency data networks. NTP is
one of the oldest Internet protocols in use.

SMPP
The Short Message Peer to Peer is an Session layer protocol. It is a standard protocol designed to provide a
flexible data communication interface for the transfer of short message. SMPP uses port 2775

SNMP
The Simple Network Management Protocol is an application layer protocol. which uses UDP port number
161/162. SNMP is used to monitor the network, detect network faults and sometimes even used to configure
remote devices.

Telnet
Telnet is an application protocol. It is used on the Internet or local area network to provide a bidirectional
interactive text-oriented communication facility using a terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-
band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). It uses port 23.

DHCP
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is an application layer protoc0l. DHCP is a way of dynamically
and automatic assigning IP addresses to devices on a physical network. DHCP uses port 67.

Netconf
The Network Configuration Protocol is an application layer protocol. Netconf is a network management
protocol which, provides mechanisms to install, manipulate, and delete the configuration of network
devices. The NETCONF protocol uses an Extensible Markup Language (XML) based data encoding for the
configuration data as well as the protocol messages.

IP
The Internet Protocol is an Internet layer protocol. It is used for relaying datagrams across network
boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet. IP has the
task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on the IP addresses in the
packet headers.

IPv4
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core
protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet and other packet-switched networks.
IPv6, a successor protocol is ongoing deployment

ATM
The Asynchronous Transfer Mode operates on Data Link - Network layer. ATM is a communication
protocol which can be used to transfer data, videos and speech.

SDLC
SDLC is a transmission protocol developed by IBM in the 1970s as a replacement for its binary synchronous
(BSC) protocol. SDLC is equivalent to Data Link layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of
network communication.

SCTP
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol is a transport-layer protocol. The SCTP ensures reliable, in-
sequence transport of data. SCTP provides multihoming support where one or both endpoints of a
connection can consist of more than one IP address.

DCCP
The Datagram Congestion Control Protocol is a transport-layer protocol. DCCP is a message-oriented
transport layer protocol. DCCP implements reliable connection setup, teardown, Explicit Congestion
Notification (ECN), congestion control, and feature negotiation.

SPX
Then Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange is a transport-layer protocol. IPX and SPX
are networking protocols used initially on networks using the Novell NetWare operating systems, but
became widely used on networks deploying Microsoft Windows LANS, as they replaced NetWare LANS.

SAP
The Session Announcement Protocol is a Session layer protocols. It is a protocol used for advertising
multicast session information. SAP typically uses Session Description Protocol (SDP) as the format for
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) session descriptions.
PPTP
Then Point to Point Tunneling Protocol is a Session layer Protocol. PPTP is an obsolete method for
implementing virtual private networks. PPTP uses a TCP control channel and a Generic Routing
Encapsulation tunnel to encapsulate PPP packets.

RTP
The Real Time Transport Protocol is a Session layer Protocol: The Real-time Transport Protocol is a
network protocol used to deliver streaming audio and video media over the internet, thereby enabling the
Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP). RTP uses port 5004 for data transfer and 5005 for control transfer.

IEEE 802.2
IEEE 802 is a Data Link layer protocol. IEEE 802.2 is the original name of the ISO/IEC 8802-2 standard
which defines logical link control (LLC) as the upper portion of the data link layer of the OSI Model.

LLC
The Logical Link Control is a Data Link layer protocol. LLC data communication protocol layer is the upper
sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2) of the seven-layer OSI model. The LLC provides a single data link
control protocol for all IEEE, where as MAC layer where we have different protocol versions for different
LANs.

L2TP
The Layer 2 Tunnelling Protocol is a Data Link layer protocol. L2TP is a tunneling protocol used to support
virtual private networks (VPNs) or as part of the delivery of services by ISPs. L2TP creates a tunnel across
the Internet between an L2TP Access Concentrator (LAC) and an L2TP Network Server (LNS), enabling
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) link layer frames to be encapsulated and carried across the Internet.

IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3 is a set of standards and protocols that define Ethernet-based networks. IEEE 802.3 specifies the
physical layer and the channel-access portion of the Data Link layer, but does not define a logical link
control protocol. It is implemented in the hardware.

PDH
The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy is a Physical layer protocol. PDH was the standard originally for
telephone networks. PDH uses time division multiplexing. It was also designed to support digital voice
channels running at 64kbps.

SONET/SDH
The Synchronous Optical Networking/ Synchronous Digital Hierarchy is a Physical layer protocol.
SONET/SDH are standardized protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical
fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Standard developed by ANSI
and Exchange Carrier Standards Association (ECSA) SONET links can be used in place of dark fiber.

PON
The passive optical network is a Physical layer protocol. PON is a fiber-optic telecommunications
technology for delivering broadband network access to end-customers. Its architecture implements a point-
to-multipoint topology, in which a single optical fiber serves multiple endpoints by using unpowered
(passive) fiber optic splitters.

OTN
The Optical Transport Network is a Physical layer protocol: OTN is a set of Optical Network Elements
(ONE) connected by optical fiber links, able to provide functionality of transport, multiplexing, switching,
management, supervision and survivability of optical channels carrying client signals.

DSL
The Digital Subscriber Line is a Physical layer protocol. DSL is a way to transmit digital data over a
telephone line. Telephone lines only transmit a limited spectrum of signals (roughly 20 Hertz to 20,000
Hertz, for voice). This means that the other frequencies can be used to transmit data. The data is combined
or multiplexed onto the telephone line. At both ends, a device called a Splitter (or DSL filter) separates the
data part and the telephony part.

IPv6
The Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the
communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks and
routes traffic across the Internet. Internet Protocol version 6 uses 128-bit logical address.

ARP
The Address Resolution Protocol is a Data Link layer protocol: The purpose of Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) is to map an IPv4 address (32 bit Logical Address) to the physical address (48 bit MAC Address).
Network Applications at the Application Layer use IPv4 Address to communicate with another device. But
at the Data link layer, the addressing is MAC address (48 bit Physical Address), and this address is burned
into the network card permanently.

ICMP
The Internet Control Message Protocol is a Network layer protocol. ICMP is a supporting protocol in the
Internet protocol suite. It is used by network devices, including routers, to send error messages and
operational information indicating success or failure when communicating with another IP address.

IGMP
The Internet Group Management Protocol is a Network layer protocol. IGMP is a communications protocol
used by hosts and adjacent routers on IPv4 networks to establish multicast group memberships. IGMP is an
integral part of IP multicast and allows the network to directmulticast transmissions only to hosts that have
requested them.

IPX
The Internet Packet Exchange is a Network layer protocol: IPX is a networking protocol that conducts the
activities and affairs of the end-to-end process of timely, managed and secured data.
Frame Relay
The Frame Relay operates at two layers: Physical layer and Data Link layer. Frame Relay is a packet-
switching technology offered as a telecommunications service by long-distance carriers, used primarily for
WAN links. Frame relay can be used to encapsulate local area network (LAN) traffic such as Ethernet
frames for transmission over digital data transmission lines for wide area networks (WANs) and can connect
multiple LANs to form a multipoint WAN.

TCP
The Transmission Control Protocol is a Transport layer protocol. TCP is a standard that defines how to
establish and maintain a network conversation through which application programs can exchange data. TCP
works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers send packets of data to each other.

UDP
The User Datagram Protocol is a Transport layer protocol. UDP is a communication protocol used across the
Internet for especially time-sensitive transmissions such as video playback or DNS lookups. It speeds up
communications by not formally establishing a connection before data is transferred. This allows data to be
transferred very quickly, but it can also cause packets to become lost in transit.

HDLC
The High-Level Data Link Control is a Data Link layer protocol: High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a
group of communication protocols of the data link layer for transmitting data between network points or
nodes. Since it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network
to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both
point - to - point and multipoint communications.

CSLIP
The Compressed Serial Line Internet Protocol is a Data Link layer protocol. CSLIP reduces the size of the
headers in IP packets by eliminating a certain amount of redundancy. This improves interactive
performance.

SLIP
The Serial Line Internet Protocol is a Data Link layer protocol. SLIP is a simple protocol that works with
TCP/IP for communication over serial ports and routers. They provide communications between machines
that were previously configured for direct communication with each other.

IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN) protocols, and specifies the set of
media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local area
network (WLAN) Wi-Fi computer communication in various frequencies.

IEEE 802.15
IEEE 802.15 is a working group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) IEEE 802
standards committee which specifies wireless personal area network (WPAN) standards.
IEEE 802.16
IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards written by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE Standards Board established a working group in 1999 to develop standards for
broadband for wireless metropolitan area networks. The Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 local area
network and metropolitan area network standards committee.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a Physical layer protocol. Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile devices over short distances using UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific
and medical radio bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz, and building personal area networks (PANs). It
was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.

RS-232
RS232 is a standard protocol used for serial communication, it is used for connecting computer and its
peripheral devices to allow serial data exchange between them. As it obtains the voltage for the path used for
the data exchange between the devices.

RS-449
The RS-449 serial data standard was intended as an enhancement to RS232. It was aimed at providing serial
data transmission at speeds up to 2 Mbps whilst still being able to maintain compatibility with RS232. One
of the ways in which the RS449 data communications standard is able to send at high speeds without
straynoise causing interference is to use a differential form of signalling.

TLS/SSL
The Transport Layer Security and Secure Sockets Layer are Presentation layer protocol. For TCP/IP model,
they operates between the Transport layer and the Application Layer. It just wraps Application Layer traffic
in encryption during transport. SSL and TLS are cryptographic protocols that authenticate data transfer
between servers, systems, applications and users. For example, a cryptographic protocol encrypts the data
that is exchanged between a web server and a user. SSL was a first of its kind of cryptographic protocol.
TLS on the other hand, was a recent upgraded version of SSL.

USB
The Universal Serial Bus is a Physical layer protocol. USB is a plug and play interface that allows a
computer to communicate with peripheral and other devices. USB-connected devices cover a broad range;
anything from keyboards and mice, to music players and flash drives. USB may also be used to send power
to certain devices, such as powering smartphones and tablets and charging their batteries.

Network management
Network management is the sum total of applications, tools and processes used to provision, operate, maintain,
administer and secure network infrastructure. The overarching role of network management is ensuring network
resources are made available to users efficiently, effectively and quickly.

Why do we need network management?

A network brings together dozens, hundreds or thousands of interacting components. These components will
sometimes malfunction, be misconfigured, get over utilized or just fail. Enterprise network management
software must respond to these challenges by employing the best suited tools required to manage, monitor and
control the network.

The importance of Network Management

The principal objective of network management is to ensure your network infrastructure runs efficiently and
smoothly. By doing so, it achieves the following objectives.

Minimizes costly network disruptions

Network disruptions are expensive. Depending on the size of the organization or nature of the affected
processes, businesses could experience losses in the thousands or millions of dollars after just an hour of
downtime.

This loss is more than just the direct financial impact of network disruption – it’s also the cost of a damaged
reputation that makes customers reconsider their long-term relationship. Slow, unresponsive networks are
frustrating to both customers and employees. They make it more difficult for staff to respond to customer
requests and concerns. Customers who experience network challenges too often will consider jumping ship.

Improved productivity

By studying and monitoring every aspect of the network, network management does multiple jobs
simultaneously. With that, IT staff are freed from repetitive everyday routines and can focus on the more
strategic aspects of their job.

Improved network security

An effective network management program can identify and respond to cyber threats before they spread and
impact user experience. Network management ensures best practice standards and compliance with
regulatory requirements. Better network security enhances network privacy and gives users reassurance that
they can use their devices freely.

Holistic view of network performance

Effective network management provides a comprehensive view of your infrastructure’s performance. You
are in a better position to identify, analyze and fix issues fast.

How does Network Management work?

Network management encompasses the following aspects.

Network administration

Network administration covers the addition and inventorying of network resources such as servers, routers,
switches, hubs, cables and computers. It also involves setting up the network software, operating systems
and management tools used to run the entire network. Administration covers software updates and
performance monitoring too.

Network operations

Network operations ensures the network works as expected. That includes monitoring network activity,
identifying problems and remediating issues. Identifying and addressing problems should preferably occur
proactively and not reactively even though both are components of network operation.

Network maintenance
Network maintenance addresses fixes, upgrades and repairs to network resources including switches,
routers, transmission cables, servers and workstations. It consists of remedial and proactive activities
handled by network administrators such as replacing switches and routers, updating access controls and
improving device configurations. When a new patch is available, it is applied as soon as possible.

Network provisioning

Network provisioning is the configuration of network resources in order to support a wide range of services
such as voice functions or additional users. It involves allocating and configuring resources in line with
organization’s required services or needs. The network administrator deploys resources to meet the evolving
needs of the organization.

For instance, a project may have many project team members logging in remotely thus increasing the need
for broadband. If a team requires file transfer or additional storage, the onus falls on the network
administrator to avail these.

Network security

Network security is the detection and prevention of network security breaches. That involves maintaining
activity logs on routers and switches. If a violation is detected, the logs and other network management
resources should provide a means of identifying the offender. There should be a process of alerting and
escalating suspicious activity.

The network security role covers the installation and maintenance of network protection software, tracking
endpoint devices, monitoring network behavior and identifying unusual IP addresses.

Network automation

Automating the network is an important capability built to reduce cost and improve responsiveness to
known issues. As an example, rather than using manual effort to update hundreds or thousands of network
device configurations, network automation software can deploy changes and report on configuration status
automatically.

What are the challenges of Network Management?

Complexity

Network infrastructure is complex, even in small and medium-sized businesses. The number and diversity of
network devices have made oversight more difficult. Thousands of devices, operating systems and
applications have to work together. The struggle to maintain control over this sprawling ecosystem has been
compounded by the adoption of cloud computing and new networking technologies such as software-
defined networking (SDN).

Security threats

The number, variety and sophistication of network security threats has grown rapidly. As a network grows,
new vulnerabilities and potential points of failure are introduced.

User expectations

Users have grown accustomed to fast speeds. Advances in hardware and network bandwidth, even at home,
means that users expect consistently high network performance and availability. There’s low tolerance for
downtime.

Cost
The management of network infrastructure comes at a cost. While automated tools have made the process
easier than ever, there’s both the cost of technology and cost of labor to contend with. This cost can be
compounded when multiple instances of network management software need to be deployed due to lack of
scalability to support modern enterprise networks with 10s of thousands of devices.

Network performance monitoring

Networks are the backbone of every business. Even in small or enterprise-level businesses, the loss of
productivity during a network outage can result in hefty damages. Network monitoring solutions help you
anticipate potential outages and address network problems proactively. This helps in maintaining a
congestion-free network that keeps your business up and running. This can be achieved with the help of
network monitoring tools. A network monitor software helps you to monitor the performance of any IP-
based device and helps businesses remotely visualize their system performance and monitor network
services, bandwidth utilization, switches, routers, and traffic flow. Once you have identified network issues,
network optimization helps in improving the performance to a desired level.

Important factors of a network performance monitor

 Availability
 CPU and memory
 Traffic
 Errors and discards
 WAN performance

Availability

When every minute of downtime can cost you thousands, if not millions of dollars,
maintaining continuous uptime at all times is an absolute necessity. OpManager's network software
pings all monitored devices at defined monitoring intervals, and if any device is down or if the response time
or packet loss is huge, it notifies you immediately by sending an email or text message.

CPU and memory

High CPU or memory usage on a physical server, virtual machine, or network device can considerably affect
the performance of devices and, in turn, affect the end user. OpManager, the advanced server performance
monitoring software lets you monitor devices using SNMP, WMI, Telnet, SSH, and VMware native
API. With OpManager, you can detect and troubleshoot CPU and server bottlenecks before they affect the
end user. You can also monitor important CPU metrics like utilization, speed, idle time, and processor time,
and set independent alarm thresholds for each monitored device.

Traffic

Slow network traffic is a concern for every organization. Networks might face bandwidth-related issues due
to a specific application, system, or WLAN. Network performance monitoring tools allow you to identify
bandwidth hogs so you can optimize your network traffic before it affects your network. Take control of
your network performance by monitoring, analyzing network bandwidth and traffic patterns with SNM-
based OpManager's traffic monitoring. You can view interface traffic, filter traffic by time interval, and view
the last polled traffic value. OpManager's NetFlow module provides in-depth visibility on network traffic
patterns and bandwidth utilization with support for NetFlow, sFlow, jFlow, IPFIX, and more.
Errors and discards

All network devices discard packets depending on their memory, which can affect performance. These
problems are common with routers and switches. Since discards increase application latency, excessive
discards could indicate that there's a problem with the switch or the device interacting with the switch.
Insufficient bandwidth allocation is also a concern for packet drops. Network errors are diverse; they could
be caused by a DNS issue, TCP timeout, or a lack of response from the server. A switch or router can
misinterpret a packet due to a protocol mismatch when updating device configurations. OpManager helps
you monitor and reduce packet loss due to errors and discards.

WAN performance

Monitoring WAN links for availability and reliability is essential, as organizations require continuous
uptime, fast response times, and minimal transmission errors. Monitoring WAN links with a network
performance monitor tool for availability and reliability becomes essential. Most organizations use WAN
links to interconnect local area networks (LANs) from different locations around the world. With
OpManager, you can monitor your WAN connections, check WAN latency, and identify network traffic
across your WAN network. This helps you allocate resources accordingly to prioritize traffic and react
proactively to any issues affecting your WAN network. OpManager primarily relies on Cisco's IP-SLA for
monitoring the WAN, while OpManager’s WAN Round Trip Time monitor provides details on WAN link
latency, bandwidth utilization, the round trip time, and other performance factors for you to completely
diagnose and resolve poor WAN performance before you can think of upgrading WAN bandwidth capacity.

Common Network Issues: Identifying and Resolving Connectivity

Problems
1. Slow Internet Speed

One of the most common network issues faced by users is slow internet speed. This can significantly impact
productivity and user experience. Here are a few reasons why your internet connection might be running
slower than expected:

 Bandwidth congestion: When multiple devices are connected to the same network and trying to access the
internet simultaneously, congestion can occur, leading to reduced speed. Consider limiting the number of
devices connected to your network or upgrading your internet plan to increase bandwidth.
 Interference: Electronic devices such as cordless phones, baby monitors, and microwave ovens can interfere
with your Wi-Fi signal, causing slower speeds. Keep these devices away from your router or consider using a
different Wi-Fi channel to minimize interference.
 Outdated hardware: Older routers or network adapters might not support the latest Wi-Fi standards,
leading to slower speeds. Upgrading your equipment can help improve network performance.

2. Intermittent Connectivity

Have you ever experienced a network connection that keeps dropping, making it difficult to stay connected
for important tasks? Intermittent connectivity issues can be frustrating but can often be resolved by
following these steps:

 Restart your devices: Sometimes, a simple restart of your router, modem, or device can resolve connectivity
issues.
 Check for firmware updates: Outdated firmware on your router can cause intermittent connectivity
problems. Visit the manufacturer's website to check for updates and install them if available.
  Scan for malware: Malware or viruses on your device can interfere with network connections. Run a
thorough malware scan using a reputable antivirus program.

3. Limited Wi-Fi Range

If you find that your network connection weakens or disappears when moving away from your router, you
might be experiencing limited Wi-Fi range. Here are some steps you can take to increase your Wi-Fi
coverage:

 Reposition your router: Place your router in a central location away from obstructions, such as walls or
furniture, to improve Wi-Fi signal coverage.
 Use Wi-Fi extenders or mesh systems: Wi-Fi extenders or mesh systems can help amplify your Wi-Fi signal,
extending its range to cover larger areas of your home or office.
 Upgrade to a dual-band or tri-band router: Dual-band or tri-band routers offer multiple Wi-Fi channels,
providing better coverage and reducing interference.

4. DNS Resolution Issues

DNS resolution issues can lead to difficulties in accessing websites. When you encounter DNS problems, try
the following troubleshooting steps:

 Flush your DNS cache: Clearing your DNS cache can resolve issues related to DNS resolution. Open the
command prompt on your computer and enter the command "ipconfig /flushdns".
 Check DNS server settings: Ensure that your device is using the correct DNS server settings. You can try using
popular public DNS servers like Google DNS (8.8.8.8, 8.8.4.4) or Cloudflare DNS (1.1.1.1, 1.0.0.1).
 Restart your router: Sometimes, DNS resolution problems can be resolved by restarting your router.

5. Network Security Concerns

Security should be a top priority when it comes to your network. Here are some important steps to ensure
your network is secure:

 Change default passwords: Most network devices come with default login credentials. Change these
passwords to unique and secure ones to prevent unauthorized access.
 Enable network encryption: Protect your network traffic by enabling encryption protocols such as WPA2 or
WPA3.
 Regularly update firmware: Keep your network devices up to date with the latest firmware releases, as they
often include security patches.

Troubleshooting Network Performance: Analyzing Bandwidth and

Latency
What is Bandwidth?

Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network connection within
a given time frame. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps). In simple terms, bandwidth determines
how quickly data can be transmitted between devices connected to a network, such as downloading files,
streaming videos, or making VoIP calls.

Understanding your network's bandwidth is crucial for ensuring optimal performance. Insufficient
bandwidth can result in slow internet speeds, buffering videos, or dropped connections. To analyze your
network's bandwidth, consider the following:
  Check your internet service provider (ISP) plan: Each internet plan has a specific bandwidth allocation.
Confirm whether your current plan meets your requirements or if an upgrade is necessary.
 Use online speed tests: Websites like Speedtest.net or Fast.com can measure your internet speed and
provide insights into your download and upload speeds. These tests will help you determine if you are
receiving the promised bandwidth from your ISP.
 Monitor network usage: Deploy network monitoring tools that provide real-time insights into bandwidth
utilization. By identifying peak usage times and resource-hungry applications, you can optimize your network
performance.

Understanding Latency

Latency, also known as network delay, refers to the time it takes for data to travel from the source to its
destination. It is typically measured in milliseconds (ms). While bandwidth determines the capacity of your
network, latency affects the responsiveness and speed of data transmission. High latency can cause delays in
loading web pages, lag in online gaming, and disruptions in video conferencing.

Analyzing network latency is crucial to identify potential bottlenecks and address them effectively. Consider
the following steps to analyze and troubleshoot latency issues:

 Ping tests: Use command-line tools like 'ping' to measure the round-trip time (RTT) between your device and
a remote server. This helps assess the latency between source and destination.
 Trace route: Command-line tools like 'traceroute' or 'tracert' can help determine the path that network
packets take to reach their destination. Identifying the hops with high latency can help pinpoint potential
issues.
 Network monitoring tools: Deploy network monitoring tools that provide latency metrics for your network
devices. These tools enable you to view historical latency trends, helping you spot patterns and resolve
persistent latency issues.

How to run a ping network test

The steps to executing a ping network test depend upon the operating system you’re using.

For Windows 10, go to Search in the taskbar and:

1. Type “cmd” to bring up the Command Prompt.

2. Open the Command Prompt.
3. Type “ping” in the black box and hit the space bar.
4. Type the IP address you’d like to ping (e.g., 192.XXX.X.X).
5. Review the ping results displayed.

e.g. ping 122.56.77.17

How to run a traceroute on Windows

Microsoft’s implementation of the traceroute tool is slightly different from what you’ll find on
Mac/Linux/Unix platforms. The most glaring difference is in the command itself: On Windows PCs, you’ll
use the “tracert” command instead of typing the whole word. Here’s a step-by-step guide:

 Open a command-line prompt. You can do this by typing “command” from the Start menu, or by pressing
the Windows Key+R and typing in “cmd”
 From the command-line prompt, type “tracert” followed by the hostname or IP address you’d like to trace
to. To see the path to varonis.com, for example, we’d type “tracert varonis.com”. The tool should resolve a
domain name to an IP address automatically.
  Wait a bit for the results. You should see the tool start to build results within a few seconds, but tracing the
full path can take longer.

Network Monitoring Tools: Selecting the Right Solution for Your

Needs
The Importance of Network Monitoring

Network monitoring allows businesses to proactively identify and address issues that can impact their
network's performance. By continuously monitoring network traffic, administrators can detect and
troubleshoot problems before they escalate, ensuring smooth operations and minimizing downtime.
Additionally, network monitoring tools provide crucial insights into network usage trends, helping
businesses optimize resource allocation and plan for future growth.

Factors to Consider

When choosing a network monitoring tool, it's important to consider your specific requirements and the
capabilities of the solution. Here are some key factors to keep in mind:

 Scalability: Ensure the tool can handle the size and complexity of your network. It should be able to monitor
multiple devices, servers, and network segments without compromising performance.
 Alerting and Notifications: Look for a tool that provides customizable alerts and notifications. This enables
timely responses to critical events such as network outages, abnormal traffic patterns, or security breaches.
 Ease of Use: The tool should have an intuitive interface and be easy to set up and configure. It should
provide clear visualizations and reports that are easy to understand, even for non-technical users.
 Monitoring Capabilities: Consider the types of monitoring the tool offers. It should support both active
monitoring (ping, HTTP requests) and passive monitoring (flow analysis, SNMP). Look for features like real-
time traffic analysis, bandwidth monitoring, and application performance monitoring.
 Integration: Check for integration capabilities with your existing IT infrastructure, such as ticketing systems,
help desk software, or other monitoring tools. Seamless integration can streamline workflows and enhance
overall efficiency.
 Security: Ensure that the tool has robust security features, such as encryption, role-based access control,
and multi-factor authentication. Network monitoring tools handle sensitive data, so security should be a top
priority.

Popular Network Monitoring Tools

Now that we understand the key factors to consider, let's take a look at some popular network monitoring
tools:

1. SolarWinds Network Performance Monitor

 Provides comprehensive network performance monitoring and alerting capabilities.

 Offers real-time visibility into network devices, bandwidth utilization, and traffic patterns.
 Includes features like network mapping, automated network discovery, and predictive alerting.
 Integrates with popular IT management tools, such as ServiceNow and Microsoft Active Directory.

2. PRTG Network Monitor

 Offers a user-friendly interface with customizable dashboards and detailed reports.

 Supports a wide range of monitoring protocols, including SNMP, WMI, and NetFlow.
 Provides real-time bandwidth monitoring, application monitoring, and database monitoring.
 Allows for easy scalability, making it suitable for small to large-scale networks.
3. Nagios Core

 An open-source solution with a large and active community.

 Supports both active and passive monitoring with a flexible plugin architecture.
 Offers customizable alerting, reporting, and graphing capabilities.
 Allows users to monitor network services, hosts, and network devices.

Choosing the right network monitoring tool is crucial for maintaining a stable and secure network
environment. Consider factors such as scalability, alerting capabilities, ease of use, monitoring features,
integration, and security. Additionally, evaluate popular tools like SolarWinds Network Performance
Monitor, PRTG Network Monitor, and Nagios Core to find the best fit for your organization.

Remember, investing in a reliable network monitoring solution is a long-term strategy that pays off in
improved network performance, reduced downtime, and enhanced security. So, take the time to evaluate
your options and select a tool that aligns with your specific needs and goals.

What is Network Troubleshooting?

Network troubleshooting refers to the combined measures and processes used to identify, locate, and
resolve network problems located anywhere along a network, from WAN to LAN.

It's a logical process that network engineers or IT professionals use to resolve network problems and
improve network performance. Essentially, to fix, you need to troubleshoot them. When troubleshooting a
network, many IT pros will use a network troubleshooting software or various network troubleshooting tools
to help with the process.

Network troubleshooting involves a range of techniques and tools, such as network performance monitoring,
network analyzers, ping and traceroute utilities, and network performance testing tools. Network
administrators and technicians use these tools to identify and diagnose network problems, which may
include slow network speeds, connectivity problems, security breaches, and other issues.

Some common steps involved in network troubleshooting include identifying the problem, testing the
network, isolating the issue, analyzing network logs, and implementing a solution. This process may require
collaboration among network administrators, IT support staff, and other stakeholders to identify and resolve
the issue.

Effective network troubleshooting is critical for maintaining reliable network performance, minimizing
downtime, and ensuring the security of network resources.
What is Network Troubleshooting Used For?

Network troubleshooting is used to identify and resolve issues that can occur in a computer network.
Computer networks are complex systems that are made up of various components, such as routers, switches,
servers, and cables, that work together to transmit data and enable communication between devices.

When problems occur in a network, they can manifest in many ways, such as slow connection speeds,
dropped connections, or complete network outages. Network troubleshooting is used to pinpoint the root
cause of these issues, so that they can be resolved quickly and efficiently.

Network troubleshooting involves a range of techniques, including analyzing network traffic, checking
hardware and software configurations, and testing network connections. By using these techniques, network
administrators can diagnose and resolve issues, ensuring that their networks run smoothly and efficiently.

In summary, network troubleshooting is used to:

 Troubleshoot network issues when a user complains of network or application slowdown or poor
connectivity.
 Provides end-to-end visibility to pinpoint the source of a network problem.
 Offers in-depth data about the location, and cause of a problem to quickly provide solutions.

What is Network Performance Troubleshooting?

Now let's take it a bit further with the notion of Network Performance.
Network performance troubleshooting is the process of identifying and resolving issues that affect the
speed, reliability, and overall performance of a computer network.

Networks can encompass a wide range of technologies, including local area networks (LANs), wide area
networks (WANs), wireless networks, and the Internet. When network performance degrades or problems
arise, it can lead to slow data transfer, dropped connections, application errors, and other operational
disruptions. Troubleshooting network performance involves identifying the root causes of these issues and
implementing solutions to address them.

Contrary to more general network troubleshooting, Network Performance Troubleshooting focuses on more
specific network issues affecting network performance. We'll go over the differences in more detail later on
in the article.

5 Common Network Troubleshooting Use Cases: What is Network

Troubleshooting Used For

Network troubleshooting isn't just for fixing boring old technical glitches. It's also a superhero that saves the
day in many different situations! From battling slow speeds to fighting off security breaches, network
troubleshooting is the hero we need, but not always the one we deserve. So put on your cape, grab your
utility belt, and let's dive into some exciting network troubleshooting use cases!

There are many different use cases for network troubleshooting. Here are a few examples:

1. Slow network speeds: When users experience slow network speeds, network troubleshooting can be used
to identify the cause of the problem. This could be due to a congested network, a faulty switch, or a
misconfigured router.
2. Dropped connections: When users experience dropped connections, network troubleshooting can help
identify the source of the problem. This could be due to interference from other wireless devices, a faulty
network card, or a weak signal.
3. Network outages: When the network goes down, network troubleshooting can be used to quickly identify
and resolve the issue. This could be due to a power outage, a failed piece of network hardware, or a
configuration issue.
4. Security breaches: Network troubleshooting can also be used to identify and address security breaches. For
example, if a user's computer is infected with malware, network troubleshooting can be used to isolate the
infected device and prevent the malware from spreading to other devices on the network.
5. Software compatibility issues: When new software is installed on a network, compatibility issues can arise.
Network troubleshooting can help identify and resolve these issues, ensuring that the new software works as
intended and does not cause any network problems.

What is Network Troubleshooting?

Network troubleshooting refers to the combined measures and processes used to identify, locate, and
resolve network problems located anywhere along a network, from WAN to LAN.
It's a logical process that network engineers or IT professionals use to resolve network problems and
improve network performance. Essentially, to fix, you need to troubleshoot them. When troubleshooting a
network, many IT pros will use a network troubleshooting software or various network troubleshooting tools
to help with the process.

Network troubleshooting involves a range of techniques and tools, such as network performance monitoring,
network analyzers, ping and traceroute utilities, and network performance testing tools. Network
administrators and technicians use these tools to identify and diagnose network problems, which may
include slow network speeds, connectivity problems, security breaches, and other issues.

Some common steps involved in network troubleshooting include identifying the problem, testing the
network, isolating the issue, analyzing network logs, and implementing a solution. This process may require
collaboration among network administrators, IT support staff, and other stakeholders to identify and resolve
the issue.

Effective network troubleshooting is critical for maintaining reliable network performance, minimizing
downtime, and ensuring the security of network resources.

What is Network Troubleshooting Used For?

Network troubleshooting is used to identify and resolve issues that can occur in a computer network.
Computer networks are complex systems that are made up of various components, such as routers, switches,
servers, and cables, that work together to transmit data and enable communication between devices.

When problems occur in a network, they can manifest in many ways, such as slow connection speeds,
dropped connections, or complete network outages. Network troubleshooting is used to pinpoint the root
cause of these issues, so that they can be resolved quickly and efficiently.
Network troubleshooting involves a range of techniques, including analyzing network traffic, checking
hardware and software configurations, and testing network connections. By using these techniques, network
administrators can diagnose and resolve issues, ensuring that their networks run smoothly and efficiently.

In summary, network troubleshooting is used to:

 Troubleshoot network issues when a user complains of network or application slowdown or poor
connectivity.
 Provides end-to-end visibility to pinpoint the source of a network problem.
 Offers in-depth data about the location, and cause of a problem to quickly provide solutions.

What is Network Performance Troubleshooting?

Now let's take it a bit further with the notion of Network Performance.

Network performance troubleshooting is the process of identifying and resolving issues that affect the
speed, reliability, and overall performance of a computer network.

Networks can encompass a wide range of technologies, including local area networks (LANs), wide area
networks (WANs), wireless networks, and the Internet. When network performance degrades or problems
arise, it can lead to slow data transfer, dropped connections, application errors, and other operational
disruptions. Troubleshooting network performance involves identifying the root causes of these issues and
implementing solutions to address them.

Contrary to more general network troubleshooting, Network Performance Troubleshooting focuses on more
specific network issues affecting network performance. We'll go over the differences in more detail later on
in the article.

5 Common Network Troubleshooting Use Cases: What is Network

Troubleshooting Used For

Network troubleshooting isn't just for fixing boring old technical glitches. It's also a superhero that saves the
day in many different situations! From battling slow speeds to fighting off security breaches, network
troubleshooting is the hero we need, but not always the one we deserve. So put on your cape, grab your
utility belt, and let's dive into some exciting network troubleshooting use cases!

There are many different use cases for network troubleshooting. Here are a few examples:

1. Slow network speeds: When users experience slow network speeds, network troubleshooting can be used
to identify the cause of the problem. This could be due to a congested network, a faulty switch, or a
misconfigured router.
2. Dropped connections: When users experience dropped connections, network troubleshooting can help
identify the source of the problem. This could be due to interference from other wireless devices, a faulty
network card, or a weak signal.
 3. Network outages: When the network goes down, network troubleshooting can be used to quickly identify
and resolve the issue. This could be due to a power outage, a failed piece of network hardware, or a
configuration issue.
4. Security breaches: Network troubleshooting can also be used to identify and address security breaches. For
example, if a user's computer is infected with malware, network troubleshooting can be used to isolate the
infected device and prevent the malware from spreading to other devices on the network.
5. Software compatibility issues: When new software is installed on a network, compatibility issues can arise.
Network troubleshooting can help identify and resolve these issues, ensuring that the new software works as
intended and does not cause any network problems.

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Obkio!

Ready to troubleshoot your network like a pro? Say goodbye to the guessing game and hello to Obkio! With
Obkio, you'll be able to easily identify and resolve network issues, without any hocus-pocus or magic spells.
So, what are you waiting for?

Let's get your network back in tip-top shape and unleash your inner network wizard!

Get started with Obkio for free!

 14-day free trial of all premium features

 Deploy in just 10 minutes
 Monitor performance in all key network locations
 Measure real-time network metrics
 Identify and troubleshoot live network problems

No need to worry, we're not the type to pester you like those Sellsy salespeople. We're confident that our
product is top-notch, but we also know that not everyone is looking for the same thing. If it's not a match
made in heaven, don't sweat it - we want you to find the perfect fit, even if it's not with us

What is Proactive Network Troubleshooting?

Troubleshooting network problems so they stop affecting your users is important. But, what's even better is
if you identify and troubleshoot network problems before they affect your end-users. This is what we call
proactive network troubleshooting.

Proactive network troubleshooting involves anticipating and addressing potential network issues before they
occur, rather than simply reacting to problems as they arise and is done through Continuous Network
Monitoring. It typically involves using network monitoring tools to identify performance trends and
potential issues, as well as regularly auditing network configurations and implementing best practices to
prevent problems.

It is important because it gives you a real-time overview of your network at all times, so you can identify,
locate, and solve issues before they start affecting end-users, therefore before you receive complaints, and
(for Service Providers especially) before it hurts your reputation. By taking a proactive approach to network
troubleshooting, organizations can reduce downtime, improve network performance, and enhance overall
network security.

Why Network Troubleshooting?

With the increasing complexity of technology and network infrastructures, Network Monitoring has become
an integral part of any business that needs to ensure the proper functioning of their network, devices, and
applications.

Network Monitoring is generally used for three main purposes:

 Network Assessments
 Network Troubleshooting (like we talk about in this article)
 Continuous Network Monitoring.

The longer network problems exist in your network infrastructure, the more disruptions they cause. Which is
why network troubleshooting is essential.

Because so many businesses depend on high-functioning networks that can span across several locations,
poor network performance can impact a number of different factors like:

1.IT Services:

 Poor VoIP Quality causing choppy voice and video calls

 Slow Internet performance
 Slowdown of critical applications such as ERP (Netsuite, Microsoft Dynamics or SAP performance issues),
CRM (Microsoft Dynamics, Salesforce performance), finance, and ecommerce systems.
 VPN connection problems
 Failing Citrix, RDP or Terminal Server sessions
 Low transfer rate

2. Business Affairs:

 Wasted time and productivity

 Overworked IT infrastructure
 Increased operating costs
 Damaged reputation
  Loss of income

3. Clients and Users:

 Lost productivity
 Frustration and disengagement
 Increased user complaints

 Bad customer experience

Becuase of that, network troubleshooting is important for several reasons:

 Downtime Reduction: Network downtime can be costly for businesses, causing lost productivity, revenue,
and customer dissatisfaction. By quickly identifying and resolving network issues, network troubleshooting
can help minimize downtime and keep business operations running smoothly.
 Increased Network Performance: Network troubleshooting helps identify performance bottlenecks,
configuration issues, and security vulnerabilities, which can all negatively impact network performance. By
addressing these issues, network troubleshooting can help improve network performance and enhance the
end-user experience.
 Cost Savings: Network troubleshooting can help businesses save money by preventing unnecessary
hardware replacement, reducing the need for expensive IT support, and optimizing network resources. By
identifying and resolving issues quickly, network troubleshooting can help minimize the costs associated
with network downtime.
 Enhanced Security: Network troubleshooting can help identify security vulnerabilities, such as malware
infections, unauthorized access, or weak passwords. By addressing these issues, network troubleshooting
can help prevent security breaches and protect sensitive data from unauthorized access.
 Improved User Experience: Network troubleshooting can help ensure that end-users have a positive
experience when using network resources. By optimizing network performance, resolving connectivity
issues, and preventing downtime, network troubleshooting can help enhance the end-user experience and
increase user satisfaction.

In summary, network troubleshooting is important for maintaining a reliable, secure, and high-performing
network, which is critical for businesses of all sizes and industries.

A Guide to Different Types of Network Monitoring Tools: Unveiling the Superheroes

Discover the superheroes of network monitoring tools in our comprehensive guide. Unveil the perfect type
of network monitoring tool for your business.

Learn more

Network Troubleshooting Steps: Steps to Troubleshoot a Network

Network troubleshooting is a vital process for maintaining optimal network performance, regardless of the
type of network or the specific issues you may be encountering. Whether you're dealing with slow network
speeds, intermittent connectivity, high latency, or other network-related problems, a systematic approach can
help you identify and resolve these issues efficiently.

Step 1. Set Up End-to-End Network Monitoring

Obkio's network monitoring tool offers valuable insights into your network's performance, allowing you to
diagnose problems and implement effective solutions. Below are general steps to guide you through the
process of troubleshooting a network using Obkio's tool, adaptable to various network types and issues.

Make sure you have Obkio's network monitoring agents installed at key locations within your network.
These agents will continuously exchange synthetic traffic to collect data and provide insights into your
network's performance.

Get started with Obkio for free!

 14-day free trial of all premium features

 Deploy in just 10 minutes
  Monitor performance in all key network locations
 Measure real-time network metrics
 Identify and troubleshoot live network problems

Step 2. Identify the Network Issue

Before diving into the intricacies of network troubleshooting, it's essential to establish a clear understanding
of the problem you're trying to solve. Network issues can manifest in various ways, and each type of
problem requires a unique approach to resolution. Here are some common network issues you might
encounter:

 Slow Network Performance: Users are experiencing slow network performance including sluggish Internet
speeds or delays when accessing resources. This could be caused by congestion, bandwidth limitations, or
other factors.
 Intermittent Connectivity: Users are reporting sporadic disconnections from the network. Intermittent
network connectivity could stem from issues with wireless connectivity, signal interference, or unstable
network components.
 High Latency: Applications and services are responding slowly due to delays in data transmission. High
latency can result from network congestion, long distances, or inefficient routing.
 Packet Loss: Data packets are being dropped, leading to retransmissions and degraded performance. Packet
loss can be caused by network congestion, hardware faults, or poor quality connections.
 Jitter: Variability in latency, also called jitter, is causing inconsistent performance, particularly in real-time
applications like VoIP or video conferencing.
 Network Outages: Network outages cause the entire network or specific segments to be inaccessible,
causing a complete loss of connectivity. Less severe, but temporary loss of connectivity, like network
brownouts or Internet brownouts, can also cause an impact.
 Security Breaches: Suspicious activity or unauthorized access is detected, indicating a potential security
breach.

Taking the time to accurately define the problem you're facing is a foundational step in successful network
troubleshooting. By clearly understanding the symptoms and challenges at hand, you'll set the stage for a
more focused and effective investigation, ultimately leading to quicker resolution and improved network
performance.

Are you a network admin or IT pro looking to identify and troubleshoot network performance issues in your
business network, or a remote worker trying to solve network performance issues in your home network?
Whether you need to troubleshoot large networks or single-user workstations, Obkio's Network Monitoring
Tool has plans tailored for you. Find the right plan to help you detect and troubleshoot network issues with
ease.
Step 3. Access the Network Performance Dashboard

After you've identified the specific issue you're facing and gathered relevant information, the next step is to
log in to your Obkio account and access the dashboard. The dashboard serves as a centralized hub where
you can monitor and analyze various metrics related to your network's performance.

Here's what you can expect to find on the dashboard:

 Real-Time Metrics: The dashboard typically displays real-time data, allowing you to observe the current
state of your network. Network metrics such as latency, packet loss, throughput, and more are presented in
a format that's easy to understand.
 Historical Data: In addition to real-time metrics, the dashboard often provides historical data. This historical
perspective enables you to identify trends, patterns, and anomalies over time, helping you uncover recurring
issues or gradual changes in network behavior.
 Visualizations: Graphs, charts, and visual representations of data make it easier to comprehend complex
network information at a glance. Visualizations help you spot sudden spikes, drops, or irregularities in
network metrics.
 Alarms and Alerts: The dashboard may include an alerting system that notifies you when predefined
thresholds are exceeded. This allows you to respond promptly to abnormal network conditions and take
action before issues escalate.
 Network Segments: If you have multiple network segments or locations equipped with Obkio agents, the
dashboard might allow you to toggle between different segments for a comprehensive view of the entire
network.

Using the Dashboard for Troubleshooting:

  Spotting Abnormalities: Examine the real-time metrics to identify any current anomalies. Sudden increases
in latency, packet loss, or other metrics might correlate with reported issues.
 Comparing Historical Data: Look for patterns in historical data that coincide with the reported problems.
This can help you understand whether the issues are intermittent or consistent and if they occur during
specific times.
 Diagnosing Bottlenecks: Analyze throughput metrics to determine if network congestion is causing
slowdowns. Identify which links or segments are experiencing high network utilization.
 Validating Changes: If you've implemented changes to address network issues, monitor the dashboard to
ensure that those changes are having the desired effect on performance.
 Data-Driven Decision-Making: Base your troubleshooting decisions on concrete data from the dashboard.
Avoid making assumptions and instead rely on the information presented.

Step 4. Monitor Key Network Metrics

Checking key metrics is a fundamental step in troubleshooting a network using Obkio's network monitoring
tool. These metrics provide critical insights into various aspects of your network's performance, helping you
pinpoint issues and identify areas that require attention.

Here are some of the key network metrics you should be looking at:

 Latency: Latency refers to the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination. It
directly impacts how quickly data packets reach their intended recipients. High latency can lead to
delays in data transmission and affect the responsiveness of applications and services.
 Packet Loss: Packet loss occurs when data packets do not reach their destination. This can result in
data retransmissions, which slow down the network and degrade performance. Identifying and
addressing packet loss is crucial for maintaining data integrity and efficient network communication.
 Throughput: Throughput measures the amount of data that can be transmitted over the network in a
given period. It reflects the network's capacity to handle data. Monitoring throughput helps you
identify if the network is operating at its expected capacity. Low throughput could indicate
congestion or other limitations.
 Jitter: Jitter refers to the variability in the latency of data packets. Inconsistent latency can lead to
disruptions in real-time applications. Monitoring jitter is especially important for applications that
require consistent data delivery, such as voice and video conferencing.
 Round-Trip Time (RTT): RTT measures the time it takes for a data packet to travel from the source
to the destination and back. It provides insights into the time taken for data to make a round trip.
Elevated RTT values can indicate issues with network congestion, long distances, or inefficient
routing.
 Network Health Metrics: These metrics offer an overall assessment of the network's health and
performance. They might include indicators such as uptime percentage and overall network response
time. Network health metrics provide a high-level overview of how well the network is functioning
and whether it meets performance expectations.
I. Interpreting Metrics for Troubleshooting:

 Baseline Comparison: Compare current metrics with historical baseline data. Deviations from the baseline
can highlight abnormal behavior and indicate potential issues.
 Thresholds and Alarms: Obkio's monitoring tool might allow you to set thresholds for each metric. When a
threshold is breached, the tool can trigger alarms or alerts, notifying you of issues in real time.
 Correlation: Look for correlations between different metrics. For example, high latency might coincide with
high packet loss. Identifying these patterns can help you uncover underlying causes.
 Segment-Specific Analysis: If you're monitoring multiple network segments or locations, analyze metrics for
each segment individually. This can help you identify whether issues are localized or widespread.
 Investigate Spikes: Sudden spikes or drops in metrics can indicate transient network issues. Investigate the
timing and potential causes of these spikes to take appropriate action.

Checking key metrics through Obkio's network monitoring tool provides you with valuable insights into the
performance of your network. By understanding the nuances of latency, packet loss, throughput, jitter, RTT,
and other vital metrics, you can diagnose issues, make informed decisions, and implement targeted solutions
to optimize your network's performance, reliability, and overall user experience.

Step 5. Identify Network Segments

In larger and more complex networks, it's common to have multiple segments, links, or locations
interconnected to form a cohesive network infrastructure. When troubleshooting issues, it's important to
identify which specific network segment is experiencing problems. This isolation process allows you to
focus your efforts on the area where the issue originates and streamline your troubleshooting approach.

Steps to Identify and Isolate Network Segments:

1. Network Topology Understanding: Gain a thorough understanding of your network's topology, including
routers, switches, access points, and the connections between them. This understanding will help you
visualize how data flows within your network.
2. Review Monitoring Data: Use Obkio's network monitoring tool to review the metrics and data for each
network segment. Identify any irregularities or performance issues that stand out.
3. Compare Metrics: Compare the performance metrics of different network segments. Look for significant
discrepancies in latency, packet loss, throughput, and other relevant metrics.
 4. Focus on Affected Users: If users in specific locations or segments are reporting issues, prioritize
investigating those areas first. Their feedback can provide valuable insights into the scope of the problem.
5. Test Individual Segments: Use Obkio's testing capabilities to run synthetic tests on individual segments. By
simulating network traffic, you can pinpoint whether a specific segment is causing the issue.
6. Network Flow Analysis: Analyze the flow of network traffic using passive monitoring tools. This can help you
identify if a particular segment is receiving unusually high traffic or experiencing congestion.
7. Traceroute and Path Analysis: Utilize traceroute tools to map the path that network packets take from
source to destination. This can help you identify hops that might be causing delays or issues.
8. Collaborate with Network Teams: If your network is managed by different teams or departments,
collaborate with them to gain insights into the configuration and performance of specific segments.

Identifying network segments and isolating problematic areas is an essential step in troubleshooting network
issues. By focusing your efforts on specific segments, you can streamline your investigation, diagnose issues
more effectively, and implement targeted solutions to restore optimal network performance. Obkio's
network monitoring tool can provide valuable data and insights to support your efforts in this process.
Step 6. Run Network Tests

Network testing using Obkio's network monitoring tool is a proactive approach to troubleshooting network
issues. These tests allow you to simulate network activity and gather valuable data to identify bottlenecks,
weaknesses, and areas requiring optimization.

Here's are some network tests to consider:

1. Active Network Monitoring Tests:

 Synthetic Traffic Generation: Active tests involve generating synthetic traffic on the network to measure its
performance. Obkio's tool continuously generated synthetic UDP traffic through Monitoring Agents to
simulate various types of network activities, such as data transfers, VoIP calls, or video streaming in different
network locations.
 Test Goals: The purpose of active tests is to assess how well the network can handle different types of
traffic. You can identify bandwidth limitations, latency issues, and performance degradation under varying
conditions.

2. Passive Network Monitoring Tests:

  Analyzing Traffic Flows: Passive tests involve analyzing the actual network traffic without injecting synthetic
traffic. This approach provides insights into how real-world applications and users are utilizing the network.
 Test Goals: Passive tests help you understand traffic patterns, identify unexpected sources of congestion,
and detect potential security or bandwidth misuse issues.

Running tests using Obkio's network monitoring tool is an active and valuable method of troubleshooting
network issues. Whether you're generating synthetic traffic or analyzing real traffic flows, these tests help
you identify bottlenecks, diagnose performance problems, and make informed decisions to optimize your
network's performance, responsiveness, and reliability.

Active vs. Passive Network Monitoring: Which Method is Right for You

Discover the differences, benefits, and implementation strategies of active network monitoring vs passive
network monitoring.

Learn more

Step 7. Review Network Performance Notifications and Alerts

Reviewing notifications and alerts generated by Obkio's network monitoring tool is crucial for timely
response to abnormal network conditions. These alerts serve as early warnings for potential issues, allowing
you to take proactive measures to address them.

 Setting Up Alerts: Configure network monitoring alerts within Obkio's tool based on predefined thresholds.
These thresholds are values that, when exceeded, trigger an alert. Common metrics for which alerts can be
set include latency, packet loss, throughput, and jitter.
 Understand Alert Context: Each alert will provide information about the metric that triggered it, the
threshold that was breached, and the specific time the breach occurred. This information helps you
understand the severity and nature of the issue.
 Response Time: Quickly respond to alerts to prevent issues from escalating. Some network problems, if left
unattended, can worsen and impact user experience or even lead to downtime.
  Correlation with Other Data: Correlate alert notifications with other data available on the dashboard. For
example, if you receive an alert about high latency, cross-reference it with throughput and packet loss
metrics to gain a fuller picture of the issue.
 Escalation Process: Have a clear process in place for escalating alerts to the appropriate individuals or teams.
Ensure that the responsible parties are aware of the alerts and know how to respond.

Reviewing notifications and alerts generated by Obkio's network monitoring tool is an essential step in
network troubleshooting. By promptly responding to alerts, you can take proactive measures to prevent
disruptions or network disconnections, ensure optimal network performance, and provide a better user
experience for individuals relying on your network services.

Step 8. Compare with Baseline Network Performance

Comparing current performance metrics with a baseline of normal network behavior is a valuable technique
for identifying anomalies and deviations that could indicate network issues. Baseline comparisons provide
context for understanding whether the observed metrics are within expected ranges or if they signify
potential problems.

What is a Baseline?

A baseline is a set of historical data that represents the expected or typical performance of your network
under normal conditions. It's essentially a reference point that helps you distinguish between regular
fluctuations and abnormal behavior.

 Contextual Analysis: A baseline offers context for understanding whether current metrics are typical or
unusual. Without a baseline, it's challenging to determine if the observed values are problematic.
 Anomaly Detection: Deviations from the baseline can indicate issues that need attention. When metrics
consistently fall outside the baseline range, it's a strong indication that something is amiss.
 Data-Driven Troubleshooting: Baseline comparisons provide an objective basis for making decisions and
taking action. They reduce guesswork and help you focus on actual anomalies.

Steps to Compare with Baseline:

1. Create a Baseline: Start by establishing a baseline of typical network performance during periods of stability.
Collect historical data across key metrics like latency, packet loss, throughput, and more. Obkio's Network
Monitoring tool will automatically do this for you!
2. Set Thresholds: Define acceptable ranges or thresholds for each metric based on the baseline. These
thresholds represent the upper and lower limits of normal behavior.
3. Regular Monitoring: Continuously monitor your network's performance using Obkio's tool. Regularly
compare current metrics against the baseline thresholds.
 4. Identify Deviations: If the current metrics consistently deviate from the established baseline, investigate
further to understand the cause of the deviation.
5. Analyze Patterns: Look for patterns in the deviations. Are there specific times of day, days of the week, or
usage scenarios when deviations are more pronounced?
6. Cross-Reference Metrics: Cross-reference deviations in one metric with other related metrics. For example,
if latency increases, check if packet loss also increases during the same periods.
7. Trigger Alerts: Configure alerts in Obkio's tool to notify you when metrics breach baseline thresholds. Alerts
prompt quick action when anomalies occur.

Step 9. Check External Factors

Checking external factors is a critical step in troubleshooting network issues. Many network problems can
originate outside of your control, such as issues with your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or external attacks
like Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS).

It's important to rule out these possibilities before dedicating resources solely to internal network
configurations. Here's an expanded explanation of this step:

1. ISP Communication: Contact your ISP to inquire about any ongoing maintenance, outages, or known issues.
They can provide valuable information about the status of their network.
2. Route Analysis: Use tools to analyze network routes and trace paths that data takes from source to
destination. Identify if there are any unexpected routing changes or bottlenecks.
3. Ping Tests: Conduct ping tests to external servers or websites. Consistently high latency or packet loss in
these tests might indicate broader connectivity issues.
4. Geographical Outages: Use online services that track global network outages to see if your area or your ISP's
region is experiencing connectivity problems.
 5. DDoS Detection: Monitor network traffic patterns for signs of a DDoS attack. Sudden spikes in traffic or
unusual behavior might indicate malicious activity.
6. Collaboration with ISP: Work with your ISP to identify the source of any issues affecting your connection.
They can provide assistance in resolving connectivity problems.

Checking external factors is a critical step in troubleshooting network issues. By ruling out ISP problems,
route anomalies, DDoS attacks, and other external factors, you can confidently focus on optimizing your
internal network configurations and addressing issues within your control. This approach leads to more
efficient troubleshooting, reduced downtime, and a better overall user experience.

Step 10. Implement Network Optimizations

This step involves making adjustments to your network configuration to optimize network performance and
address the identified problems and improve overall performance. Obkio's network monitoring tool can
provide valuable insights and recommendations to guide your changes.

Steps to Implement Changes:

1. Root Cause Identification: Based on your analysis of metrics, alerts, and tests, pinpoint the specific areas or
components causing network issues.
2. Network Configuration Changes: Adjust network configurations, such as router settings, firewall rules, or
Quality of Service (QoS) policies, to address identified problems.
3. Network Optimization Strategies: Depending on the issues, apply optimization techniques such as load
balancing, traffic shaping, or upgrading hardware components.
4. Documentation: Keep detailed records of the changes you implement, the reasoning behind them, and the
expected outcomes. Documentation helps in future troubleshooting and knowledge sharing.
5. Testing After Changes: After implementing changes, run tests and monitor metrics to verify if the changes
have had the desired effect on network performance.

Utilizing Obkio's Recommendations:

 Data-Driven Insights: Leverage recommendations provided by Obkio's tool to make informed decisions.
These recommendations are often based on patterns in collected data.
 Validation: If the tool suggests specific adjustments or configurations, validate these recommendations
against your analysis and network requirements.
 Prioritization: If the tool highlights multiple areas for improvement, prioritize changes based on the severity
of the issues and potential impact on network performance.

Implementing optimizations based on analysis is a critical step in troubleshooting network issues. Whether
addressing configurations, optimizing components, or following tool recommendations, the goal is to
resolve problems, optimize performance, and create a more reliable network environment. The combination
of analytical insights and recommendations from tools like Obkio enables you to make informed and
impactful changes that enhance your network's overall functionality.

Network Optimization Strategies: How to Optimize Network Performance

Learn to use network optimization and monitoring to optimize network performance, improve your end-user
experience, and compare performance from the past.
Learn more

Step 11. Monitor Network Performance After Changes

After implementing changes, continue to monitor the network using Obkio to ensure that the issues have
been resolved and that the performance has improved. Monitoring the network after implementing changes
is a crucial step to ensure the effectiveness of your troubleshooting efforts and to validate that the changes
have indeed resolved the identified issues. Continuous monitoring helps you maintain a stable and high-
performing network environment.

Importance of Post-Change Monitoring:

 Validation: Post-change monitoring confirms whether the implemented changes have had the desired
impact on network performance and have resolved the issues.
 Adaptation: Sometimes, changes might not produce immediate results or could inadvertently introduce new
issues. Monitoring allows you to identify such scenarios and make necessary adjustments.
 Continuous Optimization: Monitoring after changes is a part of the iterative optimization process. It helps
you fine-tune configurations and ensure sustained network efficiency.

Steps to Monitor After Changes:

1. Baseline Comparison: Compare post-change metrics to the baseline data collected before implementing the
changes. This comparison helps you understand the magnitude of improvement.
2. Stability and Consistency: Monitor for stability and consistency in network performance with network
stability testing. Changes should result in reduced latency, improved throughput, and fewer instances of
packet loss.
3. Alerts and Notifications: Configure alerts and notifications in Obkio's tool to be informed of any unusual
behavior or deviations from the expected post-change performance.
4. Regular Analysis: Regularly review the metrics and data on the dashboard to identify any anomalies or
trends that might indicate ongoing or new issues.
5. User Feedback: Gather feedback from users to understand their experience after the changes. Their
observations can provide valuable insights into real-world improvements.
6. Iterative Approach: If the network's performance isn't meeting expectations post-change, consider an
iterative approach. Adjust configurations based on new insights and retest.

Monitoring the network after implementing changes is a vital step in the troubleshooting process. By
comparing post-change metrics to baseline data, analyzing performance, and staying vigilant for anomalies,
you can ensure that your network remains stable, performs optimally, and delivers a consistent and
satisfactory experience for users. Obkio's network monitoring tool continues to be a valuable resource in this
phase by providing real-time and historical data for ongoing assessment.

7 Network Troubleshooting Techniques to Take Control Of Your

Network!

Ready to add some new tricks to your network troubleshooting toolbox? Get ready to tap into your inner
network ninja with these network troubleshooting techniques! From ping and traceroute to port scanning and
packet analysis, these techniques will help you become a master of network problem-solving. So sharpen
your sword, don your ninja outfit, and let's dive into the exciting world of network troubleshooting
techniques!

There are many different network troubleshooting techniques that can be used to identify and resolve
network issues. Here are a few examples:

Network Troubleshooting Technique #1: Network Monitoring

This complete, end-to-end network troubleshooting technique involves the use of network monitoring
software, like Obkio to identify issues and monitor network performance in real-time. This technique is
particularly useful for identifying issues such as congestion, bandwidth issues, and security threats, and is a
valuable network troubleshooting technique that involves the continuous monitoring of network
performance and activity to identify and resolve issues.

Network monitoring allows network administrators to:

 Detect issues early: Network monitoring helps detect issues as soon as they occur, allowing administrators
to quickly address them before they escalate into bigger problems.
 Identify performance issues: Network monitoring can help identify performance issues such as slow
network speeds, packet loss, and high latency.
 Track network activity: Network monitoring can help track network activity, including which devices are
connected to the network, what applications are being used, and how much bandwidth is being consumed.
 Alert administrators: Network monitoring tools can alert administrators of issues through notifications,
emails, or text messages, allowing for quick resolution.
 Analyze historical data: Network monitoring software can store and analyze historical data, allowing
administrators to identify long-term trends and patterns and plan for future network upgrades and changes.

Network monitoring is especially useful for troubleshooting issues related to network congestion, bandwidth
usage, and security threats. By monitoring network traffic, administrators can identify abnormal activity and
quickly address any security threats or breaches.

In summary, network monitoring is a powerful network troubleshooting technique that allows administrators
to detect and resolve issues in real-time, analyze historical data, and improve overall network performance
and security.
Network Troubleshooting Technique #2: Ping

Ping is a basic network troubleshooting technique that sends a small packet of data to a device on the
network to verify if it's reachable. The ping tool measures the round-trip time for the data packet to be sent
from the source device to the destination device and back. If the destination device responds to the ping
request, it indicates that the device is reachable and there is no issue with network connectivity.

Ping is a useful troubleshooting tool because it can help identify several network issues, such as:

 Network connectivity issues: Ping can help identify whether a device is reachable on the network, which can
be useful in troubleshooting network connectivity issues.
 [DNS issues](/blog/how-to-identify-dns-issues/: If the ping fails to resolve a domain name into an IP
address, it can indicate a problem with the DNS configuration.
 Firewall issues: Ping can help identify firewall issues by determining whether the firewall is blocking
incoming or outgoing traffic to a specific device.
 Network latency: The round-trip time reported by ping can help identify network latency issues, which can
impact network performance.

Ping is a quick and easy network troubleshooting tool, but it does have limitations. For example, if a device
is configured to block incoming ping requests, the tool may report that the device is not reachable even
though it is functioning normally. Additionally, the tool does not provide detailed information about the
nature of network issues.

In summary, while ping is a simple and useful network troubleshooting tool, it should be used in conjunction
with other techniques for a more comprehensive analysis of network issues.

Network Troubleshooting Technique #3: Traceroute

Traceroute is a network troubleshooting technique that helps identify the path that network packets take
from the source device to the destination device. It works by sending a series of packets to the destination
device, with each packet having a different time-to-live (TTL) value. Each router along the path to the
destination device decrements the TTL value, and if it reaches zero, it discards the packet and sends an
ICMP "Time Exceeded" message back to the source device.

Traceroute uses the ICMP protocol to identify the routers along the path to the destination device, and it
reports the IP address, hostname, and response time of each router. This information helps network
administrators identify the location of network issues and diagnose latency or connectivity problems.

Some of the uses of traceroute as a network troubleshooting technique include:

 Identifying network routing issues: Traceroute helps identify routing issues by reporting the IP address and
hostname of each router along the path to the destination device.
 Identifying network latency issues: The response time reported by traceroute helps identify latency issues
and can help identify where delays are occurring along the path to the destination device.
 Diagnosing connectivity issues: Traceroute can help diagnose connectivity issues by identifying where
packets are dropping or being lost along the path to the destination device.

Traceroute is a valuable network troubleshooting technique that can help administrators identify and resolve
network issues. However, it does have limitations. For example, some routers are configured to block ICMP
packets, which can result in incomplete traceroute reports. Additionally, traceroute only reports the path
taken by network packets and does not provide detailed information about the nature of network issues.

In summary, traceroute is a powerful network troubleshooting technique that helps identify network routing
and latency issues, as well as diagnose connectivity issues. It should be used in conjunction with other
network troubleshooting tools for a comprehensive analysis of network issues.
Network Troubleshooting Technique #4: Port Scanning

While port scanning is often used as a reconnaissance tool by hackers, it can also be used as a network
troubleshooting technique by network administrators. A port scanner is a software tool that scans a range of
network ports on a device to determine which ports are open and accepting incoming connections. This
information is useful for network administrators who need to verify that their devices are properly
configured and secure.

Here are some ways that port scanning can be used as a network troubleshooting technique:

 Identifying open ports: Port scanning can be used to identify which ports are open on a device, which is
useful for verifying that services are running and accessible.
 Verifying firewall rules: Port scanning can be used to verify that firewall rules are configured correctly and
that the necessary ports are open to allow traffic to flow.
 Checking for rogue devices: Port scanning can be used to identify any unauthorized devices on the network
that may be accepting incoming connections on unsecured ports.
 Checking for vulnerabilities: Port scanning can be used to identify any vulnerabilities in the network by
identifying open ports that are commonly exploited by attackers.

It's important to note that port scanning can also be used by attackers to identify potential vulnerabilities on
a network, so it should be used carefully and with appropriate security precautions in place.

In summary, port scanning can be a useful network troubleshooting technique for network administrators to
identify open ports, verify firewall rules, check for rogue devices, and identify potential vulnerabilities.
However, it should be used with caution and appropriate security measures in place to avoid unintended
consequences.

Network Troubleshooting Technique #5: Configuration Auditing

Configuration auditing is a network troubleshooting technique that involves reviewing and verifying the
configuration settings of network devices to ensure that they are properly configured and compliant with
organizational policies and industry best practices. It is an important technique for ensuring the security,
reliability, and performance of network devices.

Here are some ways that configuration auditing can be used as a network troubleshooting technique:

 Identifying configuration errors: Configuration auditing can be used to identify configuration errors that may
be causing network issues or security vulnerabilities. For example, misconfigured network settings can cause
devices to not function properly, resulting in connectivity issues.
 Verifying compliance: Configuration auditing can be used to verify that network devices are configured in
compliance with organizational policies and industry best practices. For example, it can ensure that devices
have been configured with appropriate security settings and that they are using the latest software updates
and patches.
 Improving performance: Configuration auditing can be used to optimize network device configurations to
improve network performance. For example, it can identify unused or unnecessary services that can be
disabled to improve device performance.
 Enhancing security: Configuration auditing can be used to identify security vulnerabilities in network devices,
such as weak passwords or open ports that can be exploited by attackers. It can also identify configuration
settings that may increase the risk of security breaches, such as unnecessary services running on devices.
Configuration auditing can be performed manually or using automated tools that can scan and analyze
device configurations. Automated tools are often preferred because they can perform configuration audits
more quickly and thoroughly than manual methods.

In summary, configuration auditing is a valuable network troubleshooting technique that can help identify
configuration errors, verify compliance with organizational policies and industry best practices, improve
network performance, and enhance security. By using configuration auditing, network administrators can
ensure that their devices are properly configured and functioning optimally.

Network Troubleshooting Technique #6: Packet Analysis

Packet analysis is a network troubleshooting technique that involves capturing and analyzing network traffic
to identify issues with the network. It is a powerful tool for diagnosing and resolving network issues because
it provides detailed information about how data is flowing through the network.

Here are some ways that packet analysis can be used as a network troubleshooting technique:

 Identifying network bottlenecks: Packet analysis can be used to identify where network traffic is being
slowed down or congested, which can help network administrators pinpoint where network bottlenecks are
occurring.
 Diagnosing application issues: Packet analysis can help diagnose application issues by providing detailed
information about how data is flowing between applications and network devices. For example, it can
identify issues with application protocols or data formats that may be causing problems.
 Analyzing security incidents: Packet analysis can be used to analyze security incidents, such as malware
infections or network intrusions. By examining network traffic, network administrators can identify the
source of the incident and determine how it spread throughout the network.
 Verifying network configurations: Packet analysis can be used to verify that network devices are configured
correctly and that traffic is flowing as expected. For example, it can confirm that network policies are being
enforced and that network devices are properly configured to handle different types of traffic.

Packet analysis requires specialized tools that can capture and analyze network traffic. These tools can
provide detailed information about packet headers, payload data, and protocol information. They can also
generate graphs and charts that help visualize network traffic and identify patterns.

In summary, packet analysis is a powerful network troubleshooting technique that can help identify network
bottlenecks, diagnose application issues, analyze security incidents, and verify network configurations. By
using packet analysis, network administrators can ensure that their networks are functioning optimally and
securely.

Network Troubleshooting Technique #7: Firmware Updates

Firmware updates are a network troubleshooting technique that involves updating the software that controls
the hardware components of network devices. Firmware updates can be used to fix bugs, address security
vulnerabilities, and improve device performance.

Here are some ways that firmware updates can be used as a network troubleshooting technique:
  Addressing software bugs: Firmware updates can be used to address software bugs that may be causing
network issues. For example, a firmware update can fix a bug that causes a network device to crash or
behave unpredictably.
 Patching security vulnerabilities: Firmware updates can be used to patch security vulnerabilities that may be
present in network devices. For example, a firmware update can address a vulnerability that allows attackers
to gain unauthorized access to a network device.
 Improving device performance: Firmware updates can be used to improve device performance by adding
new features or improving existing ones. For example, a firmware update can add support for new
networking protocols or improve the speed of data transfer.
 Enhancing compatibility: Firmware updates can be used to enhance compatibility with other network
devices or software. For example, a firmware update can add support for a new type of network card or
improve interoperability with a specific software application.

Firmware updates can be performed manually or using automated tools that can scan and analyze network
devices to identify outdated firmware versions. Automated tools are often preferred because they can
perform firmware updates more quickly and thoroughly than manual methods.

In summary, firmware updates are an important network troubleshooting technique that can help address
software bugs, patch security vulnerabilities, improve device performance, and enhance compatibility. By
keeping their network devices up-to-date with the latest firmware versions, network administrators can
ensure that their networks are functioning optimally and securely.

How to Troubleshoot Networks with Network Monitoring

Even the best designed networks are not immune to problems. With the growing complexity of network
infrastructures, problems are bound to happen, but just harder to pinpoint. All IT managers generally agree
on one thing: it’s not about whether there will be network problems, but rather when they will occur and
how to solve them as soon as possible.

Are you tired of constantly putting out fires on your network? Want to take a proactive approach to network
troubleshooting? Look no further than network monitoring!

In order to troubleshoot a network as efficiently and painlessly as possible, it’s important to have some best
practices or steps in mind that you can follow every time. For this tutorial, we're going to show you how to
perform network troubleshooting using the Network Monitoring Technique!

Not only does it provide a real-time view of network activity, but it also enables you to detect and resolve
issues quickly, allocate resources more effectively, and enhance network security. Say goodbye to network
headaches and hello to smooth sailing with network monitoring!

Network Troubleshooting Step 1. Deploy a Network Troubleshooting Tool

Most businesses don’t have time to manually assess every part of their network to find the cause of a
problem. When you have a flood of user complaints and the executive team breathing down your, it can be
overwhelming to try to find the problem, let alone fix it.
Luckily, there are several network troubleshooting tools available in the vault of a network administrator or
IT specialist - the most important being Network Monitoring. A great network monitoring software, like
Obkio Network Performance Monitoring software will provide continuous end-to-end monitoring of your
network performance, to identify problems and collect the information you need to troubleshoot, all with
one tool!

Obkio continuously monitors end-to-end network performance with synthetic traffic using Network
Monitoring Agents. The Agents exchange synthetic traffic to measure network metrics, like packet loss,
between each other, identify network issues, and collect the information to help you troubleshoot.

Get started with Obkio for free!

Network Troubleshooting Step 2. Collect Network Performance Metrics

Issues can arise at numerous points along the network. To start troubleshooting a network, you want to have
a clear understanding of what the problem is, how it happened, who it’s affecting, when it occurred, and how
long it’s been going on.

Once you’ve deployed Obkio Monitoring Agents in your key network locations, they will start measuring
key network metrics like jitter, packet loss, and latency and displaying them on Obkio’s Network Response
Time Graph.

Obkio's Network Response Time Graph and VoIP Quality Graph showing Latency, Jitter, and Packet Loss

By gathering the right information and clarifying the problem, you’ll have a much better chance of resolving
the issue quickly, without wasting time trying unnecessary fixes. Network troubleshooting helps you get all
the information you need about:
  What network problems are affecting your network or application performance.
 Where the network issues are located anywhere along your network.
 Who the owner of the problem is (user, application, network, or ISP), and who is responsible for fixing it.
 How to solve problems for a quick and smooth fix.

Network Troubleshooting Step 3. Isolate the Network Problem

To begin the network troubleshooting process, you've got to catch and isolate the network problem.

To do this, compare the monitoring sessions you created from deploying Obkio's NPM tool.

A. If’s Not a Network Issue

As a reference, below is an example of a Network Session with no network problems.

If you're not experiencing a network problem, it might be a user issue. In this case, you can troubleshoot by
installing a Monitoring Agent directly on a user’s workstation (the user who is experiencing the performance
problems) to see the issue from their point-of-view.

If you still don’t find that it’s a network problem at this point, it may just be a problem that IT specialists can
troubleshoot and resolve directly on the user's workstation or on the remote destination. The problem could
be several other hardware-intensive videoconferencing systems, which use up a lot of resources (CPU,
RAM).
Obkio monitors these other resource metrics as well.

B. Check for A Network Problem On 2 Network Sessions

In the screenshot below is an example of a network problem on both network sessions.

In this case, the network problem is on a network segment that is common to both network sessions. This
means that the problem is:

 Broader and not exclusive to a single network path or destination.

 Affects all services and applications dependent on the network.
 Could be happening in LAN, the firewall or the local loop Internet connection.

C. Check for A Network Problem On 1 Session

In the screenshot below is an example of a network problem on only one network session.
This means that the network problem is happening specifically towards that specific location on the Internet
and that the problem is further away.

Network Troubleshooting Step 4. Compare with Network Device Monitoring

If the network problem is on both network sessions, compare that data using Obkio’s Device Monitoring
feature to further understand if the network issue is happening on your end, or over the Internet, in your
Service Provider’s network.
A. Check your Network Hardware

Believe it or not, many network problems may be caused by faulty hardware, bad physical connections, or
incorrect configurations. When you begin the troubleshooting process, check all your hardware to make sure
it’s correctly connected, turned on, and working.

If a cord has come loose or has broken, or somebody has switched off an important router, this could be the
problem behind your network issues. There’s no point in going through the process of troubleshooting
network issues if all you need to do is replace a cord, so make sure all switches are in the correct positions
and haven’t been bumped accidentally.

Here are some general network troubleshooting steps for network hardware that can help you identify
and resolve network issues:

1. Check physical connections: Ensure that all physical connections are secure and correctly plugged in. Loose
or damaged cables can cause network connectivity issues.
2. Restart devices: Power cycle the affected devices, including the router, switch, and modem. Sometimes, this
can resolve the issue by resetting the devices and clearing out any temporary network configurations.
3. Check network settings: Verify that the network settings, including IP addresses, subnet masks, and default
gateways, are correctly configured. Misconfigured network settings can cause connectivity issues.
4. Update firmware and software: Ensure that the devices and software used in the network are updated to
the latest versions. Newer versions can contain bug fixes and performance improvements that can resolve
network issues.
Going through to check every cord one-by-one can be tiresome and a gigantic loss of time. Thankfully, a
network performance monitoring software like Obkio monitors problems within your network interface that
are commonly caused by hardware!

B. Check for CPU or Bandwidth Issues

When you compare your previous data with Device Monitoring metrics, you may find CPU or Bandwidth
issues. These resource issues likely means that the network issue is on your end and you need to
troubleshoot internally.

Here are a few network troubleshooting suggestions got CPU or bandwidth issues:

1. Traffic Analysis: Examine your firewall logs to determine if the traffic passing through your
network is legitimate. This will help identify potential security breaches such as data exfiltration or
improper data backup during business hours.
2. Firewall Management: Prioritize important traffic in order to reduce congestion during periods of
high traffic. This ensures that traffic to and from critical applications is given priority and is less
likely to cause network congestion.
3. Bandwidth Upgrade: Contact your Internet Service Provider (ISP) to upgrade your bandwidth if
you are experiencing bandwidth constraints.
4. Resource Investigation: Investigate the reason for missing resources and high CPU usage on your
device. This may be due to a software issue, firmware update requirement, buggy software update, or
simply inadequate resources, which can be resolved by upgrading to a more powerful device.

C. Check for Internet Problems on Your ISP’s End

If you don’t see any resource issues from your devices, this is a sign that the network problem is actually on
your Service Provider’s end.

If you suspect that the issue is with your ISP, you should open a service ticket and provide as much
information as possible to support your claim. This will help to quickly escalate the issue past the first level
of support. Additionally, Obkio's app can serve as a valuable tool to aid in this process.

The data you can provide is that from your dashboard in the previous steps, as well as your Traceroutes in
the next step.

Network Troubleshooting Step 5. Troubleshoot using Traceroutes

The next step in the network troubleshooting process is to collect the last bit of data to help you pinpoint
exactly where the network problem is located so you can share that information with your Service Provider.

To do this, we’ll be using Obkio Vision, Obkio’s free Visual Traceroute tool that runs continuously to
interpret Traceroute results to identify network problems in your WAN and over the Internet.

Note: If the network problem happening only on your end, you don’t need to do this step. It’ll just give you
the same results.
Use Traceroutes, the Network Map, and the Quality Matrix to identify if:

A. The network issue is happening specifically towards a specific location over the Internet. So only one
specific site is being affected.

Obkio Vision Network Map

B. The network issue is on your ISP’s side. At this point, open a service ticket with as much information as
you can collect.

Obkio Vision Traceroutes

Network Troubleshooting Step 6. Contact Your Service Provider

If you encounter an issue, it is recommended to contact your Service Provider (MSP or ISP) for assistance
with troubleshooting. However, this time, you won't have to deal with first-level support simply instructing
you to "reboot your modem." Armed with the data collected using Obkio, you can hold your Service
Provider accountable and provide them with all the necessary information to effectively troubleshoot the
issue.

1. Contact your ISP to get technical support using the screenshots of Monitoring Sessions, Dashboards or
Traceroutes in Vision.
2. Share results of Live Traceroutes with your ISP using a public link.
 3. If your ISP wants to analyze your data further, you can create a temporary Read-Only User in your Obkio
account for them.

By sharing traceroute results, ISP network engineers can see the problem, change the traceroute options and
validate that their changes are fixing the issue without having to get back to you.

Your ISP will then be able to confirm if your analysis is good or not, and if they can fix the issue at hand. If
you have the chance to have a good ISP, they will also explain why your analysis is wrong if this is the case.

Network Troubleshooting Step 7. Perform a DNS Check

At this point, if you're still ensure of the cause of the issue, one last thing you can do it perform a DNS
check.

DNS, which stands for Domain Name System, is a directory for the Internet (and every internet-connected
device) that matches domain names with IP addresses. Every single website has its own IP address on the
web, and computers can connect to other computers via the Internet and look up websites using their IP
address.

Use the “nslookup” command to determine whether there’s a problem with the server you’re trying to
connect to. If you perform a DNS check on, for example, google.com and receive results such as “Timed
Out,” “Server Failure,” “Refused,” “No Response from Server,” or “Network Is Unreachable,” it may
indicate the problem originates in the DNS server for your destination. (You can also use nslookup to check
your own DNS server.)

With Obkio’s Application Performance Monitoring (APM) for HTTP URLs feature, users can now monitor
DNS performance! DNS is key to URL monitoring, and is one of the five steps to download the content of a
single URL.
Network Troubleshooting Step 8. Continue to Monitor Network Performance

Continuing to monitor network performance is a crucial step in network troubleshooting. After

implementing a fix, it's essential to ensure that the network is operating optimally and that the issue is
resolved.

Here's why continuing to monitor network performance is important:

 Verify that the issue is resolved: Continuing to monitor the network performance can help you ensure that
the issue is resolved. If the issue persists, you may need to investigate further and implement additional
fixes.
 Identify new issues: Even if the original issue is resolved, new issues may arise. Continuously monitoring the
network performance can help you identify any new issues and address them proactively.
 Optimize network performance: Monitoring the network performance can help you identify areas of the
network that can be optimized for better performance. For example, you may find that some devices or
applications are using an excessive amount of bandwidth, causing performance issues for other devices on
the network.
 Ensure network security: Monitoring the network performance can help you identify potential security
threats and breaches. You can set up alerts to notify you of any suspicious network activity and take action
to prevent security breaches.

In summary, continuing to monitor network performance after troubleshooting helps you ensure that the
network is operating optimally and proactively address any new issues that may arise.
A Network Troubleshooting Use Case

We’re running you through an example of when and how network troubleshooting can help you resolve
networks problems!

A. The Problem

Let’s say that users in your company start reporting intermittent network performance and slowness issues,
like choppy VoIP Quality and lagginess which makes voice calls incomprehensible.

VoIP Quality is highly reliant on network performance, which means that many network problems like
packet loss, latency, and jitter can cause high levels of VoIP degradation.

If you’re a member of the IT team, you’re definitely the first person that users come to with their
complaints. Which means that you now need to solve the problems fast because employees are wasting time
and the executive team is breathing down your neck.

B. The Solution

When you're looking into how to troubleshoot network connectivity problems, deploy a network monitoring
and network troublshooting tool that measures end-to-end network performance to pinpoint network issues
located within your business’ LAN, Firewalls, or internet infrastructure.

Get a 360-degree view of network and application performance to help you identify network performance
issues you never would have had visibility of before.
C. The Gain

Monitoring network performance using a network performance monitoring software continuously measures
the most critical network performance metrics to find issues, even before your users experience them.

That means that you can stay on top of problems by proactively identifying if problems are related to the
network, where they are located and when they occurred, even if they happened in the past.

With information about what, where, how, and when network problems occurred, you can drastically
improve the time it takes you to troubleshoot and solve problems!

Network Troubleshooting vs. Network Performance

Troubleshooting

Network Troubleshooting and Network Performance Troubleshooting are related but distinct aspects of
managing and maintaining computer networks. Let's break down the differences between the two:
I. Network Troubleshooting:

Network troubleshooting involves identifying and resolving issues related to network connectivity,
functionality, and communication problems. This can encompass a wide range of problems, including
devices not being able to connect to the network, intermittent connectivity issues, slow response times, and
more. The primary focus of network troubleshooting is to ensure that devices can communicate effectively
within the network and with other networks. It's about making sure the network is operational and that
devices can connect and communicate as intended.

Common network troubleshooting tasks include:

 Diagnosing and fixing physical connectivity issues like faulty cables or connectors.
 Identifying and resolving IP address conflicts.
 Troubleshooting DNS (Domain Name System) resolution problems.
 Resolving issues with DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) configuration.
 Investigating and addressing firewall or security rule conflicts.

II. Network Performance Troubleshooting:

Network performance troubleshooting, on the other hand, is specifically concerned with addressing
problems related to the speed, efficiency, and overall performance of the network. The focus here is not just
on whether devices can communicate, but on how well they can do so. Performance issues can manifest as
slow data transfer speeds, high latency, bottlenecks, and uneven distribution of network resources. The goal
is to optimize the network to ensure smooth and efficient data transfer and application performance.
Common network performance troubleshooting tasks include:

 Identifying and mitigating network congestion points.

 Analyzing bandwidth usage and optimizing traffic flows.
 Detecting and addressing packet loss or jitter issues.
 Investigating the causes of high latency.
 Fine-tuning Quality of Service (QoS) settings to prioritize critical applications.
 Optimizing the configuration of routers, switches, and other network devices to enhance performance.

In summary, network troubleshooting deals with ensuring basic network connectivity and functionality,
while network performance troubleshooting goes a step further by focusing on optimizing the efficiency,
speed, and quality of data transfer and communication within the network. Both aspects are crucial for
maintaining a reliable and high-performing network environment.

How to Troubleshoot Network Performance: Network Performance

Troubleshooting Steps

When it comes to Network Performance Troubleshooting, Obkio's Network Performance Monitoring tool
is your secret weapon! Obkio is designed to help network administrators and IT teams monitor, optimize and
troubleshoot network performance.

It provides insights and data that can be invaluable during the network performance troubleshooting process.
Here's how the key steps of network performance troubleshooting can be enhanced with Obkio's NPM tool:

1. Identifying the Problem: Obkio's tool helps IT pros identify network performance issues and trends
by providing real-time data on network metrics such as latency, packet loss, and throughput. These
insights can aid in understanding when and where performance issues are occurring.
2. Isolating the Issue: Obkio's network visualization techniques, including dashboards, Chord
Diagram, Visual Traceroute tool, and Network Device Monitoring feature can help pinpoint which
 specific devices, links, or applications are affected by the performance issues, making it easier to
isolate the problem.
3. Gathering Data: Obkio's monitoring tool continuously collects and presents performance data,
enabling administrators to gather detailed information about network behavior over time. This data is
crucial for accurate analysis.
4. Analyzing Network Components: With Obkio's tool, administrators can monitor the health and
performance of individual network components like routers, switches, and access points. It provides
visibility into how each component contributes to overall performance.
5. Testing Connectivity: Obkio's active monitoring capabilities allow for real-time testing of
connectivity between network locations, helping to identify any issues with routing, packet loss, or
latency.
6. Analyzing Network Traffic: Obkio uses synthetic monitoring and synthetic traffic to simulate real-
user traffic and provide detailed insights into network traffic patterns. This helps troubleshooters
identify congestion points, and potential bottlenecks that could impact performance, even when
there's no real user traffic.
7. Testing Applications: By monitoring application performance and response times, Obkio can help
determine whether performance issues are related to specific applications or the network itself.
8. Checking for Security Issues: Obkio's network performance data can be used to identify any
unusual traffic patterns or unexpected network behaviour that might indicate security-related issues
affecting performance.
9. Updating Firmware and Software: Monitoring performance after firmware or software updates
using Obkio's tool can help assess whether these updates have positively or negatively impacted
network performance.
10. Implementing Solutions: Obkio's real-time data and insights can help IT pros implement targeted
solutions to help businesses troubleshoot network performance efficiently and effectively. Using
tools like Traceroutes and Network Device Monitoring, businesses can understand if network
problems are happening locally, or in their MSP network or ISP network. They can then implement
solutions interally or reach out to their MSP/ ISP for support with proof from Obkio's app.
11. Monitoring and Validation: Obkio continuousnetwork monitoring capabilities help network
admins validate that their business' network performance has been successfully improved and and
optimized and remains stable over time. With continuous network monitoring, IT pros can be sure
that, in the future, they can proactively identify network issues and troubleshoot network
performance.
12. Documentation: Obkio's tool provides historical data and reports that can be included in the
documentation of the troubleshooting process, helping to track the progression of issues and
solutions.

Incorporating Obkio's Network Performance Monitoring tool into the network performance troubleshooting
process enhances visibility and data-driven decision-making, ultimately leading to quicker and more
effective resolution of network performance issues.

You've Mastered The Art - Start Your Network Troubleshooting

Process Now!
Congratulations, network troubleshooters! You've made it to the end of the ultimate survival guide for
network troubleshooting. Armed with the knowledge of network troubleshooting techniques, steps, and
tools, you're ready to tackle any network issue that comes your way.

Remember, network troubleshooting is not just about fixing problems, but also about optimizing network
performance and ensuring network security. By following the network troubleshooting steps and using the
appropriate tools, you can quickly identify the root cause of network issues and implement the necessary
fixes to ensure optimal performance.

And let's not forget the importance of monitoring network performance even after fixing an issue. By
continuing to monitor the network, you can ensure that the issue is resolved, identify any new issues,
optimize network performance, and ensure network security.

As mentioned earlier, the easiest and most accurate way to troubleshoot networks is by using a Network
Monitoring and Network Troubleshooting software, like Obkio.

Obkio is a simple Network Monitoring software for Enterprises and service providers that allows users to
continuously monitor end-to-end performance of their network and core business applications to identify
network issues, collect data on network performance, and improve the end-user experience!

RMON (Remote Network Monitoring)

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 TechTarget Contributor

RMON (Remote Network Monitoring) provides standard information that a network administrator can use
to monitor, analyze, and troubleshoot a group of distributed local area networks (LANs) and interconnecting
T-1/E-1 and T-2/E-3 lines from a central site. RMON specifically defines the information that any network
monitoring system will be able to provide. It's specified as part of the Management Information Base (MIB)
in Request for Comments 1757 as an extension of the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). The
latest level is RMON Version 2 (sometimes referred to as "RMON 2" or "RMON2").

RMON can be supported by hardware monitoring devices (known as "probes") or through software or some
combination. For example, Cisco's line of LAN switches includes software in each switch that can trap
information as traffic flows through and record it in its MIB. A software agent can gather the information for
presentation to the network administrator with a graphical user interface. A number of vendors provide
products with various kinds of RMON support.

RMON collects nine kinds of information, including packets sent, bytes sent, packets dropped, statistics by
host, by conversations between two sets of addresses, and certain kinds of events that have occurred. A
network administrator can find out how much bandwidth or traffic each user is imposing on the network and
what Web sites are being accessed. Alarms can be set in order to be aware of impending problems.
What is Remote Network Monitoring (RMON)?
By Morgana Siggins
June 30, 2020
Share:

Having a remote monitoring system in place is critical to ensure a stable and efficient network operation. In
fact, having visibility over your mission-critical devices will improve your company's efficiency and bottom
line.

For that, system technicians use network management tools that monitor the activity and performance of
mission-critical equipment and network traffic. A common network management tool is the Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP) along with remote network monitoring (RMON, which is an extension of
SNMP) probe to gather and manage network data.

In order to properly use these tools to optimize your network performance you first need to know their nuts
and bolts. In this article, we will talk about what exactly RMON is and how it can help you enhance the
efficiency of your remote monitoring systems. So, let's dive in.

Having a remote monitoring system in place is critical

What is RMON?
Remote network monitoring (RMON) is a method of monitoring network traffic on a remote Ethernet
transport to find network issues. These issues can be dropped packets, network collisions, and even traffic
congestion.

This successful network management protocol was originally developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) in the early 1990s. IETF is an open organization consisting of network designers, operators,
vendors and researchers, that develops and promotes voluntary internet standards.

RMON was developed specifically to address the weak points of a standard MIB, which lacked the ability to
provide statistics on data link and physical layer parameters. RMON is designed to help network technicians
to remotely monitor and analyze data that is collected from local area networks (LANs) without having to go
to distant facilities to set up equipment.

With RMON, you can set performance thresholds and create alerts when these thresholds are crossed. This
allows you to maintain a proactive network management strategy.

How Does RMON Work?

RMON probes, also called RMON agents, are hardware/software elements of a network device or a software
embedded into this device, like a router or a switch.

Usually, the RMON probe is put on just one device or interface on a TCP/IP subnet. The probe software
typically runs on the port of the network device to get information and statistics on network protocols and
traffic activity. It can pass this information back to your SNMP manager console for analysis and reporting.

With RMON, you and your techs can monitor your network, save logs, create historic performance reports,
and get notified in case an issue happens. All without interfering with your daily operations.

SNMP Vs RMON
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application-layer communication protocol used for
monitoring and managing network devices on LANs or wide area networks (WANs). Sometimes, SNMP is
even used to remotely control and configure remote equipment.

SNMP agents are usually the network devices that will allow communication between managed equipment
and SNMP manager.

As I've said previously, RMON is an extension of SNMP and has nine groups of monitoring elements to
allow you to capture all the details about your network information. This data refers to the physical layer
(Layer 1) and the data-link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. As RMON agents monitor data over LAN
networks, the gathered information is accessed by the SNMP manager using SNMP commands.

The SNMP protocol was originally developed as a tool for managing Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP), and Ethernet gateway, an extension of SNMP, was designed to allow monitoring of
remote networks.

An SNMP device (a hub or router for example) normally needs additional software installed on it to give
you RMON capabilities and turn it into a probe.

RMON Versions
RMON has two different network monitoring specifications. They are:

RMON1

RMON1 Management Information Base (MIB) provides network technicians with information about the
health and performance of the network segment on which the RMON agent resides. This version gives you a
view of the health of the whole segment, rather than the device-specific information that many non-RMON
SNMP agents provide.

The benefits of RMON are obvious, but the scope of RMON1 is limited because it only focuses on the data
link and physical layer parameters.

RMON Ethernet Groups

Group Description
Tracks packets, octets, packet-size distribution, broadcasts, collisions, dropped packets,
Statistics
fragments, CRC/alignment errors, jabbers, and undersized and oversized packets.
Stores multiple samples of values from the Statistics group for the comparison of the current
History
behavior of a selected variable to its performance over the specified period.
Enables setting thresholds and sampling intervals on any statistic to create an alarm condition.
Alarms
Threshold values can be an absolute value, a rising or falling value, or a delta value
Provides a table for each active node that includes a variety of node statistics including packets
Hosts
and octets in and out, multicast and broadcast packets in and out, and error counts.
Extends the host table to offer a user-defined study of sorted host statistics. Host Top N is
Host Top N
calculated locally by the agent, thus reducing network traffic and processing on the NMS.
Displays the amount of traffic and the number of errors occurring between pairs of nodes
Matrix
within a segment.
Lets the user define specific packet-match filters and have them serve as a stop or start
Filters
mechanism for packet-capture activity.
Packet Packets that pass the filters are captured and stored for further analysis. An NMS can request
Capture the capture buffer and analyze the packets.
Lets the user create entries in a monitor log or generate SNMP traps from the agent to the
Events
NMS. Events can be initiated by a crossed threshold on a counter or by a packet-match count.
RMON2

RMON2 is an extension of RMON1. It adds nine more groups of data that pertain to the network layer
(Layer 3) and application layer (Layer 7) of the OSI model.

RMON2 MIB gives you insights into RMON1 traffic statistics by specifying the protocol and applications
that compose that traffic. Knowing this is vital in order to maintain and troubleshoot slave/master systems.

This version focuses mainly on higher traffic layers that exist above the medium access control (MAC)
layer, Internet Protocol (IP) and application-level traffic. RMON2 facilitates network management
applications to track all network layer packets.

RMON2 Groups
Group Description
Protocol Directory Provides a list of protocols supported by the device
Protocol Distribution Contains traffic statistics for each supported protocol
Address Mapping Contains network layer to MAC layer address mapping
Network Layer Host Contains statistics for network layer traffic to or from each host
Network Layer
Contains network layer traffic statistics for conversations between pairs of hosts
Matrix
Application Layer
Contains statistics for application layer traffic to or from each host
Host
Application Layer
Contains application layer traffic statistics for conversations between pairs of hosts
Matrix
User History
Contains periodic samples of user-specified variables
Collection
Provides a standard way to remotely configure probe parameters such as trap
Probe Configuration
destination and out-of-band management

Also, RMON2 agents are able to monitor the traffic coming to the LAN through routers and not just at the
LAN to which it is attached.

However, keep in mind that RMON2 is not an upgraded version of RMON1 and certainly is not a
replacement. In order to have complete visibility over your network, it's important that you have the
capabilities of both specifications.

Understanding the "Undersize Packets" Channel

The "Undersize Packets" channel focuses on monitoring the quantity of data packets that are smaller than
the minimum Ethernet frame size, which is typically 64 bytes. This metric is important because an increased
number of undersize packets can indicate network issues such as hardware faults, misconfigurations, or
potential security threats.

Monitoring "undersize packets" protects your network health by identifying potential problems in the
network infrastructure. Monitoring "undersize packets" also increases the security of your system. Unusually
small packets may suggest malicious activities like network scanning, so having a system that can monitor
these will help prevent these threats.
This monitoring also improves performance as frequent "undersize packets" can affect data transmission
efficiency, leading to slower network performance. Understanding and monitoring the "Undersize Packets"
channel is vital for maintaining a robust, efficient, and secure network environment.

Understanding the "Transmitted" Channel

Similarly, the "Transmitted" channel measures the volume of data that is sent out from a device or network
over a certain period. It's a key performance indicator for network administrators who need to monitor and
manage the flow of outgoing traffic.

Check out the T/Mon LNX

Compare different T/Mon models

The Bottom Line

The RMON Management Information Base is a more flexible and cost-effective solution to monitoring your
network performance with proprietary protocols currently on the market. But, to get the most out of your
remote monitoring system, you need a competent multiprotocol SNMP manager.

And the T/Mon LNX is just that. This master station's network visibility capabilities allow you and your
team to remotely identify potential problem sources on the network so they can be solved quickly or even
before they grow into bigger issues.

With the T/Mon, you'll have all the monitoring capabilities you need in only one interface. You'll be able to
easily manage your SNMP-enabled devices alongside any other equipment running on different protocols.