RAYALASEEMA UNIVERSITY::KURNOOL

LIST OF PAPERS IN THE COURSE M.Sc. BOTANY

(Syllabus w.e.f. academic year 2017-18)

Semester Title of the Paper Credits Max. Min.

Marks Marks
Theory
I.Cell Biology (Common) 4 100 40
II. Basic Microbiology (Common) 4 100 40
III. Biomolecules – structure & function 4 100 40
I (Common)
IV. Taxonomy of Angiosperms & 4 100 40
Economic Botany
Practicals

I. Cell Biology(Common) 2 50 20

II. Introduction to 2 50 20
Microbiology(Common)
III. Biomolecules – structure & 2 50 20
function(Common)
IV. Taxonomy of Angiosperms & 2 50 20
Economic Botany

Total Credits:24C: Theory – 16C; Practicals– 8C

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 SEMESTER I
PAPER I – CELL BIOLOGY (Common)

Objectives:
On completion of this course the student will be able to

1). Understand the basic cell types, cell organelles ‘types and their functions
2). Understand the cell signaling molecules and their function
3). Understand the mechanism of cell division of plant and animal cells
4). Understand the cancer development and apoptosis

Specific objective:

Students will know the molecular structure and functions of cell organelles and signaling
molecules involved in the apoptosis and development of cancer.

Credits - 4
Unit–I: Cells, cell types,Cellular organelles: Cell organelles and their structural organization:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, Plasma membrane, Chloroplasts; Mitochondria; Golgi complex;
Endoplasmic reticulum; Vacuole; Nucleus and Nucleolus; Functional domains within the
Nucleus; Nucleolus; Micro bodies; Lysosomes; Structure and function of plant cell wall. Germ
cells, Somatic cells: Muscle, liver, neuronal and glial cells.

Unit –II: Nomenclature of chromosome; C-value paradox; Organization of Eukaryotic

chromosome; Structure of Nucleosome; Euchromatin and Hetero chromatin; Cytoskeleton -
Structure and Organization of cytoskeletal filaments - Actin and Intermediate filaments;
Microtubules. Microtubule motors and movement and Nucleation.

Unit- III: Cell Communication: Cell surface receptors and Intracellular receptors; Intracellular
signaling - Autocrine, Paracrine, Contact dependent, Synaptic and Endocrine signaling;
Response of cell to signals; Cell surface receptors - Ion channel linked, G- protein linked and
Enzyme linked receptors; Intracellular signaling proteins - Different types and their role;
Second messengers; cAMP pathway and role of calcium; Cellular interactions: Microvilli, Tight
junctions, Belt and Spot Desmosomes. Gap junctions - Electrical coupling, the connexon.
Permeability to ions and small molecules. Factor mediating cell-self recognition, Cellular
interaction Cyclic AMPand cyclic GMP.

Unit IV:Cell cycle - Overview of eukaryotic cell cycle, Regulation of cell cycle by cell growth
and extra cellular signals, Cell cycle check points, Regulation of cell cycle progression - Protein
kinases; MPF; Cyclins and Cyclin dependent kinases.Cell Death:i) Apoptosis - Definition,
Morphological and Biochemical differences between Apoptosis and Necrosis; Mechanism

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(Intrinsic pathway and Extrinsic pathway), Inhibitors of Apoptosis and Significance. ii) Cancer
Development and causes of Cancer; Properties of Cancer cells; Approaches to Cancer treatment.

List of Practicals: (Cell Biology)

1. Preparation of Cytological slides for Mitosis using Root tips.
2. Preparation of Cytological slides for Meiosis-I using Flower buds; Chiasma Frequency.
3. Identification of different stages of Mitosis and Meiosis.
4. Demonstration of Chromosomal (Structural and Numerical) Aberrations.
5. Isolation of cell organelles.
6. Isolation of Chloroplast
7. Isolation of Mitochondrial fraction by differential gradient centrifuge
Outcome of the course:
Students will understand the different types of cells, cell divisions, signaling molecules
involved in cell communication and growth and development of cancer

Suggested Readings: (Cell Biology)

1. Cooper Geoffrey, M. - The Cell-A Molecular Approach, ASM Press, Washington.
2. Sharma, A.K & A. Sharma. - Chromosome Techniques: Theory & Practice, Batter
Worth.
3. Albert’s, A. et al. - Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Publishing House, New York.
4. De Robertis, E.D.P. & E.M.F. DeRobertis. - Cell and Molecular Biology, Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, Bombay.
5. Powar, C.B. - Cell Biology.

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 SEMESTER I
PAPER II – BASIC MICROBIOLOGY (Common)

Objectives: On completion of this course the student will be able to

Understand the taxonomy and of classification of microbes.

Study the structure and function of Bacterial cell.
Study the nutritional mechanisms and growth kinetics of microbes
Study the interactions, pathogenesis and diseases caused by microbes.
Study the industrial applications of microbes

Credits - 4
Unit – I
History and scope of Microbiology. Recent trends and developments in modern microbiology.
Identification, characterization and classification of microorganisms, Principles of bacterial
taxonomy and classification: - Bergy’s manual and its importance, Concepts, nomenclature and
taxonomic ranks: Major characteristics used in Taxonomy-morphological, physiological and
metabolic, ecological, numerical taxonomy, genetic and molecular classification systems; the
kingdoms of organisms and phylogenetic trees. Distinguishing characteristics between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, Structure and function of Cell wall of bacteria, cell membranes,
flagella, pili, capsule, gas vesicles, carboxysomes and magnetosomes.

Unit – II
Microbial nutrition - common nutrient requirements, Nutritional types of microorganisms,
Bacterial growth Dynamics. Microbial growth - Requirements for growth. Bacterial Adaptations,
Extremophiles (Acidophiles, Alkaliphiles, Thermophiles, Halophiles, Psychrophiles). Control of
Microorganisms by Physical and Chemical Agents. Structure and classification of viruses,
viroids and prions; Modern concepts in virology: Replication, Assembly, Mode of infection,
Transduction.

Unit – III
Pathogenicity of Microorganisms – Host – Parasite relationships, Pathogenicity of Viral diseases
- Entry, Contact, and Primary Replication, Viral Spread and Cell Tropism, Host Immune
Response, Recovery from Infection, Virus Shedding. Pathogenesis of Bacterial Diseases -
Maintaining a Reservoir of the Bacterial Pathogen, Transport of the BacterialPathogen to the
Host, Attachment andColonization by the Bacterial Pathogen, Invasion of the Bacterial
Pathogen, Growth and Multiplicationof the Bacterial Pathogen, Leaving the Host. Human
Diseases Caused by Viruses, Prions; Bacteria and Fungi. Biofilm formation.

Unit – IV
Application of Microorganisms in Industry - choosing microorganisms for industrial
microbiology and biotechnology, Finding Microorganisms in Nature, Genetic Manipulation of
Microorganisms, Preservation of Microorganisms. Major Products of Industrial Microbiology -
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Antibiotics, Amino Acids, Organic Acids, Biopolymers, Biosurfactants, Bioconversion
Processes. Acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) Fermentation. Microbiology of Fermented Foods -
Yogurt, Cheese Production, Meat and Fish, Production of Alcoholic Beverages and Breads.
Probiotics.

List of Practicals: (Basic Microbiology)

1. Isolation of Pure Cultures
2. Serial Dilution
3. Growth measurement by using spectrophotometer
4. Calculation of cell number from OD Units
5. Determination of Doubling time
6. Gram staining
7. Yeast Fermentation process
8. Influence of temperature, pH and salt on growth of bacteria
Outcome:

The students will be able to identify and classify microbes based on Bergy’s manual.

The students will be able to describe the structure & function of Bacteria.
The students will be able to describe how the nutritional uptake and growth of microbes
occurs by controlling physical and chemical agents.
The students can able to understand the detailed structure & classification of viruses &
also how the replication & assembly of virus occurs.
The students will be able to understand pathogenicity of microorganisms (parasites,
virus) and can identify human diseases caused by Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses and prions.
The students will be able to know the application of microorganisms in industry e.g:
Antibiotics, Amino Acids, etc.
The students will be able to understand different processes in microbiology of fermented
foods.

Suggested Readings: (Basic Microbiology)

1. MJ. Peleczar, Jr & E.C.S Chan International students - Elements of Microbiology,
McGraw Hill International Book Company, New Delhi.
2. C.B. Powar& H.F. Daginawala - General Microbiology, Himalaya Publishing House,
Bombay.
3. R Aananthnarayan& C.K. JayaramPanikar - Text Book of Microbiology, Orient
Longmen, Hyderabad.
4. A.Mani, A.M.Selvaraj, L.M. Narayanan and N.Arumugam – Microbiology, Saras
Publications.
5. Bauman Robertt et al. – Microbiology with diseases:Taxanomy, Benjamin Cummings
Publishers.

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 SEMESTER I
PAPER III – BIOMOLECULES: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (Common)

Credits – 4
Learning Objectives

 To learn about fundamentals of Chemical foundations of Biology.

 To learn about Structural and Functional aspects of Biomolecules like Carbohydrates,
Protein, lipids and Nucleic acids etc.

Unit – I
Chemical foundations of biology: Chemical bonds, pH, pKa, acids, bases, buffers, isomerism.
Principles and Laws of thermodynamics, Properties of water.
Carbohydrates: Definition, classification, stereo isomeric forms, structure, functions and
reactions of biologically important carbohydrates viz. Monosaccharide - glucose, fructose,
mannose, galactose, arabinose; Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose, maltose, cellobiose; structural
and storage polysaccharides- starch, glycogen, inulin, hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin, chitin and
peptidoglycans.

Unit – II
Amino acid, peptide and proteins: Amino acids: Classification, Properties, reactions, rare
amino acids; Biologically important peptides; Protein classification: Reactions, functions,
properties and Solid phase synthesis; Structural levels of protein: (a). Primary Structure: Peptide
bond, importance of primary structure. (b). Secondary structure: alpha-helix, β - structure, β-
helix, super secondary structure. (c). Tertiary Structure: Forces stabilizing, unfolding/ refolding
experiments. Prediction of tertiary Structure (d). Quaternary structure – haemoglobin; End group
analysis, sequencing and peptide synthesis, Ramachandran plot and its significance.

Unit – III
Lipids and Fatty acids: Definition and nomenclature, Fatty acids and their types, structure and
biological functions of various class of lipids – Triacyl glycerol, phospholipids, glycolipids,
sphingolipids, terpenoid lipids, including steroids, alkyl glyceryl ethers and wax;
Lipoproteins; Lipids of physiological significance; Lipid transport and storage; Bio- membranes;
formation of micelles; bilayers, vesicles, membrane composition and fluid mosaic
model.Structure and functions of Polyamines, Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, leucotrienes.Types
and functions of Porphyrins, pigments and growth regulators.

Unit – IV
Nucleic acids:Building blocks of nucleic acids- purines and pyrimidines, nucleosides,
nucleotides; Types of DNA (A, B and Z); Double stranded linear DNA; Circular DNA and Extra
chromosomal DNA; Watson and Crick DNA double helix model; Chargaff’s rule; DNA
organization, Stability and formation of phosphodiester linkages; Effect of acids, alkali and
nucleases; Supercoiling, helix to random coil transition; denaturation of nucleic acids and
melting temperature; Different types of RNA and their biological functions.

6
List of Practicals: (Biomolecules – Structure and Function)
1. Determination of reducing sugars by spectrophotometer
2. Identification of amino acids by paper chromatography
3. Analyzing of amino acids by TLC
4. Isolation of Protein
5. Estimation of Proteins
6. Separation of Proteins by SDS PAGE
7. Isolation of lipids
Course Outcome:
Students should understand the both structural and Functional aspects of biologically important
molecules. It should pave a path to learn about the metabolic pathways of biologically important
molecules and their biomedical significance. Students should apply their knowledge towards
research

Suggested Readings: (Biomolecules – Structure and Function)

1. Lehninger- Principles of biochemistry by Nelson D. Cox Michael M - 6th Edition
2. Biochemistry by L. Stryer - 4th Edition
3. Biochemistry by V.Voet and J.G.Voet - 4th Edition
4. Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry by Victor W. Rodwell, David Bender, Kathleen M.
Botham - 30th Edition
5. Modern Experimental Biochemistry by Rodney F. Boyer - 3rd Edition

7
 SEMESTER I:

4 credits
PAPER -IV: TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS AND ECONOMIC BOTANY

Objectives:

 To identify flowering plants on earth

 To understand the nomenclature of taxon
 To understand the process of classification
 To recognize the different kinds of plants in human welfare.

UNIT I: Angiosperm classifications and Phylogeny:Plant taxonomy – scope and significance;

Brief history of plant classifications- Natural and Phylogenetic systems; Bentham and Hooker’s
system of classification; Principles of phylogenetic classifications; Engler and Prantle;
Hutchinson; Takhtajan and Cronquist; plesiomorphy; apomorphy; monophyly and polyphyly;
phylogenetic trees; Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification – salient features; clades, orders
and families; A comprehensive account on origin and evolution of Angiosperms.

UNIT II: Floristic studies, Herbarium methodology and Nomenclature:Floristic inventories

in India- a general account. Botanical Survey of India and its activities; Phytogeographical zones
in India; Flora of Andhra Pradesh – Significant contributors; vegetation types and floristic
diversity of Andhra Pradesh; endemic and threatened taxa; Herbarium methodology – methods
of collection, processing and preservation of plant specimens; Significant herbaria in the world
and India; International code of nomenclature (Melbourne code, 2011) – principles, rules and
recommendations; typification, rule of priority; nyms conceptand author citation; effective and
valid publication.

UNIT III: Modern Taxonomy: Source of Taxonomic characters-External morphology;

comparative anatomy; embryology: palynology – pollen aperturelmorphofoms, exine
stratification and ornamentation; Cytology – chromosome morphology and behavior, banding
patterns; Biochemical and molecular systematics;Secondary metabolites, chemical markers,
Molecular taxonomy applications, DNA barcoding;Numerical taxonomy – principles, merits and
demerits.

UNIT IV: Economic Botany: Economic importance of Algae, Fungi and Gymnosperms;
Biofertilizers; Single Cell Protein (SCP) and Biofuels; A general account and Economic
potentials of fibers, vegetable and aromatic oils, timber and fire wood, spices and condiments,
beverages and rubber yielding plants.

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Practicals:
1. Study of about 25 wild taxa representing different families and identification to species level.
2. Study of flora of the college campus.
3. Major botanical tour of 5-8 days duration, covering south Indian flora and vegetation types.
Field trips to acquaint with local flora. Submission of a report on botanical tours.
4. Preparation of 50 herbarium specimens of common wild plant taxa.
5. Construction of taxonomic keys.
6. Nomenclatural exercise.
7. Study of economic importance of certain plants

Outcome of the course:

 Students will understand about Identification, Classification and Nomenclature of plants

according to acceptable system of plant classification.
 Students will understand the importance of different kinds of plants to human beings and
animals.

Suggested Readings:
1. Gamble & Fischer 1915-1935. Flora of Presidency of Madras. 3 vols.BSMS,
Dehradun.Heywood, V.H., RK Brummitt, A. Culham, O. Seberg 2007. Flowering Plant
Families of the World. Firefly books Ltd. New York.
2. Judd, W.S, Christopher S. Campbell, Elizabeth A. Kellogg, Peter F. Stevens, and Michael
J. Donoghue. 2007. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 3rd ed. Sinauer.
3. .Pullaiah, T. 2005. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Regency publications, New Delhi.
4. Ravi Prasad Rao, B. 2007. Plant Name Directory. ABCD, Planographers. Hyderabad.
5. Simpson, Michael G. 2006. Plant Systematics. Elseiver& Academic Press.
6. Singh, Gurucharan. 2005. Plant Systematics. Oxford & IBH. New Delhi.
7. Kocchar, S.L. 1998. Economic Botany in Tropics, 2nd ed. Macmillan India Ltd., New
Delhi.
8. Sharma, O.P. 1996. Hill’s Economic Botany, Tata McGraw Hill Co.Ltd. New Delhi.

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 RAYALASEEMA UNIVERSITY::KURNOOL
LIST OF PAPERS IN THE COURSE M.Sc. BOTANY
(Syllabus w.e.f. academic year 2017-18)

Semester Title of the Paper Credits Max. Min.

Marks Marks
Theory
I - Genetics and Evolution (Common) 4 100 40
II - Enzymology (Common) 4 100 40
III - Tools and Techniques in Biology 4 100 40
(Common)
II IV. Plant Physiology 4 100 40
Practicals

I - Genetics and Evolution (Common) 2 50 20

II - Enzymology (Common) 2 50 20

III - Tools and Techniques in Biology 2 50 20

(Common)
IV. Plant Physiology 2 50 20

TOTAL = 24C; Theory – 16C; Practicals – 8C.

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 SEMESTER II

PAPER I – GENETICS AND EVOULTION (Common)

Objectives:

o To study the Mendel principles of Genetics and Genetic Recombination.

o To know the Chromosome as a Linkage unit, Chromosomal Mapping, Chromosomal
Aberrations, Sex- linked inheritance
o To study the Structural abnormalities of Human chromosomes and Syndromes
Concepts of Eugenics and genetic counseling
o To study about principles of evolution and Darwinism ,Neo-Darwinism and
Lamarckism.

Credits - 4
Unit – I
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance:An Overview: Genetic conventions, Notations and Terminology.
Genetic Recombination: Types (Homologous - Reciprocal and Non-reciprocal, Site specific and
Illegitimate). Different models of Homologous Recombination. Molecular Mechanisms of
Recombination.Non-Mendelian inheritance.

Unit – II
Chromosome as a Linkage unit: Coefficient of Coincidence of Double Crosses, Chiasma
Interference. Chromosomal Mapping: Mapping by Recombinational Frequencies,
Transformation and Interrupted Mating. Chromosomal Aberrations: Types (Numerical and
Structural) and their significance in Evolution.Sex Chromosomes: Determination of Sex; Genic
balance theory;Gynandromorphs; Sex- linked inheritance;Criss - cross inheritance.

Unit – III
Numerical (aneuploidy: trisomy, monosomy, nullisomy; euploidy) and Structural abnormalities
(deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation) of Human chromosomes and Syndromes:
Turner’s; Down’s and Klinifelter.Human karyotype and Human genome.Inborn errors of
Metabolism.Pedigree analysis.Concepts of Eugenics: Artificial Insemination, sperm banks,
Amniocentesis, Consanguinity, prenatal diagnosis. Inborn diseases and genetic counselling.

Unit – IV
Emphasis on Darwinism and Lamarckism.Neo-Darwinism.An account on destabilizing forces:
(i) Natural selection (ii) Mutation (iii) Genetic drift. Hardy and Weinberg equilibrium and its

11
significance in understanding Evolution.Modes of Speciation: (Allopatric, Sympatric and
Parapatric).Phylogenetic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium.Micro and Macro Evolution.

List of Practicals: (Genetics and Evolution)

1. Mendelian Laws using Colour Marbles or Beads.
2. Evaluation of Segregation and Random assessment using Chi-Square test or Test of
fitness.
3. Demonstration of Barr bodies.
4. Construction of Genetic Maps based on problems in two and three factor crosses.
5. Demonstration of Neo-Darwinism and Lamarckism.
6. Charts – Micro and Macro Evolution.
7. Sex determination of Drosophila
8. Culturing drosophila using standard methods
9. Variance of eye and wings studies in drosophila
Outcome:

 The students will be able to differentiate different models in Homologous recombination.

 The students will be able to know Chromosomal Mapping, Chromosomal Aberrations,
Genic balance theory.
 The students will be able to know Numerical & Structural abnormalities of Human
chromosomes and Syndromes, Concepts of Eugenics Inborn diseases and Genetic
Counseling.
 The students will be able to know Emphasis on Darwinism ,Neo-Darwinism &
destabilizing forces

Suggested Readings: (Genetics and Evolution)

1. B. D. Singh, P.B. KaviKishor, PratibhaNallari, P. H. Rao. Cell Biology and Genetics;
Genetics :Fundamentals.Kalyani Publishers, Hyderabad, New Delhi. Published in the
year2009.
2. Monrve W. Strickberger – Genetics.
3. K.B. Ahluwallia - Genetics.
4. E.J. Gardner. M.J. Simmons and D.P. Snustad- Principles of Genetics.
5. Watson, J.D., N.H. Hopkins, J.W. Roberts, J.A. Steitz and A.M. Weiner - Molecular
Biology of Genes, Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company. Inc. Tokyo.
6. E.J. Mange, Arthur P. Mange - Basic Human Genetics, Indian Print.
7. M.R. Goodman - Genetic disorders of Man.

12
 SEMESTER II

PAPER II – Enzymology (Common)

Objectives:

 To study the basic knowledge of enzymes, know the parameters of the enzymatic
reaction.

 To learn the mechanisms of action of enzymes and inhibitors.

 To learn the knowledge of the structure of enzymes and amino acids that builds active
sites of enzymes.

 To introduce students to various theoretical and practical aspects of enzymology.

Credits - 4

Unit - I
Nomenclature and classification of enzymes: EC, Vitamin cofactors: TPP, FMN/FAD,
NAD/NADP, Pantothenic acid; Factors affecting catalysis (pH, temperature, pressure, enzyme
and substrate concentration); Chemicals to identify active site residues: Arg, Cys, Lys, His.

Unit - II
Kinetics of catalysed reaction: Single substrate reactions, bisubstrate reactions (ordered, random,
sequential, Ping-Pong), Michaelis-Menton kinetics (derive equation and transformations);
Transformation of Michaelis-Menton equation, Determination and significance of kinetic
constants, Activation energy and Arrhenius concept. Enzymes activation by ligand binding and
dimerization (protein tyrosine kinase receptors). Reversible and irreversible activation of
enzymes (pro-enzymes, phosphorylation). Inhibitors (competitive, uncompetitive,
noncompetitive, suicide). Enzyme inhibitors as drugs: RT and Protease inhibitors as anti-HIV
drugs

Unit - III
Enzyme catalysis: enzyme specificity and the concept of active site, determination of active site.
Stereospecificity of enzymes. Mechanism of catalysis: Proximity and orientation effects, general
acid-base catalysis, concerted acid - base catalysis, nucleophilic and electrophilic attacks,
catalysis by distortion, metal ion catalysis. Catalytic mechanism of RNase, Chymotrypsin,
Trypsin, Lysozyme, Carboxypeptidase and Subtilisin.

Unit - IV

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Enzyme regulation: General mechanisms of enzyme regulation.Regulation of Glutamine
Synthetase. Allosteric regulation of Aspartate Transcarbamylase. Sigmoidal kinetics and their
physiological significance, Symmetric and sequential modes for action of allosteric enzymes.
Multi-enzyme Complex: fatty acid synthase. Cooperativity in binding (oxygen binding to
hemoglobin).Cooperativity: MWC model, KNF model. Immobilised enzymes and their industrial
applications.Isoenzymes and their significance.
List of Practicals:(Enzymology)
1. Assay of Amylase from saliva
2. Assay of Acid phosphatase from potato
3. Assay of Trypsin
4. Assay of urease from Horse gram
5. Assay of Succinate dehydrogenase from the liver
6. Effect of temperature on enzyme activity and calculation of energy of activation.
7. Enzyme kinetics
8. Effect of PH on enzyme activity and determination of optimum PH
9. Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity and determination of Michealis
constant.
Outcome:

 The students will be able to differentiate different models in Homologous recombination.

 The students will be able to know Chromosomal Mapping, Chromosomal Aberrations,
Genic balance theory.
 The students will be able to know Numerical & Structural abnormalities of Human
chromosomes and Syndromes, Concepts of Eugenics Inborn diseases and Genetic
Counseling.
 The students will be able to know Emphasis on Darwinism ,Neo-Darwinism &
destabilizing forces

Suggested Readings: (Enzymology)

1. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, David L. Nelson, Michael M. Cox Publisher: W.
H. Freeman.
2. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3rd edition. Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis,
Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and James D Watson. Publisher New York: Garland Science.
3. The Cell: A Molecular Approach, Fifth Edition, by Geoffrey M. Cooper and
Robert E. Hausman, published by ASM Press.

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 SEMESTER II
PAPER III – TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN BIOLOGY (Common)

Objectives:
 To understand the principles and applications of Microscopy
 To understand the principles and applications of Chromatography
 To understand the principles and applications of Electrophoresis
 To understand the principles and applications of Spectroscopy

Credits - 4
Unit -I
Microscopy and Centrifugation: Principles and application of light, phase contrast, fluorescence,
scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Microtomy and double staining of plant
sections. Centrifugation: Basic principles of sedimentation, types of centrifuges and rotors.
Centrifugation methods: differential, density-gradient, analytical, and ultracentrifugation and
their applications.

Unit-II
Chromatography: Separation methods - General principles and applications. Affinity, Gel
filtration, Ion exchange, Partition and adsorption chromatography. Techniques of paper
chromatography, Thin layer chromatography, Gas and High performance liquid chromatography.

Unit -III
Electrophoresis: General principles and applications. PAGE: Native -PAGE, SDS-PAGE,
Isoelectric focusing, 2D electrophoresis, identification of proteins in 2D gels, capillary
electrophoresis. Agarose gel electrophoresis –Preparation of gel and separation of DNA
andRNA, Elution of DNA from agarose gels. Hybridization, Electrophoretic mobility shift assay
[EMSA].

Unit -IV
Spectroscopy and Radioisotope techniques: Principles, laws of light absorption, Instrumentation
and applications of UV- visible spectrophotometer, fluorescence spectroscopy, Mass
spectroscopy – Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Mass Spectrometry (MALDI –
TOF).Radioisotope Techniques: Types of isotopes, radioactive decay. Detection and
measurement of radioactivity. GM counter, scintillation counter, autoradiography. Isotopes used
in biology, safety methods in handling radioisotopes.

List of Practicals: (Tools and Techniques in Biology)

1. Determination of Wavelength of Maximum Absorbance
2. Separation of Biological compounds by Paper chromatography
3. Determination of Tm value of DNA

15
 4. Determination of molecular extinction coefficient
5. TLC analysis for amino acids
6. Western blot analysis.
7. Preparation of Buffers and measurement of pH

Outcomes of the course:

After completion of the course tools and techniques in Biology, the students will understand
how the techniques are useful to understand the molecular structure of the
plant/animal/microbial cell structures. They will understand the separation of biological
molecules by using different techniques.

Suggested Readings: (Tools and Techniques in Biology)

1. Ed.John. R.W.Masters - Animal Cell culture: A Practical approach, IRL Press.
2. Ronert Braun - Introduction TO Instrumental Analysis, McGraw Hill International.
3. K. Wilson & K.W. Goulding - A Biologists Guide to Principles and Techniques of
Practical Biochemistry, ELBS Edn.
4. K.T. Brown and D.G. Flamming IBRO - Advanced Micropipette Techniques for cell
physiology Hand Book Series, A Wiley Interscience publications, John Wiley and Sons,
New York.
5. N.J. Stransfed and T.A. Miller - Neuro anatomical Techniques, Springer Verlag, New
York Heidelberg, Berlin.
6. Robert S. Feldman, Jerrold S. Meyer and Unidaquenzer - Principles of
Neuropsychopharmacology, Sinancer Associates Inc. Publishers. Sunderland,
Massachusetts.
7. F.M. Weesner - General Zoological Microtechnique

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 SEMESTER II:
PAPER IV: PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Learning Objectives:
After completion of the course the students will able to understand
 The plant physiological processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transport, growth,
flowering, growth substances and the physiological aspects of crop yield
 Water relations process of plants like transpiration, transport of water etc.
 Effect of environmental conditions on flowering of plants and role of growth regulators in plant
development

UNIT – I: Plant cell - water relations, Mineral nutrition and Stomata: Mechanism of water
uptake and transport in plants; SPAC concept; Thermodynamic concept of plant cell and water
relations; Phloem transport of organic substances – Phloem loading and unloading; Passive and
active solute transport; Membrane transport proteins; Essential elements-functions and their
deficiency symptoms; Stomata-structural features; mechanism of stomatal movements
andstomatal index, frequency,; Stomatal responses to environmental factors; antitranspirants and
their importance in drought resistance.

UNIT –II: Photosynthesis and Respiration: Current knowledge on the mechanism of

photosynthesis-light harvesting complexes; photochemical reactions; electron transport in
chloroplasts; Oxygen evolution and photophosphorylation; Carbon fixation pathways-
Reductive Pentose Phosphate pathway and its regulation by light and metabolites; C4 pathway;
C3-C4 intermediates;CAM pathway; Photosynthesis versus plant productivity; Photorespiration-
Glycolate pathway, significance of photorespiration.Respiration: Overview of plant respiration;
Glycolysis; TCA cycle; Electron transport and ATP synthesis; Pentose Phosphate pathway;
Glyoxylate cycle; alternative oxidase system.

UNIT-III: Plant growth regulators, Sensory photobiology and Flowering

process:Biosynthesis; storage; breakdown and transport; physiological effects and mechanisms
of action of auxins; gibberellins; cytokinins; ethylene; abscisic acid; brassinosteroids;
polyamines;jasmonic acid and salicylic acid; hormone receptors; History of discovery of
phytochromes; structure and function of phytochrome; photochemical and biochemical
properties of phytochrome; phytochrome induced plant responses; molecular mechanism of
action of phytochrome in gene expression; Cryptochrome and its role in photomorphogenesis;
The flowering process; Photoperiodism and its significance; endogenous clock and its
regulation; floral induction and development – genetic and molecular analysis, role of
vernalization.

UNIT IV: Stress Physiology: Concept of stress and strain; Kinds of stress; Abiotic stress-
Water stress; Salt stress; Temperature stress; Heavy metal stress; Biotic stress factors-Stress
avoidance and tolerance mechanisms; structural, physiological, biochemical and molecular

17
responses of plants to environmental stress; Reclamation of saline soils and heavy metal
contaminated soils.

Practicals:

1. Determination of cell permeability by using Beet root tissues.

2. Determination of stomata index and frequency in leaves.
3. Determination of the water potential of the tissue.
4. Extraction and Estimation of Chlorophyll pigments.(Arnan method).
5. Determination of viability of different seed material.
6. Estimation of IAA by Solkowski’s method.
7. Determination of membrane stability and chlorophyll stability index of stressed plants
8. Estimation of free Proline in stressed plants sample.

Outcome of the course

After successful completion of the students will learn about physiological process of plants. They
will know about mechanism of photosynthesis, respiration and water absorption. The enzymes
involved in plant growth.

Suggested Readings:

1.Buchannan et al 2001. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Plants.

2.Taiz& E. Zeiger. 1998. Plant Physiology. Second Edition.Sinauer Associates Inc, Publishers,

Massachusetts, USA.

3.Salisbury F. B. & C. W. Ross 1992 Plant Physiology. 4 thEdn. Wadsworth Publishing Co.,

Belmout, California.

4.Thomas C. Moore.1992. Biochemistry and Physiology of Hormones.Narosa.

5.Hopkins, W. 1998. Introduction to Plant Physiology.ELBS & Longman, Essex., England.

18
 RAYALASEEMA UNIVERSITY::KURNOOL
LIST OF PAPERS IN THE COURSE M.Sc. BOTANY
(Syllabus w.e.f. academic year 2017-18)

Semester Title of the Paper Credits Max. Min.

Marks Marks
Theory
I. Molecular Biology (Common) 4 100 40
II.Biometry/Biostatistics/Bioinformatics 4 100 40
(Common)
III.Plant Development and Reproduction 4 100 40
III
IV. Phytomedicine and Pharmacognosy. 4 100 40
Practicals

I. Molecular Biology (Common) 2 50 20

II.Biometry/Biostatistics/Bioinformatics 2 50 20
(Common)
III. Plant Development and Reproduction 2 50 20
IV. Phytomedicine and Pharmacognosy. 2 50 20

TOTAL = 24C; Theory – 16C; Practicals – 8C.

19
 SEMESTER III
PAPER I – MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (Common)

Learning objectives

On completion of this paper/module, you will be able to -

1. Name the major proteins and enzymes along with their functions involved in DNA
Replication process.
2. List the different factors responsible for DNA damage and can explain different
methods/enzymes involved in DNA Repair.
3. Explain what is Transcription? Explain in detail about the various components and
different steps in the process of Transcription. Importance of Post-Transcriptional
Modifications.
4. Explain what is meant by the ‘genetic code’ and how it relates to protein synthesis.
Explain in detail about the steps in Protein synthesis and the importance of Post-
Translational Modifications. Sorting and Targeting of different proteins in the cells.
5. Define Antibiotic and Inhibitor. Explain the importance of antibiotics in the treatment of
diseases. Explain the antibiotics mechanism of actions (on protein synthesis) affecting the
growth of pathogenic microorganisms.
6. Understand what Gene expression is and how the genes are regulated. Explain the
arrangement of genes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Importance of lac operon and ara
operon.
7. Importance of Antisense RNA technology.
8. Explain various factors affecting gene expression such as environmental and hormonal.
Importance of gene expression during development (Homeotic genes) and how those
genes are regulated.

Credits - 4
Unit - I
DNA as genetic materials – Experimental evidences: Organization of DNA in prokaryotes and
Eukaryotes. DNA Replication and Repair - Modes of Replication, Experimental evidences for
Semi Conservative mode of Replication –Messelson- Stahl and Cairns experiments; Replication
fork, Continuous and Discontinuous DNA synthesis; Enzymes and Proteins in Replication -

20
Single Strand DNA binding Proteins (SSB), Helicases, Topoisomerases, DNA Ligases; Priming
by RNA Polymerase and Primase; DNA Polymerases - E.coli DNA Polymerase I, II and III and
Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases. DNA Damage and repair mechanisms.

Unit - II
Transcription: Polynucleotide phosphorylase, RNA polymerases - Structure of E.coli RNA
polymerase;sigma factor, sigma cycle, Promoter-polymerase interaction. Nature of Eukaryotic
RNA polymerases; Enhancers, Initiation, Elongation and Termination of RNA
Synthesis.Processing of RNA(Capping, Splicing, Tailing).

Unit - III
Translation (Protein synthesis) - Mechanism of Initiation, Elongation and Termination of Protein
synthesis; Inhibitors of Protein synthesis; Post-Translational Modifications; Protein sorting and
Targeting.

Unit - IV
Regulation of Gene Expression - House Keeping genes, Constitutive and Regulatory genes;
Inducers and Repressors; Regulation of Gene expression in Prokaryotic Operons - Negative
regulation and Positive regulation; Fine structure of lac operon - Repressor and the Catabolite
activator proteins in gene regulation of lac operon; Dual functions of the Repressor in araoperon;
Antisense RNA; Hormones and Environmental factors affecting Gene expression; Homeotic
genes and their Regulation.siRNA and miRNA- RNA interference.

21
List of Practicals: (Molecular Biology)
1. Isolation of DNA from bacterial, plant and animal cells.
2. Estimation of DNA by Diphenylamine methods
3. Estimation of RNA by Orcinol method.
4. Determination of purity and quantity of DNA by UV absorption method.
5. Determination of GC content of DNA and estimation by Tm

Suggested Readings: (Molecular Biology)

1. B. Alberts, D. Bray, J.Lewis, M.Raff, K. Roberts and J.D.Watson - Molecular Biology of
the Cell, Garald Publishing, New York & London.
2. D.Freifelder - Molecular Biology – A Comprehensive Introduction to Prokaryotes and
Eukaryotes, Jones and Bartlett, USA.
3. Maniatis, E.F.Fritsch and J.Sambrook - Molecular Cloning: Laboratory Manual, Cold
Spring Harber Laboratory, NewYork.
4. Benjamin Lewin – Genes, Oxford University Press.
5. Nelson and Cox - Principles of Biochemistry.
6. Alberts Johnson et al. – Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science, New York.

22
 SEMESTER III
PAPER II – BIOMETRY, BIOSTATISTICS AND BIOINFORMATICS (Common)

Objectives:

 To make proper use of raw data.

 To make the study of data and comparison easier.
 To put up the collected material to statistical treatment.
 To simplify the complexities of raw data and make it possible to draw statistical
inferences.

 To read the analysis of gene and protein sequences to reveal protein evolution and
alternative splicing, the development of computational approaches to study and predict
protein structure to further understanding of function, the analysis of mass spectrometry
data.

 To study the development of computational methods to utilize expression data to reverse

engineer gene networks in order to more completely model cellular biology.

 To study of population genetics and its connection to human disease.

Credits - 4
Unit – I
Data – Data types, Collection of data, Classification and Tabulation. Measures of Central
tendencies – Mean, Median and Mode. Measures of Variation – Range, Quartile deviation, Mean
deviation and Standard deviation. Coefficient of variation. Probability – Addition and
Multiplication theories, Conditional probability and Probability distributors – Binomial, Poisson
and Normal distribution.

Unit – II
Correlation and Linear Regression – Scatter diagram method – Karnal Pearson’s Rank
correlation methods. Regression lines– Fitting of regression lines by least squares method –
Regression coefficients and properties. Small tests – t, F and chi square tests. ANOVA – one
way and two way classification. Duncan’s Neuman-Keulsmultiple range (DMR) tests.

Unit – III
Introduction to bioinformatics- Biological Databases and their importance. Primary and
Secondary protein and nucleic acid Databases. Genomic and Proteomic Pathway Databases.
Overview of primary, secondary structural elements. Protein secondary prediction, Introduction
to molecular modeling concepts and applications.

23
Unit – IV
Sequence Analysis – Sequence Alignments methods- Dot plots, pair wise and multiple sequence
alignments. Global Vs Local Alignment, Dynamic programming- PAM and BLOSUM
scoringmatrices-Homolog, Paralog and ortholog. Domine and Motifs, Patterns and profiles.
Phylogenetic studies, Dendrograms, Phylograms, Cladograms.

List of Practicals: (Biometry, Biostatistics and Bioinformatics)

1. Downloading genes and EST sequences from databases.
2. Sequence alignment - pair wise and multiple sequences.
3. Primer designing.
4. Phylogenetic analysis at the nucleotide and amino acid sequence levels. Construction of
phylogenetic trees using software tools.
5. Genome sequence analysis for the identification of coding gene sequences.
6. Identification of promoter sequences in the genome sequences.
7. Chi-test
8. ANOVA

Outcomes:
 Apply basic statistical concepts commonly used in health sciences.
 Use basic analytical techniques to generate results.
 Interpret results of commonly used statistical analyses in written summaries.
 Demonstrate statistical reasoning skills correctly and contextually.
 Knowledge and awareness of the basic principles and concepts of biology, computer
science and mathematics.

 existing software effectively to extract information from large databases and to use this
information in computer modeling.

 problem-solving skills, including the ability to develop new algorithms and analysis
methods.

 an understanding of the intersection of life and information sciences, the core of shared
concepts, language and skills the ability to speak the language of structure-function
relationships, information theory, gene expression, and database queries.

Suggested Readings: (Biometry, Biostatistics and Bioinformatics)

24
1. P.B. KaviKishor and L.N. Chavali. Principles of Biological Databases. Himalaya
Publishing House, Hyderabad, New Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai. Published in 2013.
2. Sokal – Rohlf - Introduction to Biostatistics (2ndEdn.), Freeman International Edition.
3. Goldstein, A - Biostatistics – An Introductory text, The McMillan Co., New York.
4. Lewis Alvin E. - Biostatistics, Affiliated East – West Press Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi.
5. Bailey Norman T.J. - Statistical Methods in Biology, The English Language Book
Society & The English University Press Ltd.
6. Holdan Bancroft - Introduction to Biostatistics, Paul B. Hoebar Inc., New York.

25
 SEMESTER III
PAPER III: PLANT DEVELOPMENTAND REPRODUCTION

Course Objectives:
By studying this course the students will able to understand the
 The growth and development of plant stem/root tissues
 The growth and development of plant flower/fruit
 The development of plant male and female gametophytes
 The pollination vectors, fertilization mechanism and embryo development

UNIT I: Shoot and Root Development:Organization of Shoot Apical Meristem (SAM);

Tissue differentiation; Anatomy of node; Root development:Organization of Root Apical
Meristem (RAM); Quiescent centre; cell facts and lineages; vascular tissue differentiation;
Primary structure and Secondary growth in roots; lateral roots; root hairs; root microbe
interactions; Anomalous secondary growth - Adaptive and Non Adaptive; Abnormal position
and activity of the cambium,; intraxylar phloem; intraxylar cork; Secondary growth in monocot
stem; Anomalous secondary growth in roots; Histology of Angiosperm leaf; Development of
Foliage Leaf; Anatomy of modified leaves.

UNIT II: Flower and Fruit:

Histology of floral parts; Development of flower; Anatomy of fruits:Structure and
development-Fruit wall; Anatomy of Dry dehiscent, indehiscent and fleshy fruits;Anatomy of
seed:Structure and development; Programmed cell death - Basic concepts and types of cell Death
Process Associated with PCD in plants; PCD in the life cycle of plants; Senescence and
Abscission.

UNIT III: Male and Female Gametophyte:

Microsporangium; microsporogenesis; male gametophyte: structure of anthers - anther wall
development and structure; anther tapetum- secretary and periplasmodial; role of tapetum;
microsporogenesis; cytokinesis; microspore tetrads; male gametophyte development; pollen
wall- structure and development; pollen kit, pollen in cyperaceae; Type of Embryosac
development- Monosporic, Bisporic and Tetrasporic; Ultra structure of embryo sac- synergids,
egg, antipodal, Central cell, synergidhaustoria, antipodal haustoria, embryosachaustoria;
Nutrition of the Embryo sac.

UNIT IV: Pollination, Fertilization, Endosperm and Embryo Development:

Pollination mechanisms and vectors; structure of the pistil; pollen- pistil interactions; pollen
germination; pollen tube growth; double fertilization; incompatibility - dichogamy;herkogamy;
unisexuality;heteromorphic incompatibility; homomorphic incompatibility; genetic basis of
incompatibility, sporophytic incompatibility; gametophytic incompatibility; methods to
overcome incompatibility; Endosperm development- Nuclear, Cellular and Helobial types;
Endosperm haustoria; composite endosperm; Ruminate endosperm; Cellularization of

26
endosperm; Cytology of Endosperm; Functions; Embryo - Development of embryo in Dicots-
Onagrad, Asterad, Chenopodiad, Caryophyllad and Solanad; Embryo development in Paeonia;
Embryo development in Monocots and Dicots; Suspensor; Nutrition to embryo; Ultra structure
of embryo; suspensor; Polyembryony; Apomixis.

Practicals:
Plant Development:
1. Study of tissues and Tissue systems.
2. Study of internal organization of different types of stems
3. Study of internal organization of roots.
4. Study of internal organization of plants showing anomalous secondary growth.
5. Microscopic examination of vertical sections of leaves such as Polyalthia, Ficus,
NeriumNymphaea, maize and Wheat to understand the internal structure of leaf tissues and
trichomes, glands etc. Also study C3 and C4 leaf anatomy of plants.
6. Study epidermal peals of leaves to study the development and structure of stomata and
prepare stomatal index.
7. Wood maceration.
8. Preparation of permanent slides -5 slides to be submitted at the time of Examination.
Plant Reproduction:
1. Study of microsporogensis and gametogensis in anther sections.
2. Examinations of anthers dehiscence and collection of pollen grains for microscopic
examination (maize, grasses, Cannabis sativa, Crotalaria,Tadescantia, Brassica, Petunia,
Solanummelongena etc.)
3. .Study of pollen grains by acetolysis
4. Dissection and mounting of endosperm and embryo showing developmental stages and
haustoria.
5. Microtomy: Fixation, Processing, Sectioning, Staining and mounting.
6,Micrometry: Use of stage and ocular micrometer.

Suggested Readings:
1.Bhojwani, S. S and S.P. Bhatnagar 2002. The embryology of Angiosperms (4th revised and
enlarged edition) Vikas Publication House, New Delhi
2.Pullaiah, T., K. Lakshminarayana and B. HanumanthaRao 2001. Textbook of Embryology of
Angiosperms. Regency Publications, New Delhi
3. Pullaiah, T., K. Lakshminarayana and B. HanumanthaRao 2008. Plant
Reproduction.Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
4.Raghavan, V 1999. Developmental biology of Flowering Plants.Swpringer Verlag,.
5.Pullaiah, K. C. Naidu., K. Lakshmi narayana and B. HanumanthaRao 2007. Plant
Development, Regency Publications, New Delhi
6.Maheshwari p.1980.An introduction to the embryology of Angiosperms.TataMcGrawhill

27
7.Shivanna K.R. and B.M.Johri 1985.The Angiosperms pollen:Structure and function
.Wiley.Ltd.London.

8.Johri B .M.1984.Embryology of Angiosperms.Verlag,Berlin

9.Johri B.M.1981.Experimental embryology of vascular plants.

28
 SEMESTER III
PAPER IV: PHYTOMEDICINE AND PHARMACOGNOSY
Objectives:

 Understand important interactions between cultural practices, ecosystems, and modern

science.
 Know the major areas of human interactions with plants / environments:
 Know specific plant taxa used by people:
o Key Plants that are Examples of Global Ethnobotanical Phenomena
 Know characteristics of plant taxa used by people:
o Physiology and biochemistry of useful plants
o Pharmacology and toxicity of useful plants
 Know commonly used qualitative research methods:
o Qualitative chemical analysis, Bioassay analyses
 Demonstrate use of common qualitative research methods:
o Use methods to test hypotheses, Write research study report based on work
conducted
 Know other kinds of methods used by ethnobotany researchers:
o Human subjects protocol, Intellectual property rights protocol

UNIT I : Ethnobotanicals: Ethnobotany-Introduction; history; scope and importance;

Different aspects related to tribes of Andhra Pradesh; Ethnomedicine – different types of crude
drugs (based on origin, application and purpose / use); Wild medicinal plants and their
therapeutic values with reference to the forests of Andhra Pradesh; Importance of Ethno
medicine in the establishment of alternative medicine
UNIT II: Phytomedicine and systems of medicine: Different systems of indigenous
medicine(Traditional medicine, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani); Homeopathy and Allopathy; Role of
Phytomedicine in modern systems of medicine;Phytopharmaceuticals; inventory; taxonomic
validation and evaluation ofphytomedical sources.
UNIT III: Pharmacognostic studies of crude drugs:Introduction; history; scope and
applications of Pharmacognosy; Phytopharmacy; constitution, identification of different
constituents; Classification of drugs; analytical methods-drug adulteration; drug evaluation;
anatomical and phytochemical analysis of crude drugs; preliminary screening; fractionation and
separation of different groups of biodynamic compounds and biological evaluation.
UNIT IV: Pharmacological analysis and utilisation: Ethnopharmacology;
phytopharmacology; dosimetry and administration of drugs; Phytopharmaceuticals; Drugs of
alkaloids; coumarins; volatile oils; tannins; resins and gums; Natural pesticides; antibiotics;
allergens and poisonous plants; Antimicrobial assay; antibacterial and antifungal screening of
crude drugs; Molecular farming; Biotechnological intervention in effective utilisation and
sustainable management of drug yielding plants; Economic potential of phytomedicine;
Potential drug yielding plants and their marketing avenues; IPR and patenting of active
principles.

29
Practicals:
1. Analysis of morphological attributes in selected medicinal plants.
2. Identification of crude drugs using trichomes
3. Identification of crude drugs using physical properties
4. Qualitative analysis of crude drugs for different phytochemicals
5. Quantitative estimation of secondary metobolites: Phenolic compounds, alkaloids.
6. Antimicrobial studies of determination of MIC.

Outcome:
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
 Know the culturally-relevant course of study focused on the uses of native flora of
Andhra Pradesh
 Achieve fundamental college-level competency in fields of ethnobotany, botany, biology,
chemistry, and anthropology.
 Active principles present in the Medicinal plants and how they are useful to human
weflfare
 Gain cultural awareness of the importance of native flora to rural and Native Andhra’s
and will contribute to the documentation of traditional and modern uses of native flora of
Andhra Pradesh

Suggested Readings:
1. Cotton, CM. 1996. Ethnobotany: principles and applications.
2. Kokate, CK., AP. Purohit& SB. Gokhale. 2000. Pharmacognosy. NiraliPrakashan Publ.
3. Kokate,CK, Khandelwal, SB Gokhale 1996. Practical Pharmacgnosy. NiraliPrakashan,
Pune..
4. Martin, G.J. 1996. Ethnobotany. A methods manual. Chapman&Hall. London
5. Schultes, RE., 1995. Ethnobotany. Chapman and Hall.
6. Trease, GE and WC Evans. 2002. Pharmacognosy. Saunders. New York.
7. Tyler, V.E., Brandy, L.R. and Robbers, J.E. 1988. Pharmacognosy. 9th edition. Lea and
Febiger.Philadelphia. USA.
8. Tonneson H.(2004) Photostability of Drugs and Drug formulations.Taylor and
Francis,London.

30
 RAYALASEEMA UNIVERSITY::KURNOOL
LIST OF PAPERS IN THE COURSE M.Sc. Botany
(Syllabus w.e.f. academic year 2017-18)

Semester Title of the Paper Credits Max. Min.

Marks Marks
Theory
Paper I. Plant Biotechnology 4 100 40
Paper II.Biodiversity, Conservation and 4 100 40
Management
IV Project work 12 300 105
Report 8 200 70
Presentation 2 50 20
Defense 2 50 20

Practicals

.40 1. Plant Biotechnology 2 50 20

402. Biodiversity, Conservation and 2 50 20

Management

Total Credits:24C : Theory – 8C &Practicals – 4C

Project work Total– 12C; Report – 8c
Presentation – 2c
Defense – 2c

I Semester – 24 C
II Semester – 24 C
III Semester – 24 C
IV Semester – 24 C
Total Credits for the cource – 96 C

31
 SEMESTER IV
PAPER I: PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY
Objectives:
During the course the students will able to
 Know the in vitro propagation of plants, different kinds of media used for plant tissue
culture
 Know about transformation technology, cloning vectors used in transformation
technology and genetic engineering
 Know about molecular markers like RFLP, RAPD, SCARs, Simple Sequence Repeats,
and AFLP.
 Know about applications of plant biotechnology in crop improvement and IPR related
issues

UNIT l: INTRODUCTION TO PLANT TISSUE CULTURE AND TECHNIQUES

Introduction to Plant Biotechnology; Organization of Plant Tissue culture Lab; Sterilization of
Explants; Media Preparation; Inoculation and Instrumentation; mitochondrial and chloroplast
genome; Concept of totipotency; Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation; Organogenesis;
Somatic Embryogenesis; Synthetic seeds; Cell suspension culture; Cryopreservation and
Germplasm conservation.
UNIT II: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY
Cloning of vectors and its types. Introduction to Plant Transformation Technology. Principles of
Genetic engineering; DNA splicing enzymes and Restriction modification systems. Plant gene
transformation methods- Direct and indirect Gene transfer methods: microinjection,
electroporation, particle bombardment. Screening of transformed genes

UNIT-III: MOLECULAR MARKERS IN PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

Principles and applications of Molecular markers. Morphological markers; Biochemical markers,
molecular markers, non PCR based and PCR Based molecular markers- RFLP, RAPD, SCARs,
Simple Sequence Repeats, AFLP.

UNIT IV: APPLICATIONS OF PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

Application of genetic engineering technology for crop improvement - production of transgenic
plants resistant to herbicide and insect resistance crops. Transgenic crops for abiotic stress

32
tolerance (LEA, P5CR & ALDH). Plant bodies and its importance. IPR and its importance in
biotechnology.
Practicals
1. Preparation of different types of culture media
2. Callus induction from carrot cambial explants or any other source. Callus cytological studies
3. Induction of Somatic Embryogenesis
4. In vitro rooting of cultures
5. Induction of multiple shoots
6. Preparation of artificial seeds by sodium alginate.
7. Isolation of DNA by C-TAB method
Outcomes of the course:
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
 Understand the difference between old biotechnology and modern biotechnology
 Analyze a research problem and write clear, step-by-step instructions for conducting
experiments or testing hypothesis.
 Provide examples of current applications of biotechnology and advances in the different
areas like medical, microbial, environmental, bioremediation, agricultural, plant, animal,
and forensic.
 Understand the concept of recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering
Describe DNA fingerprinting, and restriction fragment length polymorphism
(RFLP) analysis and their applications
 Describe the steps involved in the production of biopharmaceuticals in microbial and
mammalian cell systems
 Explain the concept and applications of monoclonal antibody technology
 Explain the general principles of generating transgenic plants, animals and microbes.

Suggested Readings:
1. Pullaiah, T. 2009. Plant Tissue Culture. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur
2. D. Balasubramanian 2005. Concepts of Biotechnology new edition.
3. S.B. Primrose. 2002. Principles of Gene Manipulation. by Blackwell, Oxford.
4. H.S.Chawla 2002. Introduction to Plant Biotechnology. Oxford &Ibh-Pubs Company-
New Delhi
5. T.A. Brown, 2002. Gene cloning – DNA Analysis – Blackwell, London.
6. Plant Biotechnology by M S Shekhawat. MJ Publishers, 2011

33
 SEMESTER IV
PAPER II: BIODIVERSITY, CONSERVAION AND MANAGEMENT
Course Objectives:

 To raise awareness about biodiversity and its essential role in the overall health of the
biological things.
 To identify key aspects of local habitats and the local ecosystem that promote
biodiversity.
 To make connections between human actions and the level of biological diversity found
within a habitat and/or ecosystem.
 To improve the biodiversity found on educational institutios grounds.
 To provide information about the benefits of a biologically diverse ecosystem to students,
families, and the community.

UNIT I: Nature, Values and Magnitude of Biodiversity: Nature of biodiversity-genetic,

species and ecosystem diversity; Values of biodiversity – anthropocentric and ecocentric; plants
for food, forage, fiber, medicine, gums and resins, oils and timber; Non-Timber Forest Produce
– a general account; Magnitude and global distribution of biodiversity; global biodiversity
hotspots; hotspots extended to India; Mega diverse countries – India as a mega diversity center;
floristic richness of India; Agro diversity-centers of origin.
UNIT II: BiodiversityConservation:Principles of conservation; process of extinction; threats
to biodiversity – habitat destruction, invasive species and climate change; IUCN threat
categories and criteria; threatened plants of India; In situ conservation of biodiversity: natural
protected areas-biosphere reserves, sanctuaries, national parks and sacred groves with reference
to India; Ex situ conservation-Plant propagation methods; botanical gardens and gene banks;
Biodiversity assessment and monitoring – different methods.
UNIT III: Applications of Remote Sensing to Plant Resources Conservation:Principles of
remote sensing-acquiring, processing and interpreting the remote sensed data; a brief account on
aerial photography-types of photographs; satellite remote sensing- types of satellites and sensors;
sensors-resolution –types; ; applications of remote sensing technology-forest cover, forest fire
monitoring, applications in agriculture, global climate studies and biodiversity monitoring;
principles and applications of geographical information systems (GIS); Global Positioning
System (GPS).
UNIT IV: ConservationOrganization and Concepts: Brief account on the conservation
organizations and their activities – International ( WWF, UNEP, FAO, IUCN) and national
(NBPGR); International agreements on biodiversity conservation-CBD, CITES, IPCC;
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and Patents; Biodiversity Bill of India; Role of NGO’s in
Biodiversity Conservation; Biodiversity Registers; Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA);
Ecological Footprints – Carbon credits.
Practicals:

34
 1. Study of local crops, each one from cereals/ pulses/ oil seeds.
2. Documentaion of biodiversity of any protected area
3. Assessment of plant resources- biomass/species dominance and species diversity.
4. Mapping of endemic and threatened taxa of Andhra Pradesh.
5. Test for stereoscopic view - aerial photographs.
6. Measurement of scale of aerial photographs.
7. Study of satellite imageries-visual and digital.
8. Experiments with GPS.
9. Demonstration of GIS.
Outcomes of the course:

 Develop an understanding about what biodiversity is and what it means locally,

nationally, and globally. Investigate local biodiversity, exploring the past and present as
well as predicting the future biodiversity of your locale. Create an action plan to address
biodiversity on the school grounds and/or in the surrounding community.
 Collect, analyze, interpret, and communicate information related to biodiversity.
 Monitor and evaluate progress toward goals related to increasing biodiversity on school
grounds and/or the surrounding community.
 Communicate about the importance biodiversity plays in the health of our planet to a
variety of audiences, including other students, parents, and the local community.

Suggested Readings:
1. Campbell, J.B. & R.H. Wynne. 2011. Introduction to Remote Sensing. 5thed.The Guilford
Press.
2.Christian Leveque, Jean-claudeMounolou and Vivien Reuter. 2004. Biodiversity. John Wiley
3. Jensen, John R. 2007. Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective.
2nd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall
4. Kevin J.Gaston& John I. Spicer, 2004. Biodiversity, an introduction. Blackwell.
5. Lillesand. T.M. &R.W.Kiefer. 2000. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. John Wiley
6. Meerabai, G. & T.Pullaiah,2015. Plant Biodiversity, Conservation & Management; Astral
International Publishers.
7. Ravi Prasad Rao, B. 2005. Biodiversity.InPullaiah, T (ed.) Taxonomy of Angiosperms.
Regency publications, New Delhi. Pp. 287-317.

8. Sharma, P.D. 2015. Ecology and Environment.12th ed. Ratogi Publications, Meerut.

9. Groombridge B. (1992) Global Biodiversity-Status of the Earths living resources. Chapman

and Hall, London.

35