BUILDING ENGINEERING-II (CEN-12101)

Dr. Mantu Majumder

 2
SYLLABUS
 Course Outcomes

CO1 : Understand the properties and uses of common building materials.

CO2 : Describe the properties and uses of various types of other building materials.
CO3 : Present the quantity surveying, modes of measurement and utility of various
types of estimates.
CO4 : Explain the use of current schedule of rates and quantitative resource
allocation for the rate analysis.
CO5 : Describe utility, purpose and concepts involved in the building valuation.
 STONES
3

Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the
early age of civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to
required size and shape and used as building block. It has been used to construct
small residential buildings to large palaces and temples all over the world.

Taj Mahal (India) Colosseum (Italy) Pyramids (Egypt) Washington Monument (USA)
 CLASSIFICATION OF STONES 4

 Geological Classification: Based on origin of formation stones

 Igneous Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Physical Classification: Based on the structure
 Stratified Rocks
 Unstratified Rocks
 Foliated Rocks
 Chemical Classification: Based on the chemical composition
 Siliceous Rocks
 Calcareous Rocks
 Argillaceous Rocks
 BASED ON GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 5

 Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by

cooling and solidifying of the rock masses
from their molten magmatic condition of the
material of the earth.
 Generally igneous rocks are strong and
durable.
 Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks
belonging to this category, Granites are
formed by slow cooling of the lava under
thick cover on the top. Hence they have
crystalline surface.
 The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth
results into non-crystalline and glassy
texture. Trap and basalt belong to this category.
 Basalt
Granite

[Link] [Link]
 BASED ON GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 6

 Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed by the

deposition of sediments obtained by the weathering of pre-
existing rocks and these sediments are transported by
various agents such as water, wind, frost, gravity, etc.
 These transported sediments form layered structures
and give rise to the sedimentary deposits. These deposited
layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and
by heat. Chemical agents also contribute to the
cementing of the deposits.
 If the sediments remain at the place of origin then
the
formed deposits are known as residual deposits.
 The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained
and compact in their nature.
 They represent a bedded or stratified structure in
general. Sandstones, limestones, mudstones etc. belong to
this class of rock.
[Link]
Sedimentary Rocks
 BASED ON GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 7

 Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are

formed by the metamorphism process.
Metamorphism is the process of changing
the characteristics of the pre-existing rocks
under the influence of heat and pressure.
 Previously formed igneous and
sedimentary rocks under go changes due to
metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat.
 For example due to metamorphic action granite
becomes gneisses, trap and basalt change
to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to
marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and
mud stone becomes slate.
THE ROCK CYCLE 8
 BASED ON PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION 9

 Stratified Rocks: Stratified rocks consist of

different layers in its structure and these layers
are separated by planes of stratification.
 These planes are also called cleavage planes or
bedding planes. They can be easily split along
these planes.
 Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are
the examples of this class of stones.
 BASED ON PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION 10

 Unstratified Rocks: The structure of unstratified Granite

rocks is crystalline or compact granular.
 They possess a similar kind of structure throughout
their whole body. Most of the igneous rocks and
some sedimentary rocks come under unstratified
rocks.
 Granite, marble, trap are few examples of
Unstratified rocks.

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om
 BASED ON PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION 11

 Foliated Rocks: Foliated rocks possess a layered or

banded structure which is obtained by exposure
of pressure and heat.
 Unlike the stratified rocks, these rocks can split up in a
certain direction only.
 Most of the metamorphic rocks formed by
metamorphism come under foliated rocks. Some
examples are gneiss, schist, slate
etc.
 BASED ON CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION 12

 Siliceous Rocks: The rocks which contain silica in

predominant amount are called as siliceous rocks.
 Presence of a large amount of free silica makes them
harder and durable. It also provides strong
resistance to weathering.
 Granite, chert, quartzite, etc. are examples of
siliceous rocks.
 BASED ON CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION 13

 ArgillaceousRocks: The word Argil means clay.

Hence, the rocks in which clay content is
predominant are called argillaceous rocks.
 These rocks are soft in nature and with the presence
of water they can be crumbled easily.
 In the dry state, these rocks can be crushed easily
because of their brittleness.
 Shale, slate, laterite, etc. are some of the
argillaceous rocks.
 BASED ON CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION 14

 Calcareous Rocks: The rocks in which calcium

carbonate is the major ingredient are known as
calcareous rocks.
 These are generally hard but their durability is
dependent on surrounding constituents which may
react with calcium and affect the durability of rock.
 Marble, limestone, dolomite, etc. are some of the
calcium predominant rocks.
 PROPERTIES OF STONE NEED TO BE CONSIDERE BEFORE ITS SELECTION FOR
ENGINEERING WORKS
 Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones
should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult
to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
 Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are
used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
 Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
 Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Marble
and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in
buildings.
 Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
block. Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
building block.

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 16

 Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for

flooring and pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on
standard specimen in Dorry’s testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness
should be at least 17. For building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14
should not be used.
 Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of
water with material of stone cause disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage
of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good
stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
 Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with
good weath1e7 r
resistance should be used for face works.
 Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.
Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index
13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are
poor stones.
 Resistance to fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in
strength, are good in resisting fire.
 Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength
of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of
removing moisture from pores is called seasoning.
 Requirement of Good Building Stones

 Strength
 Durability
 Hardness
 Toughness
 Specific Gravity
 Porosity and Absorption
 Dressing
 Appearance
 Seasoning
 Cost

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 Tests on Stones
Crushing Strength Test:
• For conducting this test, a specimen of size 40× 40× 40 mm is prepared
from parent stone.
• Afterward, the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for three days.
• The saturated specimen is provided with a layer of plaster of paris on its
top also bottom surfaces to get even surface so that load applied is
distributed uniformly.
• Uniform load distribution can be obtained satisfactorily by providing a
pair of 5 mm thick plywood instead of using plaster of paris layer also.
• The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at
the rate of 14 N/mm² per minute.
• The crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the
crushing load divided by the area over which the load is applied.
• At least three specimen should be tested and the average should be taken
as crushing strength

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 Tests on Stones
Water Absorption Test:
• For this test cube specimen weighing about 50 grams are prepared and the test is carried out in the steps given below.
(a) Note the weight of dry specimen as W1.
(b) Place the specimen in water for 24 hours.
(c) Take out the specimen, wipe out the surface with a piece of cloth and weigh the specimen. Let its weight be W2.

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Abrasion Test: Tests on Stones
• This test is carried out on stones that are used as
aggregates for road construction. The test result indicates
the suitability of stones against the grinding action under
traffic.
• Anyone of the following tests could be conducted to find
out the suitability of aggregates:
(1) Los Angeles Abrasion Test
(2) Deval Attrition Test
(3) Dorry’s Abrasion Test.
• However, the Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred since
these test results have a good correlation with the
performance of the pavements.
• The Los Angeles apparatus consists of a hollow cylinder
0.7 m inside diameter and 0.5 m long with both Los Angeles Abrasion
ends closed. It is mounted on a frame so that it can be Testing Machine
rotated about horizontal axis. IS code has standardised
the test procedure for different gradation of specimen.
• Along with specified weight of specimen a specified
number of cast iron balls of 48 mm diameter are placed in
the cylinder 21
 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR TESTING(Los
Purchase FunnelAngeles Abrasion Test)
Step-1: The test sample shall consist of clean oven dried aggregate which has been dried in an oven at 105 to
110°C to substantially constant weight. The total sample will be of weight 5000 g (2500 g of 20-12.5 mm + 2500 g
of 12.5-10 mm)

Step-2: The test sample and the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los Angeles abrasion testing machine
and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min. For gradings A, B, C and D, the machine shall be rotated
for 500 revolutions; for gradings E, F and G, it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions as mentioned in Table 2.

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 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step-2: The test sample and the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los Angeles abrasion testing machine
and the machine rotated at a speed of 33 rev/min. For gradings A, B, C and D, the machine shall be rotated for
500 revolutions; for gradings E, F and G, it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions as mentioned in Table. The
number of spheres (charges) placed in the machine = 12 (4584 ± 25 g)

[Link]
[Link]
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Note: Perform test with 10,000 g samples for coarser samples and the finer
ones using the 5000 g samples.
Source: IS 2386(Part 4):1963 (Reaffirmed 2021)
 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step-3: After completion of revolutions remove the samples and sieve through the 1.7 mm sieve.

Step-4: Take the weight of portion coarser than 1.7 mm sieve

(W2)

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 CALCULATIONS
Traditional Purchase Funnel

Aggregate Abrassion Value = ((W2-W1)/W1) X 100

where,
W1 = weight in gm of oven-dried sample.
W2 = weight in gm of fraction retained on 1.70 mm IS Sieves
after washing and oven-dried upto constant weight.

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 Tests on Stones
Impact Test:
• Impact test gives us the Aggregates Impact Value which
provides the relative measure of resistance of aggregates to
sudden shock or impact, which in some aggregates differs from
its resistance to slow compression load. Aggregates used in road
construction should be tough enough to resist impact under traffic
wheel load.
• The strong aggregates will have low impact value and weak
aggregates have high impact value. Impact Value should not be
less than 45% for aggregates used for concrete other than
wearing surface and 30% for concrete used in wearing
surface.
• The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in
impact testing machine. It consists of a frame with guides in
which a metal hammer weighing 13.5 kg can freely fall from a
height of 380 mm.

Impact Test Machine

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 Wearing
surface

[Link]
[Link]
 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step 1: Take 350 g of oven dried aggregates (100-105℃) which passes through 12.5
mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve.

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 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step 2: Fill the measuring cylinder with aggregates in 3 layers, tamping each layer 25
times. After filling the cylinder use the tamping road as straight edge to remove excess
aggregates.

Step 3: Note the empty cylindrical steel cylinder (W1), then transfer the aggregates from
measuring cylinder to cylindrical steel cup and note the combined weight of steel cylinder
and aggregates (W2).
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 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step 4: Place cylindrical cup on the solid base plate of the impact test machine.

Step 5: Release the hammer in order to apply impact load, 15 blows are given at the interval
of not less than 1 second
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 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step 6: After 15 blows, remove the cylindrical cup and transfer the aggregates over the
2.36mm sieve.

Step 7: Sieve the aggregates through 2.36 mm sieve for 10 minutes and note the weight of
aggregates passing through 2.36 mm sieve (w30hich retain on the pan) (W3).
 PROCEDURE Funnel
Traditional Purchase FOR TESTING
Step 8: Record the observations and calculate the aggregate impact value as per the formula
given below:

Step 9: Repeat the procedure from the step 2 for the second trial and report the aggregate
crushing value as the average of both trials.
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 Tests on Stones
Acid Test:
• This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate, which weakens the
weather resisting quality.
• In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken and kept in a solution of one per cent
hydrochloric acid for seven days.
• The solution is agitated at intervals.
• A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed
on the surface, it indicates the presence of calcium carbonate.
• Such stones will have poor weather resistance.

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 Tests on Stones
Crystallization Test:
• At least four cubes of stone with side as 40 mm are taken. They are dried for 72 hours and weighted. They are
then immersed in a 40% solution of Na2SO4 for 2 hours. They are dried at 100℃ and weighted. The difference in
weight is noted.
• This procedure of drying, weighing, immersion, and reweighting is repeated at least 5 times. Each time, a change
in weight noted, and it is expressed as a percentage of the original weight.
• The change in weight indicates the degree of decay of stone. Durability should be expressed in percentage as change
in the weight. The average of three test results should be reported as durability value.

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 Tests on Stones
Smith Test:
• This test is performed to find out the presence of soluble matter in a sample of stone.
• Few chips of stone are taken and they are placed in a glass tube. The tube is then filled with distilled water.
• After an hour, the tube is vigorously stirred. Presence of earthly matter will convert distilled water into dirty water.
• If water remains clear, stone will be durable and free from any soluble matter.

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 Uses of Stones

(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
(ii) Stones are used for flooring.
(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used
for face works.
(v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls.
(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with bitumen they form finishing
coat.
(viii) Crushed stones are used in the following works also:

(a) As a basic inert material in concrete

(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c) As railway ballast.

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[Link]
[Link]
 Pipinato (2016)

[Link]
Common Building Stones

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Common Building Stones

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39
 Bricks
• Brick is another oldest construction material in civil engineering which
is used as an alternative to stone.
• Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block, which is dried
and then burnt. Manufacture of brick started with hand moulding, sun
drying and burning in clamps or kilns.
• Brick is used to making wall, pavement and brick structure or for the
partition of room. It is used with cement sand mortar laid in line and top
of each other. Mortar has filled in the brick joint which makes the
structure durable and strong.
• Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar
• Height of brick = width of brick
• The size of the bricks are of 90 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm and 190 mm ×
90 mm × 40 mm. With mortar joints, the size of these bricks are taken
as 200 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and 200 mm × 100 mm × 50 mm. Bricks with Frogs

• An indent called frog of size 10 × 4 × 1 cm. The purpose of providing

frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are
laid with frogs on top.
• Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks. 40
 Advantages of Bricks
• Shape and size of bricks are uniform, and hence it do not need skilled labour for the construction.
• Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
• Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their weight is less.
Stones are to be brought from quarries which are located only at few places.
• It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even mud mortar can be
used.
• Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
• It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
• Dead load of brick masonry is less.
• In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced considerably.
• Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to stone masonry.

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 Disadvantages of Bricks
• Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry.
• Durability of brick masonry is less.
• Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing. Stone masonry don’t need
them and hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
• Brick masonry absorbs water and there are possibility of dampness. There is no such problem in stone
masonry.
• More architectural effects can be given in stone masonry compared to that in brick masonry.
• Stone masonry gives massive appearance and hence monumental buildings are built in stone masonry

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 Classification of Bricks

Classification based on Field Practice

First Class Bricks
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper colour.
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and square corners.
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
4. These should have uniform texture.
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
8. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24 hours.
9. The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with different Government
organizations around the country.
Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring and
reinforced brick work
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Second Class Bricks Classification of Bricks
These bricks are supposed to have the same requirements as the first class ones except,
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden masonry works and centering
of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures.

Third Class Bricks

These bricks are underburnt. They are soft and light-coloured producing a dull sound when struck against each
other. Water absorption is about 25% of dry weight.

Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.

Fourth Class Bricks

These bricks are overburnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation 4a4nd floors in lime concrete and road metal.
Classification based on Strength

52
 Classification on the basis of uses
Common Brick is a general multi-purpose unit manufactured economically without special reference to
appearance. These may vary greatly in strength and durability and are used for filling, backing and in walls
where appearance is of no consequence.

Facing Brick are made primarily with a view to have good appearance, either of colour or texture or both.
These are durable under severe exposure and are used in fronts of building walls for which a pleasing
appearance is desired.

Engineering Brick are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded, hard and conform to defined limits of
absorption and strength. These are used for all load bearing structures.

Classification on the basis of manufacture

Hand-Made These bricks are hand moulded.

Machine-Made Depending upon mechanical arrangement, bricks are known as wire-cut bricks—bricks cut
from clay extruded in a column and cut off into brick sizes by wires; pressed bricks—when bricks are
manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay and pressed into moulds.

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 Characteristics of Good Bricks
(i) Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.
(ii) Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
(iii) Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
(iv) Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and
unburnt lime.
(v) Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic ringing sound.
(vi) Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.
(vii) Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that when dropped
from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 m on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.
(viii) Water Absorption: After immerging the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more than 20 per
cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15%.
(ix) Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry in shade.
White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium.
(x) Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are cool in
summer and warm in winter.
(xi) Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow bricks provide good sound
insulation.
(xii) Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase steel columns to protect them
from fire.

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 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic
when water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron, manganese, sulphur, etc.

Silica: It enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping. Excess of silica makes
the brick brittle and weak on burning.
Alumina: It absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces
cracks in brick on drying.
Lime: Lime in brick reduces the shrinkage on drying. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick looses its shape.
Magnesia: It rarely exceeding 1%, affects the colour and makes the brick yellow, in burning; it causes the clay to soften at
slower rate than in most case is lime and reduces warping.
Iron: Iron oxide gives red colour on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even black colour when
oxygen available is insufficient. It improves impermeability, 4s8trength and durability.
 Manufacturing of Brick

Operations involving in the preparation of brick

Unsoiling: About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after
clearing the trees and vegetation.

Digging: The soil mass is then manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and subsequent processing.
49
 Manufacturing of Brick
Weathering: Stones, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the
soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps
and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is
considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the
mass of soil, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. The
plasticity and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather

Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in

suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of
water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is
then mixed uniformly with spades. Pug Mill

Tempering: It consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass
stiff and plastic. For manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills
and the operation is called pugging.

Moulding: It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the

prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines.
Hand moulding is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding

Details of Mould
50
 Manufacturing of Brick
Machine Moulding:a) Plastic Method: The pugged, stiffer clay is forced
through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of an auger. Clay
comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut from the bar
by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size.
b) Dry Press Method: The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a
mechanically operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the
clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks.
Plastic Method
Drying: Green bricks contain about 7–30% moisture depending upon the
method of manufacture. The object of drying is to remove the moisture to
control the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. The moisture
content is brought down to about 3 per cent under exposed conditions within
three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the
bricks can be handled safely. In developing countries, bricks are normally
dried in natural open air driers. They are stacked on raised ground and are
protected from bad weather and direct sunlight.

Burning: Bricks are burned at high temperature to gain the strength,

durability, density and red color appearance. All the water is removed at the
temperature of 650 degrees but they are burnt at an temperature of about
1100 degrees because the fusing of sand and lime takes place at this
temperature and chemical bonding takes between these materials after the
temperature is cooled down resulting in the hard and dense m5a1ss. Method of Drying Bricks
 Manufacturing of Brick
Bricks are not burnt above this temperature because it will result in the melting of the
bricks and will result in a distorted shape and a very hard mass when cooled which will
not be workable while brickwork. Bricks can be burnt using the following methods:
(a) Clamp Burning
(b) Kiln Burning
A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is a permanent one.

Burning in Clamp or Pazawah: The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The
amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each
brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free
circulation of hot gasses.
The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cowdung is
given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2–3 lacs and the
process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class
bricks.

Burning in Clamp

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 Manufacturing of Brick
Burning in Kiln: Kiln is a large oven used for the burning of bricks. Generally coal
and other locally available materials like wood, cow dung etc can be used as fuel.
They are of two types:

(a) Intermittent Kilns: After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded, and
then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during
reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel.

(b) Continuous Kilns: In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers Intermittent Kiln
wherein the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time. When the
bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are
dried and preheated while bricks in the other set of chambers are loaded and in
the last are cooled. The examples of continuous kiln are Hoffman’s kiln and
Bull’s trench kiln

Bull53Trench Kiln Hoffman’s Kiln

 Tests on Brick
Crushing Strength: The brick specimen are immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of the brick is filled flush with 1:3
cement mortar and the specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and then immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The
specimen is placed in compression testing machine with 6 mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load on the
specimen. Then load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 . The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing strength
is the ratio of crushing load to the area of brick loaded. Average of five specimen is taken as the crushing strength.

Absorption Test: Brick specimen are weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for a period of 24 hours. The specimen
are taken out and wiped with cloth. The weight of each specimen in wet condition is determined. The difference in weight
indicate the water absorbed. Then the percentage absorption is the ratio of water absorbed to dry weight multiplied by 100.
The average of five specimen is taken. This value should not exceed 15 percent for first class brick.

Shape and Size: Bricks should be of standard size and edges should be truely rectangular with sharp edges. To check it, 20
bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the length, along the width and then along the height. For the
standard bricks of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm.

IS code permits the following limits:

Lengthwise: 3680 to 3920 mm
Widthwise: 1740 to 1860 mm
Heightwise: 1740 to 1860 mm.

61
 Tests on Brick
Efflorescence: Efflorescence is a salt deposit seen on the surface of bricks. Usually, it’s in white. This can be visually
inspected by checking white patches on the bricks surface, White patches on bricks resemble presence of sodium and
potassium salts on it which is not suitable for construction. When bricks contain such harmful salts as used exposed surface
then serious surface disruption occur which may harm outer plastering. This phenomenon is called efflorescence. Following
test is performed to check efflorescence.

Place the brick specimen in a glass dish containing water to a depth of 25 mm in a well ventilated room. After all the water is
absorbed or evaporated again add water for a depth of 25 mm. After second evaporation observe the bricks for white/grey
patches. The observation is reported as ‘nil’, ‘slight’, ‘moderate’, ‘heavy’ or serious.

(a) Nil: No patches

(b) Slight: 10% of area covered with deposits
(c) Moderate: 10 to 50% area covered with deposit but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface.
(d) Heavy: More than 50 per cent area covered with deposits but unaccompanied by flaking of the surface.
(e) Serious: Heavy deposits of salt accompanied by flaking of the surface.

62
 Cement
• Cements in a general sense are adhesive and cohesive materials which are
capable of bonding together particles of solid matter into a compact durable Clinker
mass.

• Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and

non hydraulic. The latter does not set and harden in water such as non-
hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris. The
hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a product which is
stable, e.g. Portland cement.

• Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or [Link]

artificially by using calcareous and argillaceous materials. The
examples of natural cements are Roman cement and Medina cement and
those of artificial cement are Portland cement and special cements.

• The artificial cement is obtained by burning a mixture of

calcareous (calcium rich) and argillaceous (clay rich) material at
a very high temperature and then grinding the clinker to produced to a
fine powder.
[Link]
• It was first produced by a mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He
patented it as Portland cement. 63
 Uses of Cement
Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some
of them are listed below:

(i) Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.

(ii) Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
(iii) Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures
like buildings, bridges, water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbours etc.
(iv) Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts,
railway sleepers, piles etc.

(v) For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower
pots etc. cement is commonly used.
(vi) It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for
various sports etc.

64
 Ordinary Portland Cement
• It is a cementing material resembling a natural stone quarried from Portland in U.K. Portland cement may be defined as a
product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion, an intimate and properly
proportioned mixture of argillaceous and calcareous materials.
• The ordinary Portland cement has been classified as 33 Grade (IS269:1989), 43 Grade (IS 8112:1989), and 53 Grade (IS
12669-1987).
• The physical requirements of all these three types of cement are almost same except for compressive strength :

(28 Days)
65
 Ordinary Portland Cement
• IS:10262 has classified the OPC grade-wise from A to F based on 28 day compressive strength as follows.

66
 Chemical Composition of Raw Materials

As mentioned earlier the oxides persent in the raw materials when subjected to high
clinkering temperature combine with each other to form complex compounds. The
identification of the major compounds is largely based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence it is
called “Bogue’s Compounds”.

67
PROCESS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION

68
PROCESS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION

Silo

[Link]

69
PROCESS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION

70
 Chemical Composition of Cement
• The oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to high clinkering temperature combine with each other to
form complex compounds.

• These compounds have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of water.
• The identification of the major compounds is largely based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence it is called “Bogue’s
Compounds”.

• Le-Chatelier and Tornebohm have referred these compounds as Alite (C3S), Belite (C2S), Celite (C3A) and Ferite
(C4AF).

71
 Traditional HYDRATIONFunnel
Purchase OF CEMENT
• The cement when comes in contact with water undergoes exothermic chemical reactions known as hydration.

• These reactions happen between Bogue’s Compounds and Water which resulted in formation of Calcium Silicate
Hydrate Gel which are responsible for cementing and adhesive properties.
Bogue’s Compound Water Calcium Silicate Hydrate Gel

Bogue’s Compound
Water Calcium Silicate Hydrate Gel

72
Chemical Composition of Cement

73
 Testing of Cement
(a) Fineness test: It is conducted by sieve analysis. 100 gms of cement is taken and
sieved through IS sieve No. 9 (90 micron) for fifteen minutes. Residue on the
sieve is weighed. This should not exceed 10 per cent by weight of sample taken
(for OPC).
(b) Setting time: Setting Time: Initial setting time and final setting time are the two
important physical properties of cement. Initial setting time is the time taken by
the cement from adding of water to the starting of losing its plasticity. Final
setting time is the time lapsed from adding of the water to complete loss of
plasticity. Vicat apparatus is used for finding the setting times. Vicat apparatus
consists of a movable rod to which any one of the three needles shown in figure
can be attached. An indicator is attached to the movable rod. A Vicat mould is
associated with this apparatus which is in the form of split cylinder.
Before finding initial and final setting time it is necessary to determine water to be
added to get standard consistency

74
 STANDARD CONSISTENCY
Traditional Purchase Funnel TEST
Objective: To determine the normal consistency of a given sample of cement.

Significance: To determine the amount of water which needs to be added in cement to form a paste of
normal consistency i.e., paste of standard solidarity. This standard amount of water is used to perform tests
like, setting time, soundness, and compressive strength.

Definition of Normal Consistency: It is the standard consistency (viscosity) which permits the Vicat
plunger having 10 mm diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate into depth of 33-35 mm from the top of
mould, when tested under standard conditions (Testing temperature = 27 ± 2℃; Relative Humidity = 65
± 5%)

Testing Specification: IS 4031 (Part 4): 1988

(Specification is available at the following link: [Link]

75
 APPARATUS
Traditional Purchase REQUIRE
Funnel
3

1
2

Gauging Trowels

3 1 2

1 : Used in Standard Consistency Test

2: Used in Initial Setting Time Test
3: Used in Final Setting Time Test Weighing Balance
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 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR STANDARD
Purchase CONSISTENCY TEST
Funnel

77
 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR STANDARD
Purchase CONSISTENCY TEST
Funnel

78
 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR STANDARD
Purchase CONSISTENCY TEST
Funnel

If reading doesn’t fall in the range

of 5-7 mm, repeat the experiment
by adjusting the water content

• If reading > 7 mm (increase

the water content in next trial)
Standard consistency of tested cement : 32%
• If reading < 5 mm (decrease
the water content in next trial)

Link of virtual lab for the self practice: [Link]

79
 INITIALPurchase
Traditional & FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT
Funnel
Objective: To determine the initial and final setting time of a given sample of cement.

Significance: The cement should have a minimum plasticity for a certain time period (initial setting time) to
ensure that the process like mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, and finishing.

After the completion of above activities, cement should lose its plasticity in the earliest possible time (final
setting time) so that it is least vulnerable to damages from external agencies.

Definition of Initial Setting Time: It is the time elapsed between the moments that the water is added to the
cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.

Definition of Final Setting Time: It is the time elapsed between the moment water is added to the cement and
the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist certain
definite pressure.

Testing Specification: IS 4031 (Part 5): 1988

Specification is available at the following link: [Link]

80
 PROCEDURE FOR
Traditional DETERMINING
Purchase INITIAL SETTING TIME
Funnel

81
 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR INITIAL
Purchase SETTING TIME TEST
Funnel

82
 PROCEDURE
Traditional FOR INITIAL
Purchase SETTING TIME TEST
Funnel
35.5 – 34.5 mm

83
 PROCEDUREPurchase
Traditional FOR DETERMINING FINAL SETTING TIME
Funnel
• Continue the test after the step 4 of initial setting time test (i.e., mixing and placing the sample in Vicat mould)

• Step 5: Replace the needle of the Vicat apparatus by the needle with an annular attachment. Lower the attachment to the
surface of the sample and release the plunger. Note the impression made on surface by plunger.

• The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test block, the
needle makes an impression, while the attachment fails to do so.

Plan view of the impression Plan view of the impression

made by attachment when when final setting time has
Vicat Annular Attachment final setting time has not reached
reached
Points taken in consideration:
• The experiment should be conducted at a room temperature of 27 ± 2°C and at a relative humidity of 90%.
• For Portland cement, the initial setting time should be greater than 30 min and final setting time should exceed 600 min.
• For quick setting cement, initial setting time should be gr7e6ater than 5 min and final setting time should not exceed 30 min.
 SOUNDNESS
Traditional Purchase TEST
Funnel
Objective: To determine soundness and to decide the suitability of given
cement sample using Le-Chatelier method.

Significance: This test indirectly gives the extent of free lime and
magnesia present in cement. These components reduce the rate of
slaking in cement which appreciable change in volume after setting
resulting in cracks, distortion and disintegration

Standard condition for testing: The testing temperature of lab

should be maintained at 27 ± 2℃ and humidity should be 65 ± 5%.

Apparatus require: Le-Chatelier apparatus, glass plate, weights,

calipers, water bath

Testing Specification: IS 4031 (Part 3): 1988

Specification is available at the following link:

[Link]
 BRIEF PROCEDURE
Traditional Purchase Funnel
• Prepare a paste by mixing 200 g cement with 0.78 times the water required to give
a paste of standard consistency.
• Place the Le-Chatelier apparatus on a glass plate and fill it with the paste, and
level the top surface.
• Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet and place a small weight on
this covering glass sheet; and immediately submerge the whole assembly in water
at a temperature of 29 ± 2°C for 24 hours.
• Measure the distance L1 between the indicator points after 24 hours and again
submerge the mould in water at the temperature prescribed above.
• Bring the water to boiling point in 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3
hours.
• Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and measure the distance L2
between indicator points.
• The difference (L2-L1) between the two measurements gives the expansion of
cement.

Points taken in consideration:

• When tested by this method, the unaerated ordinary, rapid-hardening, and low-heat Portland cements shall not have an
expansion of more than 10 mm.
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 BRIEF PROCEDURE
Traditional Purchase Funnel

Soundness of Cement = L1 – L2

For OPC, RHC, LHC and PPC it is limited to 10 mm, whereas for HAC and SSC it should not exceed
5 mm.

87
 Traditional COMPRESSIVE
Purchase STRENGTH
Funnel TEST
Objective: To determine the compressive strength of 1:3 cement-sand mortar cubes after three days
and seven days curing.

Significance: The compressive strength of cement mortar is determined in order to verify whether
the cement conforms to IS specification (IS: 269-1989) and whether it will be able to develop the
required compressive strength of concrete.

Standard condition for testing: The testing temperature of lab should be maintained at 27 ± 2℃
and humidity should be 65 ± 5%.

Testing Specification: IS 4031 (Part 6): 1988

Specification is available at the following link: [Link]

88
 APPARATUS
Traditional Purchase REQUIRE
Funnel

Weighing Balance Gauging Trowels

Vibrating Machine

Mould Compression Testing Machine

80
 BRIEF PROCEDURE
Traditional Purchase Funnel
• For this 200 gm of cement is mixed with 600 gm of standard sand confirming to IS
650–1966. After mixing thoroughly in dry condition for a minute distilled potable water
(P/4 + 3.5)% is added where P is the water required for the standard consistency.
• Place the assembled mould on the table of the vibrating machine and firmly hold it in
position by means of suitable clamps. Securely attach the hopper at the top of the mould
to facilitate filling and this hopper shall not be removed until completion of the vibration
period.
• Immediately after mixing the mortar as explained above, fill the entire quantity of mortar
in the hopper of the cube mould and compact by vibration.
• Remove the cube from the mould and immediately submerge it in clean and fresh water
and keep there until taken out just prior to breaking. Keep the cubes wet till they are
placed in machine for testing.
• Test three cubes at the periods mentioned below, the periods being reckoned from the
completion of vibration. The cubes shall be tested on their sides, the load being applied
at the rate of 35 MPa/minute. The compressive strength shall be the average of the
strengths of the three cubes for each period:

90
 BRIEF PROCEDURE
Traditional Purchase Funnel
Points taken in consideration:
• The mortar shall not be compressed into the moulds with hand.
• The inside of the cube mould should be oiled to prevent the mortar from adhering to the
sides of the mould.

• The size of sand particles should be such that not more than 10 per cent by mass shall
pass a 60 micron IS sieve and shall completely pass through a 85 micron IS sieve.

• The time of wet mixing shall not be less than 3 minutes. If the time of mixing exceeds 4
minutes to bring a uniform colour, the mixture shall be rejected and fresh mortar
should be prepared.

• The cubes shall not be allowed to dry until they are broken.

91
 Testing of Cement
Specific Gravity Test: The flask is filled with either kerosene free of water, or
naphtha having a specific gravity not less than 0.7313 to a point on the stem between
zero and 1-ml mark. The flask is immersed in a constant temperature water bath and
the reading is recorded. A weighed quantity of cement (about 64 g of Portland cement)
is then introduced in small amounts at the same temperature as that of the liquid. After
introducing all the cement, the stopper is placed in the flask and the flask rolled in an
inclined position, or gently whirled in a horizontal circle, so as to free the cement from
air until no further air bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid. The flask is again
immersed in the water-bath and the final reading is recorded. The difference between
the first and the final reading represents the volume of liquid displaced by the weight
of the cement used in the test.

92
 Testing of Cement
Tensile Strength Test: A mixture of cement and sand is gauged in the proportion of 1:3
by weight. The percentage of water to be used is calculated from the formula (P/5) +
2.5, where P = percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard consistency.
The temperature of the water and the test room should be 27° ± 2°C. The mix is filled in
the moulds of the shape shown in Fig. 5.11. After filling the mould, an additional heap of
mix is placed on the mould and is pushed down with the standard spatula, until the
mixture is level with the top of the mould. This operation is repeated on the other side of
the mould also. The briquettes in the mould are finished by smoothing the surface
with the blade of a trowel. They are then kept for 24 hours at a temperature of 27° ±
2°C and in an atmosphere having 90 per cent humidity. The briquettes are then kept
in clean fresh water and are taken out before testing. Six briquettes are tested and the
average tensile strength is calculated. Load is applied steadily and uniformly, starting
from zero and increasing at the rate of 0.7 N/mm2 of section in 12 seconds.
Ordinary Portland cement should have a tensile strength of not less than 2.0 N/mm2 after
3 days and not less than 2.5 N/mm2 after 7 days.
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 VARIOUS TYPES
Traditional Purchase OF CEMENT
Funnel
Most Widely Used Cement

85
 VARIOUS TYPES
Traditional Purchase OF CEMENT
Funnel

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 VARIOUS TYPES
Traditional Purchase OF CEMENT
Funnel

96
 VARIOUS TYPES
Traditional Purchase OF CEMENT
Funnel

97
 POZZOLANAS
Traditional Purchase Funnel

98
 PRIMARY
Traditional TYPES OF POZZOLANIC
Purchase Funnel MATERIALS

Surkhi

[Link]

99
 PRIMARY
Traditional TYPES OF POZZOLANIC
Purchase Funnel MATERIALS
Fly ash

[Link]

[Link]

100
 PRIMARY
Traditional TYPES OF POZZOLANIC
Purchase Funnel MATERIALS

[Link]
101
 ACTIVITY OF
Traditional Purchase POZZOLANA
Funnel

102
 ADVANTAGES
Traditional OF POZZOLANIC
Purchase FunnelMATERIALS
• Reduced Heat of Hydration: Pozzolana reacts with calcium hydroxide, generating less heat during hydration
compared to pure Portland cement. This is crucial for mass concrete structures, where excessive heat can lead to
cracking and thermal stresses.

• Enhanced Durability: Pozzolana refines the concrete's pore structure, making it less permeable to water and
aggressive agents like chlorides and sulfates. This improved resistance translates to better long-term durability in
harsh environments.

• Reduced CO2 Emissions: Pozzolana can partially replace Portland cement, a major contributor to CO2 emissions in
construction. This substitution leads to more sustainable and environmentally friendly concrete production.

• Improved Workability: Some pozzolans possess properties that enhance concrete workability, making it easier to
place and finish, potentially reducing labor costs and improving construction efficiency.

• Cost-Effectiveness: Depending on local market prices and availability, pozzolana can be a cost-effective alternative
to Portland cement, offering economic benefits for construction projects.

103
 DISADVANTAGES
Traditional PurchaseOF POZZOLANIC
Funnel MATERIALS
• Slower Strength Development: The pozzolanic reaction typically occurs slower than Portland cement hydration,
leading to slower early strength development in concrete. This necessitates adjustments to construction schedules or
mix design to ensure timely strength gain.

• Increased Water Demand: Some pozzolanas require more water than Portland cement to achieve desired
workability. Careful mix design and water management are crucial to avoid compromising strength and durability.

• Potential for Efflorescence: Certain pozzolanas might contribute to efflorescence, the formation of white salt
deposits on the concrete surface. This can be aesthetically unappealing and requires mitigation strategies like proper
drainage and use of non-efflorescing pozzolanas.

• Variability in Properties: The properties of pozzolana can vary significantly depending on its source and processing
methods. This necessitates careful selection, testing, and quality control to ensure consistent performance in the final
concrete mix.

[Link] 104