UNIT-3
Displacement Measurement
Resistive Potentiometer:
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding contact,
called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. Some have
a combination of both, with resistive elements in the form of a helix, as shown in Fig. 13.1(c).
They are known as helipots.
Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig. 13.1(a), are linear (straight) devices. Rotational
resistive devices are circular and are used for the measurement of angular displacement, as
shown in Fig. 13.1(b).
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the
measurement of either translatory or rotational motion. A potentiometer is a passive transducer
since it requires an external power source for its operation.
Advantage of Potentiometers:
1. They are inexpensive.
2. Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements
are not particularly severe.
3. They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
4. Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to allow
control operations.
Disadvantages of Potentiometers:
1. When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move the sliding
contacts.
2. The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate noise.
Linear Potentiometer, Rotary Potentiometer
Introduction:
Potentiometer is a three-terminal device with rotating or sliding contact which forms adjustable
voltage divider. It functions as variable resistor or rheostat when two terminals are used (one
end and wiper). Potentiometer has wide variety of applications such as volume or tone controls
in audio systems, as position sensor (or transducer) in joystick etc.
Linear Potentiometer
• The figure-1 depicts linear potentiometer. It contains electrical resistance in the form of
straight section of track. The track may consist of strip of resistive polymer or insulator with
coil of nichrome wire wrapped around it.
• For sensing application, potentiometer is wired as voltage divider. For the same, fixed
potential is applied across its full length as shown in the figure-1.
• As shown wiper slides along the track, hence sensing voltage varies linearly with position
of the wiper. Hence it is known as linear potentiometer.
• It can be used directly to control analog indicator in an analog meter. It can also be
processed by ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) for further processing.
• Example: Linear potentiometers from companies such as Bourns.
• Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, compact, requires few components.
• Disadvantages: Though the track contains lubricant, some wear occurs as a result of
motion of the wiper contact. Life expectancy is reduced by vibration or by contamination due
to dirt/moisture.
• Refer difference between Analog Potentiometer And Digital Potentiometer >>.
Rotary Potentiometer
• Rotary potentiometer is categorized into arc-segment rotary potentiometer and multiturn
rotary potentiometer.
• The figure-2 depicts rotary potentiometer of arc segment type. This type is most common
compare to multiturn type.
• As shown, it contains resistor in the shape of an arc, referred as track. It may be strip of
resistive polymer or may consist of insulator with coil of nichrome wire wrapped around it.
• Wiper slides along the track, sensing a voltage that varies linearly with angular position of
the wiper.
• The advantages and disadvantages of rotary potentiometer is same as mentioned for linear
potentiometer.
Inductive: LVDT & eddy current type Transducer:
Inductive Transducer Working & Its Applications
Inductive Transducer is the self-generating type otherwise the passive type transducer. The first
type like self-generating uses the principle of fundamental electrical generator. The electric
generator principle is when a motion among a conductor as well as magnetic field induces a
voltage within the conductor. The motion among the conductor and the field can be supplied
by transforms in the measured. An inductive transducer (electromechanical) is an electrical
device used to convert physical motion into modifying within inductance. This article discusses
what an Inductive Transducer, types of transducer, working principle, and its applications
Types of Inductive Transducer
There are two kinds of inductive transducers available such as simple inductance & two-coil
mutual inductance. The best example of an inductive transducer is LVDT. Please refer to this
link to know about inductive transducer circuit working and its advantages and
disadvantages such as LVDT (linear variable differential transformer).
inductive-transducer
1). Simple Inductance
In this type of inductive transducer, a simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be calculated is moved, then it will change the
flux path’s permeance which is generated from the circuit. It modifies the inductance of the
circuit as well as the equivalent output. The circuit o/p can be directly adjusted against the input
value. Therefore, directly it provides the parameter’s valve to be calculated.
2). Two-Coil Mutual Inductance
In this type of transducer, there are two different coils are arranged. In the primary coil, the
excitation can be generated with external power source whereas in the next coil the output can
be attained. Both the mechanical input as well as output are proportional.
Inductive Transducer Working Principle
The working principle of an inductive transducer is the magnetic material’s induction. Just like
the electrical conductor’s resistance, it depends on various factors. The magnetic material’s
induction can depend on different variables like the twists of the coil over the material, the
magnetic material’s size, & the flux’s permeability.
inductive-transducer-
working
The magnetic materials are used in the transducers in the path of flux. There is some air gap
between them. The change in the circuit inductance can be occurred due to the air gap change.
In most of these transducers, it is mainly used to work the instrument properly. The inductive
transducer uses three working principles which include the following.
• Self Inductance Change
• Mutual Inductance Change
• Eddy Current Production
Self Inductance Change
We know that the coil’s self-inductance can be derived by
L = N2/R
Where ‘N’ is the number of twists of coil
‘R’ is the magnetic circuit’s reluctance
The reluctance ‘R’ can be derived by the following equation
R = l/µA
Thus, inductance equation can become like the following
L = N2 µA/l
Where
A = It is the Coil’s cross-sectional area
l = Coil’s length
µ = Permeability
We know that geometric form factor G = A/l, then the inductance equation will become like
the following.
L = N2 µG
The self-inductance is changed by a change in the number of twists, geometric form factor ‘G’
and permeability ‘µ’.
For instance, if some displacement is capable to alter the above factors, then it can be calculated
directly in terms of inductance.
Mutual Inductance Change
Here transducers work on the principle of change in mutual inductance. It uses several coils for
the purpose of knowing. These coils include their self-inductance which are indicated by L1 &
L2. The common inductance among these two twists can be derived by the following equation.
M = √ L1. L2
Therefore common inductance is altered by unstable self-inductance otherwise through the
unstable coupling of coefficient ‘K’. Here, the coupling coefficient mainly depends on the
direction & distance among the two coils. As a result, the displacement can be measured by
fixing one coil & make secondary coil movable. This coil can move by the power source whose
displacement is to be calculated. The change in mutual inductance can be caused by the change
in displacement coefficient coupling distance. This mutual inductance change is adjusted by
measurement and displacement.
Eddy Current Production
Whenever a conducting shield is located close to a coil carrying AC (alternating current), then
the current flow can be induced within the shield which is known as “EDDY CURRENT”. This
kind of principle is used in inductive transducers. When a conducting plate is arranged near to
a coil carrying AC then eddy currents will be generated within the plate. The plate which carries
eddy current will generates their own magnetic field which works against plate magnetic field.
So the magnetic flux will be reduced.
As a coil is located near to coil carrying AC, a flowing current can be induced within it which
in turn generates its own flux to decrease the flux of the current-carrying coil & therefore coil’s
inductance will be changed. Here, the coil is arranged nearer to the plate then high eddy current
will be generated as well as a high drop within coil inductance. Thus, by changing the distance
among the coil and plate, the inductance of the coil will change. The principle like changing
the distance of coil or plate with the help of measurand can be used within measurements of
displacement.
Inductive Transducer Applications
The applications of these transducers include the following.
• The application of these transducers finds in proximity sensors to measure position,
touchpads, dynamic motion, etc.
• Mostly these transducers are used for detecting the kind of metal, to find miss lost parts
otherwise counts the objects.
• These transducers are also applicable for detecting the movement of the apparatus which
include belt conveyor and bucket elevator etc..
Inductive Transducer Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of inductive transducer include the following.
• The responsivity of this transducer is high
• Load effects will be reduced.
• Strong against ecological quantities
The disadvantages of inductive transducer include the following.
• The operating range will be reduced due to side effects.
• The working temperature should be under the Curie temperature.
• Sensitive to the magnetic field
Thus, this is all about Inductive transducers which work on the inductance change principle
because of any significant change within the amount to be calculated. For instance, an LVDT is
one sort of inductive transducer, which is used to calculate the displacement of voltage variation
among its two secondary voltages, which are nothing but the induction result because of the
change in flux of the secondary coil by the iron bar displacement.
What Is an LVDT Displacement Transducer?
A linear variable differential transformer, or LVDT, is a type of transducer used for measuring
linear displacement. Known as one of the most robust, reliable sensors available on the market,
LVDTs from Cooper Instruments & Systems are long-term solutions with a virtually infinite
lifespan.
How Do LVDTs Work?
An LVDT displacement transducer is made up of one primary and two secondary coils. A
magnetic core (armature) controls the transfer of current between the primary coil and the
secondary coils. The two secondary coils are connected in opposition and, because they are
equal, read zero on the sensor output. As the armature moves away from center, one of the
position sensors increases and the other decreases. The result is an output from the
measurement sensor.
What Are LVDTs Used for?
Because of their durability and accuracy, LVDTs are used for a variety of applications. There
is a long list of common uses, but some of the most popular include testing soil strength,
controlling pill production, inspecting assembly lines, and monitoring fluid levels.
Why Choose LVDTs?
The biggest strength of the LVDT sensor is its ability to function with no electrical interaction
across the transducer position sensing element. The result is clean data and infinite resolution.
Other benefits include an unlimited mechanical life, single-axis sensitivity, environmentally-
strong construction, and fast response times. All of these features combine to make an LVDT
sensor a sound investment for the future.
At Group Four Transducers, we offer two types of LVDTs. Both the AC/AC and DC/DC
versions can be purchased with captive, unguided, or spring return armatures. Fill out
our online form to learn more or call us at 1-844-302-3640.
Capacitive: Capacitance Pickups:
Capacitance Pickup is a transducer that converts angular displacement into electrical signal. It
consists of ganged capacitance and is based on the principle of variation of effective area of
conductors, when other parameters such as separation, distance and dielectric strength being
kept constant.
The basis of angular displacement measurement with the help of capacitance pickup is
frequency modulation system. Two sets of ganged identical condensers form a part of
weinbridge oscillator. The frequency of oscillation f = 1/2πRC. If “C” is varied typically from
550pf to 50pf we get a frequency variation in the range of 110.
The following figure represents the block diagram of capacitance pickup:
Procedure for finding characteristics of Capacitance Pickup:-
1. Connect the capacitance pickup cable to the input socket of the main unit.
2. Keep the input angular displacement to zero position.
3. Check the DPM readings for zero indication or obtain the same by adjusting pot
P2.
4. Now, turn the shaft to fully anti-clockwise position and to obtain the DPM
indication of 180° by operating knob P2 if necessary.
5. Note down the DPM indication for different input angular displacements of
capacitance pickup.
6. Draw the graph of output versus input angular displacements. Its expected
waveform is as given below:
Differential Capacitive cell:
A Differential Capacitive cell, i.e. a capacitance differential pressure transmitter is a type of
pressure measurement device that uses the principle of capacitance to accurately measure the
difference in pressure between two points in a system.
It is commonly used in various industrial applications where precise pressure monitoring and
control are required.
Differential capacitance in physics, electronics, and electrochemistry is a measure of the
voltage-dependent capacitance of a nonlinear capacitor, such as an electrical double layer or a
semiconductor diode. It is defined as the derivative of charge with respect to potential.
Piezoelectric:
In our day to day life, we come across various situations where we have to measure physical
quantities like mechanical stress applied on metal, temperature levels, Pressure levels etc…For
all these applications we need a device which could measure these unknown quantities in units
and calibrations familiar to us. One such device which is most useful to us is the
TRANSDUCER. The transducer is an electrical device that can convert any type of physical
quantity in the form of proportional electrical quantity either as voltage or electrical current.
From the large pool of various type of transducer, this article aims to explain about piezoelectric
transducers.
What is Piezoelectric Transducer?
The definition of a Piezoelectric transducer is an electrical transducer which can convert any
form of physical quantity into an electrical signal, which can be used for measurement. An
electrical transducer which uses properties of piezoelectric materials for conversion of physical
quantities into electrical signals is known as a piezoelectric transducer.
Piezoelectric materials exhibit the property of piezoelectricity, according to which on the
application of any type of mechanical stress or strain leads to the generation of an electric
voltage proportional to the applied stress. This produced electric voltage can be measured using
voltage measuring instruments to calculate the value of stress or strain applied to the material.
Types of Piezoelectric Materials
Some of the types of piezoelectric materials are:
Naturally Available Ones: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline-group minerals, and
some organic substances as silk, wood, enamel, bone, hair, rubber, dentin. Artificially
manufactures piezoelectric materials are Polyvinylidene difluoride, PVDF or PVF2, Barium
titanate, Lead titanate, Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), Potassium niobate, Lithium niobate,
Lithium tantalate, and other lead-free piezoelectric ceramics.
Not all piezoelectric materials can be used in piezoelectric transducers. There are certain
requirements to be met by the piezoelectric materials to be used as transducers. The materials
used for measurement purpose should have frequency stability, high output values, insensitive
to the extreme temperature and humidity conditions and which can be available in various
shapes or should be flexible to be manufactured into various shapes without disturbing their
properties.
Unfortunately, there is no piezoelectric material which has all these properties. Quartz is a
highly stable crystal which is naturally available but it has small output levels. Slowly varying
parameters can be measured with quartz. Rochelle salt gives the highest output values but it is
sensitive to environmental conditions and cannot be operated above 1150F.
Piezoelectric Transducer Working
Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity. The faces of
piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of conducting material such as
silver. When stress has applied the ions in the material move towards one of the conducting
surface while moving away from the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge
is used for calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the direction
of the applied stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as Compressive stress and Tensile
stress as shown below.
Working of a Piezoelectric Transducer
Piezoelectric Transducer Formula
The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of voltage generated. Crystal in a
transducer can be arranged in longitudinal position or transverse position.
Piezoelectric Transducer Formula
Longitudinal and Transverse Effect
In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by
Q=F*d
Where F is the applied force,d is the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal.
Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.
In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by
Q = F * d * (b/a)
When the ratio b/a is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse arrangement will be
greater than the amount generated by longitudinal arrangement.
Piezoelectric Transducer Circuit
The working of a basic piezoelectric transducer can be explained by the below figure.
Here quartz crystal coated with silver is used as a sensor to generate a voltage when stress is
applied on it. A charge amplifier is used to measure the produced charge without dissipation.
To draw very low current the resistance R1 is very high. The capacitance of the lead wire that
connects the transducer and piezoelectric sensor also affects the calibration. So the charge
amplifier is usually placed very near to the sensor.
So in a piezoelectric transducer when mechanical stress is applied a proportional electric
voltage is generated which is amplified using charge amplifier and used for calibration of
applied stress.
Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Transducer
The ultrasonic piezoelectric transducer works on the principle of the converse piezoelectric
effect. In this effect when electricity is applied to a piezoelectric material, it undergoes physical
deformations proportional to applied charge. The circuit of the ultrasonic transducer is given
below.
Ultrasonic
Piezoelectric Transducer
Here, the quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B which are connected to
the primary L3 of the transformer. The primary of the transformer is inductively coupled to
the electronic oscillator. The coils L1 and L2, which forms secondary of the transformer, are
connected to the electronic oscillator.
When the battery is turned ON the oscillator produces high-frequency alternating voltage
pulses with a frequency f=1÷(2π√L1C1). Due to this, an e.m.f is induced in L3 which is
transferred to the quartz crystal through plates A and B. Due to converse piezoelectric effect
the crystal starts contracting and expanding alternatively thus creating mechanical vibrations.
Resonance takes place when the frequency of the electronic oscillator is equal to the natural
frequency of the quartz. At this point, quartz produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large
amplitude.
Piezoelectric Transducer Applications
• As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are primarily used for
measuring surface roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration pickup.
• They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.
• In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…
• Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.
• These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.
Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers
The advantages and limitations of piezoelectric transducers include the following.
Advantages
• These are active transducer i.e. they don’t require external power for working and
are therefore self-generating.
• The high-frequency response of these transducers makes a good choice for various
applications.
Limitations
• Temperature and environmental conditions can affect the behavior of the transducer.
• They can only measure changing pressure hence they are useless while measuring
static parameters.
Ultrasonic transducer:
Frequency is defined as the number of signals or waves that can be appeared in a fixed time.
Units for the frequency are Hertz (Hz). These frequencies are divided into several ranges
depending upon the frequency values. They are Very Low Frequencies (VLF), Low
Frequencies (LF), Medium Frequencies (MF), High Frequencies (HF), Very High Frequencies
(VHF), Ultra-High Frequencies (UHF), Super High Frequencies (SHF), and Extremely High
Frequencies (EHF). The frequency range may be varies based on the type of frequencies. The
frequency range of VLF ranges from 3 to 30 kHz. The frequency range of LF ranges from 30
kHz to 300 kHz. The frequency range of MF ranges from 300 to 3000 kHz. The frequency
range of HF ranges from 3 MHz to 30 MHz. The frequency range of UHF ranges from 300
MHz to 3000 MHz. The frequency range of SHF ranges from 3 GHz to 30 GHz. The frequency
range of EHF ranges from 30 GHz to 300 GHz. This article discusses an overview of the
ultrasonic transducer and its working.
What is an Ultrasonic Transducer?
The ultrasonic transducer is one type of sound-related sensor. These transducers send the
electrical signals to the object and once the signal strikes the object then it reverts to the
transducer. In this process, this transducer measures the distance of the object not by the
intensity of the sound. These transducers use ultrasonic waves for the measurement of a few
parameters. It has a wide range of applications in various fields. The frequency range of
ultrasonic waves is above 20 kHz. These are mainly used in measuring distance applications.
The following image indicates the ultrasonic transducer.
ultrasonic-transducer
These transducers can be defined as a transducer which is used to convert one type of energy
to ultrasonic vibration. By these ultrasonic vibrations, this transducer measures the distance of
the object. These are available in two types like active and passive.
Ultrasonic Transducer Working Principle
When an electrical signal is applied to this transducer, it vibrates around the specific frequency
range and generates a sound wave. These sound waves travel and whenever any obstacle
comes, these sound waves will reflect the transducer inform of echo. And at the end of the
transducer, this echo converts into an electrical signal. Here, the transducer calculates the time
interval between the sending of the sound wave to the receiving the echo signal. The ultrasonic
sensor sends the ultrasonic pulse at 40 kHz which travels through the air. These transducers are
better than the infrared sensors because these ultrasonic transducer/sensors are not affected by
the smoke, black materials, etc. Ultrasonic sensors exhibit excellence in suppressing
background interference.
ultrasonic-transducer
Ultrasonic transducers are mainly used for finding the distance by using ultrasonic waves. The
distance can be measured by the following formula.
D=½*T*C
Here, D indicates the distance
T indicates the time difference between sending and reception of ultrasonic waves
C is indicating the sonic speed.
Ultrasonic Transducer Types
There are various types of ultrasonic transducers available based on factors like piezoelectric
crystal arrangement, footprint, and frequency. They are
Linear Ultrasonic Transducers – In this type of transducers, piezoelectric crystal
arrangement is linear.
Standard Ultrasonic Transducers – This type is also called as convex transducers. In this
type, the piezoelectric crystal is in a curvy form. For in-depth examinations these are preferable.
Phased Array Ultrasonic Transducers – Phased array transducers have a small footprint and
low frequency. (its center frequency is 2 MHz – 7 MHz)
For non-destructive testing, the ultrasonic transducers are again having different types. They
contact transducers, angle beam transducers, Delay line transducers, immersion transducers,
and dual element transducers.
Applications
The applications of Ultrasonic Transducers are
These transducers have many applications in different fields like industrial, medical, etc. These
are having more applications because of ultrasonic waves. This helps finds the targets, measure
the distance of the objects to the target, to find the position of the object, to calculate the level
also the ultrasonic transducers are helpful.
In the medical field, the ultrasonic transducer is having the applications in diagnostic testing,
surgical devices while treating cancer, internal organ testing, heart checkups, eyes and uterus
checkups ultrasonic transducers are useful.
In the industrial field, ultrasonic transducers have few important applications. By these
transducers, they can measure the distance of certain objects to avoid a collision, in production
line management, liquid level control, wire break detection, people detection for counting,
vehicle detection and many more.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Any system has advantages and a few disadvantages. Here will discuss the advantages of the
ultrasonic transducer.
• These ultrasonic transducers can able to measure in any type of material. They can
sense all types of materials.
• The ultrasonic transducers are not affected by temperature, water, dust or any.
• In any type of environment, the ultrasonic transducers will work in a good manner.
• It can measure in high sensing distances also.
The disadvantages of these transducers include the following.
• Ultrasonic transducers are sensitive to temperature variation. This temperature
variation may change the ultrasonic reaction.
• It will face problems while reading the reflections from small objects, thin and soft
objects.
Hall effect transducer:
Definition: The hall effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring the magnetic
field by converting it into an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not possible.
Thus the Hall Effect Transducer is used. The transducer converts the magnetic field into an
electric quantity which is easily measured by the analogue and digital meters.
Principle of Hall Effect Transducer
The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the current carrying strip of the conductor is
placed in a transverse magnetic field, then the EMF develops on the edge of the conductor. The
magnitude of the develop voltage depends on the density of flux, and this property of a
conductor is called the Hall effect. The Hall effect element is mainly used for magnetic
measurement and for sensing the current.
The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect which depends on the densities
and the mobility of the electrons.
Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure below. The current supply through the
lead 1 and 2 and the output is obtained from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4 are at same
potential when no field is applied across the strip.
When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output voltage develops across the output
leads 3 and 4. The develops voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the material.
The output voltage is,
where,
The I is the current in ampere and the B is the flux densities in Wb/m2
The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with the help of the output
voltages. The hall effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which it is difficult to
measure. But semiconductors like germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured
by the moving coil instrument.
Applications of Hall Effect Transducer
The following are the application of the Hall effect Transducers.
1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer – The Hall effect element is used for converting the
magnetic flux into an electric transducer. The magnetic fields are measured by placing the
semiconductor material in the measurand magnetic field. The voltage develops at the end of
the semiconductor strips, and this voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic field density.
The Hall Effect transducer requires small space and also gives the continuous signal concerning
the magnetic field strength. The only disadvantage of the transducer is that it is highly sensitive
to temperature and thus calibration requires in each case.
2. Measurement of Displacement – The Hall effect element measures the displacement of the
structural element. For example – Consider the ferromagnetic structure which has a permanent
magnet.
The hall effect transducer placed between the poles of the permanent magnet. The magnetic
field strength across the hall effect element changes by changing the position of the
ferromagnetic field.
3. Measurement of Current – The hall effect transducer is also used for measuring the current
without any physical connection between the conductor circuit and meter.
The AC or DC is applied across the conductor for developing the magnetic field. The strength
of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the applied current. The magnetic field develops
the emf across the strips. And this EMF depends on the strength of the conductor.
4. Measurement of Power – The hall effect transducer is used for measuring the power of the
conductor. The current is applied across the conductor, which develops the magnetic field. The
intensity of the field depends on the current. The magnetic field induces the voltage across the
strip. The output voltage of the multiplier is proportional to the power of the transducer.
Optical Transducer:
The optical transducer convert light into electrical quantity. They are also called as
photoelectric transducers. The optical transducer can be classified as photo emissive,
photoconductive and photovoltaic transducers. The photo emissive devices operate on the
principle that radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted from the cathode
surface.
The photoconductive devices operate on the principle that whenever a material is illuminated,
its resistance changes. The photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage that is proportional to
the radiation intensity. The radiation that is incident may be x-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet,
infrared or visible light.
An optical transducer converts light rays into an electronic signal. The purpose of an optical
transducer is to measure a physical quantity of light and, depending on the type of transducer,
then translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device.
