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                    ICE manual of
             construction materials
                                                                 Volume 2
Metals and alloys; Polymers; Polymer fibre composites in civil engineering;
                   Timber; Glass; Non-conventional materials; Appendices
                                                                      Editor:
                                                                   Mike Forde
                                                      University of Edinburgh
                                                   ice | manuals
Published by Thomas Telford Limited, 40 Marsh Wall, London E14 9TP, UK.
www.thomastelford.com
Future titles in the ICE Manuals series from Thomas Telford Limited
Currently available in the ICE Manual series from Thomas Telford Limited
www.icemanuals.com
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publisher, Thomas Telford Ltd, 40 Marsh Wall,
London E14 9TP, UK.
This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the
statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply
that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. While
every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in
this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in
this respect by the authors or publishers.
The authors and the publisher have made every reasonable effort to locate, contact and
acknowledge copyright owners. The publisher wishes to be informed by copyright owners who
are not properly identified and acknowledged in this publication so that we may make necessary
corrections.
Chapter 61: Timber products and manufacturing processes           717        Chapter 68: Production techniques – a brief history                    793
F. Lam                                                                       J. Colvin
   Introduction                                                   717           Raw materials, melting and annealing                                793
   Round wood                                                     717           Roman window glass                                                  794
   Timber or lumber                                               717           Cylinder glass                                                      794
   Engineered wood products                                       720           Crown glass                                                         794
   Conclusion                                                     725           Sheet glass                                                         794
   References                                                     726           Plate glass                                                         795
   Further reading                                                726           Rolled glass                                                        795
                                                                                Wired glass                                                         795
Chapter 62: Effects of moisture                                   727
                                                                                Float glass                                                         795
H. Bier
                                                                                Multiple glazing                                                    796
  Introduction                                                    727
                                                                                Laminated glass                                                     798
  Water and wood                                                  727
                                                                                Toughened glass                                                     800
  Shrinkage and swelling                                          729
                                                                                Heat-strengthened glass                                             801
  Water, wood and durability                                      732
                                                                                Heat soaked toughened glass                                         801
  Construction practices                                          732
                                                                                Enamelled glass                                                     802
  Conclusions                                                     737
                                                                                Coated glass                                                        804
  References                                                      737
                                                                                Fire-resistant glass                                                806
Chapter 63: Understanding timber structural connection systems 739
J. Broughton and J. Custódio                                                Chapter 69: Strength and durability of glass                           807
   Overview of connection types                                739           C. Jofeh
   Mechanical connections                                      739             Introduction                                                         807
   Glued connections                                           744             Physical properties of glass, compared with other materials          807
   Adhesives types                                             747             Durability                                                           807
   References                                                  756             Design approaches                                                    808
   Further reading                                             759             Safety                                                               809
Chapter 64: Hazards, specification and service life performance   761          Falling glass                                                        810
J.-W. van de Kuilen                                                            Rules of thumb                                                       810
   Introduction                                                   761          Laminated glass                                                      811
   Hazard types                                                   761          The buckling of laminated glass                                      812
   Timber specification                                           765          Insulating glass units                                               812
   Application classes                                            766          Concluding remarks                                                   812
   Strength grades and classes                                    767          References                                                           812
   Surface finishes and sizes                                     769          Further reading                                                      813
   Service life performance and design for durability             769
   Examples                                                       770        Chapter 70: Common glass products                                      815
   References                                                     771        J. Colvin
                                                                                Basic glass to EN 572                                               815
Chapter 65: Case studies: current uses of timber in the UK        773           Annealed glass                                                      815
J. Bregulla                                                                     Toughened glass to BS EN 12150                                      816
   Introduction                                                   773           Heat-strengthened glass to BS EN 1863                               816
   Case study 1: the ‘Lighthouse’                                 773           Heat-soaked toughened glass to BS EN 14179                          817
   Why timber?                                                    774           Enamelled glass                                                     817
   Case study 2: multi-storey timber structures                   776           Laminated glass to BS EN ISO 12543 and BS EN 14449                  817
   Case study 3: Savill Building, Windsor Great Park              779           Coated glass to BS EN 1096                                          818
   Summary                                                        782           Insulating glass units to BS EN 1279                                819
   References                                                     782           Fire-resistant glass to BS EN 357                                   819
SECTION 9: Glass                                                             Chapter 71: Characteristics and problems of glass products             821
Section editor: Chris Jofeh                                                  J. Colvin
Chapter 66: Glass in construction: an introduction                783           General glass defects                                               821
J. Colvin                                                                       Annealed glass                                                      821
   Light relief                                                   783           Clear float glass                                                   822
   Rationality or mystique                                        783           Toughened glass and heat strengthened glass                         822
   Definition of glass                                            783           Coated glass                                                        824
   Sustainability and recycling                                   784           Laminated glass                                                     824
   Further reading                                                784           Insulating glass units                                              825
                                                                                British Standards relating to glass in buildings                    827
Chapter 67: What is glass?                                        785
J. Colvin
   Silicate glass                                                 785        SECTION 10: Non-conventional materials
   Glass as a material                                            785        Section editor: Peter Walker
   Stress and strain                                              786
   Homogeneity and isotropy                                       787        Chapter 72: Low-carbon natural building materials                      831
   The effect of the glass structure on its properties            787        P. Walker
   Tensile strength levels                                        787           Introduction                                                        831
   Surface flaws                                                  787           Earth as a building material                                        832
   Scratches, shells, chips and vents                             788           Building with lime                                                  839
   Glass and water                                                788           Hemp-lime building                                                  841
   Static fatigue                                                 788           Other renewable materials in construction                           843
   Glass strength testing                                         789           Carbon benefits of renewable materials                              845
   Compressive strength                                           789           Future potential                                                    846
   Toughened glass                                                789           Acknowledgements                                                    846
   Fracture                                                       790           References                                                          846
   References                                                     792           Further reading                                                     847
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                                www.icemanuals.com         vii
       ice | manuals                                                                                                                      Contents
Chapter 73: Straw bale construction – state of the art               849        Chapter 75: Architectural fabrics                                873
M. Offin, S. Vardy and C. MacDougall                                            W. Lewis
  Introduction                                                       849          Introduction                                                   873
  Construction details                                               850          Fabric structure and properties                                873
  Performance of straw bale assemblies                               854          Patterning                                                     876
  Plaster structural performance                                     854          Main categories of architectural fabrics                       876
  Individual bale structural performance                             855          Factors to consider in the choice of fabric                    882
  Bale wall structural performance                                   855          Future trends                                                  884
  Case study – the 4C’s food bank and thrift store (adapted from                  References                                                     884
  Vardy et al., 2006)                                                857
  The future of straw bale construction                              858
  References                                                         859
                                                                                APPENDICES
Chapter 74: Alternative materials for construction                   861        Appendix A: Fire performance of commonly used building
S. Aghedo and C. Baillie                                                        materials                                                        887
   Introduction                                                      861        D. Hopkin
   Source of natural fibres                                          861          Introduction                                                   887
   Sources of waste plastic                                          862          References                                                     893
   Development of hemp fibre/bale wrap composites for construction   863          Further reading                                                893
   Harvesting, retting and extraction of hemp                        864
   Waste plastic preparation process                                 864
                                                                                Appendix B: Guide to the recycled content of mainstream
   Fabrication of composites                                         864
   Mechanical properties of hemp fibre composites                    866        construction products: Waste & Resources Action
                                                                                Programme (WRAP)                                                 895
   Moisture-resistance properties of hemp fibre composites           869
                                                                                  Introduction                                                   895
   Examples of building products                                     870
   Conclusion                                                        870
   References                                                        870        Index to volume I and II                                         899
viii     www.icemanuals.com                                                ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
Section 5: Metals and alloys
       Section editor: Wei Sha
                                                                                                                             ice | manuals
                                                                                                              doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0465
Chapter 38
Metals and alloys as construction                                            non-ferrous metals and alloys has been more rapid than
                                                                             that of iron and steel, although this is mainly to catch up
materials                                                                    with rather than replace the ferrous metals.
In terms of volume or weight, metals and alloys as con-
struction materials are well behind concrete. However,                       Microstructure and properties of
their strength, ductility, toughness, surface properties,
weldability, electrical and thermal conductivity, and many                   metals and alloys
other properties unique to this group of materials, make
metals and alloys indispensible materials for construction.                  Microstructural defects and their
These materials are used in houses and other buildings,                      relations to strength and ductility
structural steelwork including buildings, bridges, offshore                   The properties of metals and alloys which are unique to this
structures and piling, road structures, and does not require                 group of materials, as opposed to say ceramics and poly-
the extensive machinery necessary for completing any                         mers are due to their microstructure, starting from the
major construction project, for example cranes, trucks                       small, atomic scale of metallic bonds, up to their grain
and concrete mixers.                                                         and phase structures, usually in the micrometre scale,
   A variety of metals are used. The predominant type is, of                 hence the term microstructure. In metals, there are free
course, the ferrous metals, i.e. iron and steel. Within this                 electrons shared by many atoms, as against the ionic
type, there are cast iron, wrought iron, carbon steels and                   bond or covalent bond in ceramics and polymers. Such
alloy steels, differentiated mainly by their composition.                     free electrons are the cause of the metals’ electrical and
Among them, carbon steels form the basis of structural                       thermal conductivity. This unique type of bonding also
steelwork as well as concrete reinforcing bars, and thus                     determines the high strength and ductility of metals and
are used in the largest quantity among all types of metals.                  alloys.
Although metals were used extensively from ancient                              In materials science, materials are broadly divided into
times, as indicated by history terminologies such as the                     structural materials and functional materials. The applica-
Bronze and Iron Age, the scale of their use was dramatically                 tion of the first group is based on the material strength,
increased with the modern steelmaking technology.                            while for the second group it is based on electrical and elec-
Although the development of steelmaking technology has                       tronic, magnetic and optical properties. The most widely
stabilised in the last few decades, the processing techniques                used properties of metals and alloys for construction
for steels as well as for iron have continued to develop and                 purposes are their strength and ductility, for the so-called
improve to great effect, including thermomechanical                           structural materials. In physical metallurgy and materials
processing, heat treatment, and surface engineering.                         science, the strength and ductility are explained mainly
   Among the non-ferrous metals, aluminium, zinc, lead,                      with two microstructural terms, namely grain structures
copper and tin are traditionally widely used. Less widely                    and dislocation structures.
used are nickel and chromium. There are also new metallic                       Microscopically, with the exception of amorphous
materials for construction, for example titanium for clad-                   materials not normally used in construction, a piece of
ding purposes. Although far from widely used, titanium                       metal is packed with small crystals, although the exterior
offers an attractive alternative, due mainly to its aesthetic                 of the metal does not normally show features of crystal
features and corrosion resistance. The development of                        that we normally associate with geological minerals. The
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                        www.icemanuals.com           465
 Metals and alloys
P M
Burgers vector
Q N
P P
                                                                                                Burgers
                                                M                                                vector             M
                         Q
                                                                                           Q
                                               N
                                                                                                                N
Figure 1 The lattice arrangements of edge (top right) and screw (bottom right) dislocations compared to perfect crystal structures
reason why we cannot see the crystals (or even signs of                          locations (but not too many because then they will tangle
them) with the naked eye is because they are very tiny,                          up and be hard to move), plastic deformation becomes
usually around the scale of 106 m (one micrometre) but                          easier because, instead of moving the whole crystal planes
they could be manipulated by special treatment to down                           in one go, it is much easier to push each dislocation to
to 109 m (one nanometre). Recent research has resulted                          move. This is very similar to moving carpets by first
in the development of nanostructures in bulk metallic                            forming a kink, and then pushing the kink from one end
materials (Bhadeshia, 2005).                                                     of the carpet to another. Worms move in the same way,
   These tiny crystals are packed densely with no gaps                           too.
between them, and are only separated by grain boundaries.                           The deformation mechanism through the movement of
The grain boundaries have significant effects on metal prop-                       dislocations is the reason why metals have good ductility.
erties such as strength, ductility, atom diffusion and                            Grain boundaries, on the other hand, limit the movement
conductivity.                                                                    of dislocations because it is not always easy for dislocations
   For the perfect crystal structure to deform plastically,                      to traverse across them. By controlling the quantity and size
extremely large forces are required, in order for the                            of the grain boundaries and dislocations, virtually un-
atomic planes to slide against each other. Imagine even                          limited range of property combinations can be achieved.
the force required to pull from one end and slide a large                           A grain boundary caused by the discontinuity of crystals
carpet on a floor, in one single movement. The friction                           is a 2D defect, and a dislocation caused by atomic plane
force between the carpet and the floor is huge. The sliding                       misalignment is a 1D defect. In addition to 1D and 2D
of atomic planes has similar difficulties, only a million                          defects, there are 0D defects, the so-called point defects,
times harder because of the tight bonding between atoms                          usually in the form of vacancies, i.e. lattice spots, but not
next to each other in adjacent atomic planes. In real                            occupied by any atom. The vacancies determine the rate
metals, however, there is a common type of defect called                         of diffusion because metal atoms diffuse by jumping into
dislocations (Figure 1) that completely change the                               an adjacent vacancy. There are 3D defects, too, in the
mechanism of plastic deformation.                                                form of inclusion and precipitation for example, which
   Dislocations appear in large numbers in metals and                            weakens or strengthens the metallic materials depending
alloys, some formed naturally during cooling after melting                       on their characteristics. As it transpires, atomic and
during the alloy manufacture, and some formed during                             micro-scale defects in metals are far more important and
deformation processing such as rolling and forging, and                          useful than the perfect crystal structure.
some even formed during the plastic deformation process                             The physical metallurgy and materials science of metals
which is facilitated by them in the first place. With dis-                        and alloys are described in many metallurgy textbooks. A
466    www.icemanuals.com                                                     ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                        Metals and alloys: an introduction
comprehensive source of information for metals is the ASM                    adds a significant amount of cost. In recent years, there
Handbook series published by ASM International. For free                     have been large advances in fire engineering research and
online information, the Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org)                  development, resulting in some reduction of fire protec-
contains many relevant articles, although they may not be                    tion cost in structural steelwork.
as authoritative.
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                       www.icemanuals.com     467
 Metals and alloys
and alloys. This chapter is not about specific types of           are written by Arthur Lyons. His textbook, Materials for
metals, it intends to give the basic metallurgical theory        Architects & Builders, is widely used by universities for
that is applicable to all metals and alloys.                     teaching of their Construction Materials module, including
   The chapters that follow describe the most common             that run at my own university, coordinated by myself.
types of metals and alloys used in construction, including       However, for the Manual, Dr Lyons is able to elaborate
ferrous metals, aluminium, copper and zinc. In addition,         to a much more advanced level compared with the
an up-and-coming metal not previously used in construc-          undergraduate textbook. The chapters on aluminium and
tion, titanium, is discussed in Chapter 44. The focus is on      copper are written by respective top specialists in these
the properties and uses of these metals, so that the reader      metals, namely David Harris of Aluminium Advocates
can apply the knowledge straight to the practical use of         and Peter Webster of the Copper Development Associa-
them in the design and maintenance of structures and             tion. Neil Lowrie, a technologist at NAMTEC, has
construction projects.                                           contributed the chapter on titanium (NAMTEC is the
   Traditionally and for the foreseeable future, in terms of     National Metals Technology Centre in the UK).
tonnage, structural steels are dominant among metals and            The last chapter of the Metals and Alloys Section is
alloys used in construction, so the final chapter con-            written by Mark Lawson, a most familiar name in struc-
centrates on the application and design issues of struc-         tural steels in the UK and beyond, for his influential
tural steels. The aim of this chapter is for the reader to       work at the Steel Construction Institute (SCI). Technical
gain an advanced knowledge of these materials, and be            publications on structural steel design produced by SCI
able to apply this knowledge directly in civil engineering       under his direction are widely used by consulting engineers
construction.                                                    as well as in the relevant professional and higher education
   I am extremely proud to say that we have got a top,           sectors. SCI also has a strong influence in British Standards
distinguished team of British authors for these chapters         and now Eurocodes for structural steelwork.
and topics, each a world authority in his own field. Chapter         Each of these authors is a fellow or member of the
39, ‘The nature and behaviour of alloys’, is written by Dr       relevant professional bodies in the UK.
Joseph Robson, a Senior Lecturer in Physical Metallurgy             I am therefore confident that this section of the Manual of
at the University of Manchester. Among other professional        Construction Materials forms a most authoritative guide of
achievements and credentials, he is an associate editor of       metals and alloys for construction practitioners.
Materials Characterization, an international journal
published by the International Metallographic Society on         Reference
materials structure and behaviour.
                                                                 Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. Bulk Nanocrystalline Steels. Ironmaking
   As Chapter 40 is concerned with different types of metals,       and Steelmaking, 2005, 32, 405–410.
we have several authors, writing about each type of metal
and its alloys. The chapters on ferrous metals and zinc
468   www.icemanuals.com                                       ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                                               ice | manuals
                                                                                                               doi: 10.1680/mocm.35973.0469
Chapter 39
                                                                                                                Introduction                   469
Joseph Robson School of Materials, University of Manchester, UK
                                                                                                                Microstructure of metals and
                                                                                                                alloys                         469
The performance of metal alloys is understood by studying the relationships                                     Phase transformations          469
between composition, processing, structure and properties. Knowledge and control                                Defects in metals and alloys   470
of structure on the microscopic scale is critical in optimising macroscopic                                     Plastic deformation of
                                                                                                                metals and alloys              471
performance, producing the versatile range of alloys available today.
                                                                                                                Strengthening of metals
                                                                                                                and alloys                     472
                                                                                                                Other mechanical properties    473
                                                                                                                Processing and forming
                                                                                                                of metals                      474
                                                                                                                Physical properties of
                                                                                                                metals and alloys              474
                                                                                                                Corrosion of metals            475
                                                                                                                Alloy selection                476
                                                                                                                Key points                     476
                                                                                                                References                     476
                                                                                                                Further reading                477
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                         www.icemanuals.com           469
 Metals and alloys
60°
 Figure 1 Unit cells showing the arrangement of atoms in (a) face-centred cubic, (b) body-centred cubic and (c) hexagonal close-packed crystal
 structures. The atoms outlined in bold define one of the planes of closest atomic packing in each structure
the phase transformation that occurs in iron and steel                          Particle precipitation refers to the formation of (usually)
(steels are based on the iron–carbon system, with additional                    micron- or sub-micron-sized particles of a second phase
alloying elements). At room temperature, the most stable                        in the initial (matrix) phase. Precipitation occurs because
crystal structure for iron is body-centred cubic (BCC).                         the solubility of alloying elements in the matrix phase
This phase is called ferrite. When heated above 9108C                           decreases with decreasing temperature. When the solubility
(1183 K), the face-centred cubic (FCC) structure becomes                        is exceeded, there will be a driving force for precipitate
more stable, and a phase transformation occurs. The                             formation. Precipitation involves alloying elements leaving
FCC iron phase is called austenite.                                             the matrix phase and forming particles of a different phase
   The presence of additional elements, as in steel, adds to                    with distinct composition and structure. This process takes
the complexity of the phase transformations that can                            time, however, and precipitation can be suppressed by
occur. Steels are often processed with the iron in the high-                    cooling very rapidly. In this case, excess alloying elements
temperature (austenite) form before being cooled to room                        can be trapped in the matrix phase. These elements will
temperature, where the ferrite phase is stable. Austenite                       then form precipitate particles over time, and heating can
has a higher solubility for carbon than ferrite (approxi-                       accelerate this process by enhancing atomic movement
mately 100 times more carbon can be dissolved in austenite                      (diffusion). This method can be used to produce a fine
than ferrite, by weight). This means that for iron to form                      and uniform distribution of precipitate particles that can
stable ferrite on cooling, carbon must be rejected from the                     provide a large strengthening effect (precipitation strength-
transforming austenite. This carbon forms a new phase,                          ening) (AluMATTER, 2007). Precipitation strengthening is
which in simple (plain carbon) steels has the chemical                          exploited in many aluminium alloys, steels, and other alloy
formulae Fe3C, and is called cementite. If other alloying                       systems.
elements are present, they can also form new phases with
the excess carbon, known as carbides.
   If cooling is very rapid (such as obtained if steel is                       Defects in metals and alloys
quenched into water) then there is usually insufficient                           The crystals that are generated by stacking together unit
time for the movement of atoms that is required to re-                          cells, as described in the previous section, are perfect;
arrange the austenite crystal structure to the two new                          there are no irregularities in such a structure, and each
crystal structures of ferrite and cementite. In this case, a                    part of the crystal is identical to every other part. In reality,
series of different phase transformations is possible,                           real crystals are not perfect but contain defects. These
forming phases that give different microstructures and                           defects play a crucial role in controlling the properties of
properties. The ability to exploit the phase transformations                    metals and alloys.
from austenite to give a range of different structures is a                         Two types of defect are of particular importance in metals
great advantage of steels. Apart from iron/steel, other                         and alloys: vacancies and dislocations. A vacancy is a ‘gap’ in
important industrial metals that transform from one crystal                     the crystal structure, where there is no atom where one would
structure at high temperature to another at lower tempera-                      be expected (Figure 2(a)). Vacancies are important in the
ture include titanium and zirconium. The stable structure                       process of atomic diffusion (the movement of atoms within
for both of these is hexagonal close packed (HCP) at                            the crystal structure). Any one of the atoms that surround
room temperature, but BCC at high temperature.                                  the vacancy can move by jumping into the vacant site, leaving
   Another type of phase transformation that is widely                          a vacant site behind (the atom and vacancy swap positions).
exploited in engineering alloys is particle precipitation.                      Another atom can then jump into the newly vacant site and so
470    www.icemanuals.com                                                   ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                               The nature and behaviour of alloys
                                  100 mm
                                                                                                                                   σ
                                     (a)                                              (b)                                        (c)
 Figure 3 (a) A cadmium single crystal after deformation showing slip bands at the surface. (b) The close-packed planes and directions in the FCC crystal
 structure that define the 12 slip systems. (c) Schematic showing how an applied tensile stress  produces a shear stress  on a slip plane inclined close
 to 458 to the tensile axis
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                                 www.icemanuals.com          471
 Metals and alloys
directions. This gives 12 combinations (4  3), and each             material can be subjected without permanent plastic defor-
combination is known as a slip system. Therefore, metals             mation. There are several ways that the yield strength of a
with FCC crystal structures have a total of 12 possible              metal can be increased, both by alloying additions and
slip systems. Metals with BCC crystal structures also have           processing. Fundamentally, each of these methods works
at least 12 possible slip systems, whereas metals with HCP           by making dislocation movement more difficult, thereby
crystal structures may have as few as three slip systems.            increasing the resolved shear stress that is required to
This is of practical importance, since the ease with which           initiate plastic deformation.
a metal can be deformed or shaped without cracking is
strongly dependent on the number of available slip systems           Grain size strengthening
that can accommodate deformation.                                    So far, the deformation of a single crystal has been
   Plastic deformation will initiate on a slip plane in a parti-     considered. In practice, bulk metals are nearly always
cular slip direction when the shear stress on that plane,            polycrystalline and consist of aggregates of many crystals
resolved in the slip direction, exceeds a critical value. For        (grains) in different orientations. The boundaries between
a crystal pulled in tension (as shown in Figure 3(c)), the           grains provide a barrier to dislocation motion. These
resolved shear stress will be a maximum on the slip planes           boundaries therefore provide a strengthening effect and, the
that are oriented close to 458 to the tensile axis. Deforma-         more grain boundary area there is per unit volume, the
tion will therefore take place by shearing on these planes.          greater the strengthening effect. This means that fine-grained
   How, on an atomic scale, does this shearing occur? It             materials will be stronger than the same coarse-grained
might be imagined that all of the atoms on one slip plane            material, because a fine-grained material will have more
slide over all of the atoms on the slip plane below, since           grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion. The
this would produce the observed deformation at the crystal           relationship between the grain size of an alloy and its yield
surface. However, when a calculation is made of the                  strength is described by the Hall–Petch equation, which
theoretical critical shear stress required for this process, it      states that the yield strength is inversely proportional to the
is found to be several orders of magnitude greater than              square root of the grain size (Callister, 2006).
the critical shear stress measured, suggesting another                  A reduction in grain size can be achieved in practice by
mechanism must be operating.                                         thermomechanical processing of the alloy (e.g. rolling it
   In practice, it is much easier to produce slip by introducing     to produce sheet, or extruding it to produce rods or bars).
and propagating a dislocation into the crystal structure,            It is a widely used strengthening mechanism since it does
rather than sliding one whole atom plane over another.               not rely on expensive alloying elements and, in addition, a
Then, rather than having to move all the atoms in the slip           grain size reduction also improves the toughness of many
plane at the same time, disrupting the crystal structure             alloys (in contrast with the other strengthening mechanisms
across the whole crystal, only a local region of the crystal         discussed here, where the increase in strength is usually
structure is disrupted at any one time. An animation illus-          accompanied by a decrease in toughness).
trating this process can be found at (DoITPoMS, 2007).
   The movement of one dislocation and its destruction at            Solid solution strengthening
the surface of the crystal produce a deformation step of             Some alloying elements can be dissolved into the crystal
less than 0.5 nm for a typical metal, from which it is clear         structure of the matrix phase forming a solid solution.
that movement of many millions of dislocations is needed             Alloying elements can be accommodated into the crystal
to provide easily seen macroscopic deformation. Some of              of the parent element in one of two ways. If the atomic
these dislocations will already exist in the crystal (since, as      radius of the alloying element is much smaller than the
discussed, no real crystal is perfect). Others are generated         parent atomic radius, then the alloying element atoms can
during deformation (see Hull and Bacon, 2001 for more                sit in the gaps (interstices) between the parent atoms.
details).                                                            Such small atoms are commonly referred to as interstitials
   The knowledge that deformation in metals occurs on an             when in solution. Carbon atoms occupy the interstitial
atomic level by movement of dislocations has important               sites when dissolved in iron and this plays a key role in
practical consequences, since it suggests that increasing a          the metallurgy of steels.
metal’s resistance to plastic deformation (i.e. increasing              More often, soluble alloying elements will not be small
strength) requires inhibition of dislocation movement.               enough to be accommodated within gaps between parent
The mechanisms used to do this are discussed next.                   atoms, in which case the alloying addition will be dissolved
                                                                     in the parent phase by replacing parent atoms in the crystal
                                                                     structure. Such elements are referred to as being substitu-
Strengthening of metals and alloys                                   tional when in solution.
In many applications, yield strength is a critical mechanical           Both interstitial and substitutional additions will create
property, since this is the maximum stress to which a                distortions (strains) in the crystal structure due to the
472    www.icemanuals.com                                          ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                      The nature and behaviour of alloys
mismatch in size between the parent and alloying element                     Strengthening Mechanisms Module). The correct particle
atomic radius. Dislocations also result in a local distortion                size is obtained by carefully controlling the alloy composi-
(strain) because the atoms around the dislocation are not in                 tion and heat treatment.
their ideal positions. The strains due to dislocations will
interact with the strains surrounding solute atoms because
strains of opposite signs will try to cancel each other out.                 Other mechanical properties
This creates an attraction between the dislocation and                       The discussion so far has focused on the use of alloying
solute atom that must be broken for the dislocation to                       elements and processing to increase the yield strength of
move, increasing strength. The effectiveness of solute                        alloys. While strength is usually a critical design property,
elements in increasing yield strength increases with an                      there are other mechanical properties that must be consid-
increase in the misfit between the solute and parent atoms                    ered, and may indeed be of overriding importance in some
and also with the amount of the solute element that can                      applications.
be dissolved into the matrix crystal structure.
                                                                             Stiffness
Strain hardening                                                             Stiffness (usually characterised by the Young’s modulus) is
Most metals have the useful property that they become                        the ability of a material to resist elastic deformation. Since
stronger as they are plastically deformed. This effect is                     most components are designed to operate within the elastic
known as strain or work hardening, and it is often exploited                 deformation regime (i.e. without plastic deformation) then
in the strengthening of metals and alloys. The origins of the                stiffness is usually a key property. However, although
strain hardening effect can be traced to interactions between                 different metals have widely varying stiffness values (e.g.
the dislocations that are generated during plastic deforma-                  the Young’s modulus of tungsten is 400 GPa, that of
tion. As discussed, these dislocations locally distort the                   magnesium is 45 GPa), processing and alloying elements
crystal structure and are thus surrounded by strain fields.                   added at typical levels do not usually greatly change the
As the number of dislocations increases during deforma-                      stiffness of the parent metal. Only in alloys that contain
tion, and the dislocations move, their spacing decreases                     several phases, which have markedly different stiffness
until their strain fields start to interact with each other.                  values, is it possible to obtain significant variations in
   On average, the interaction between the strain fields of                   stiffness by varying the proportion of the two phases.
neighbouring dislocations leads to repulsive forces between
the dislocations, with the result that an additional applied                 Fracture toughness
stress is required to overcome this repulsion. This results                  Fracture toughness characterises the ability of a material to
in an increase in strength. The effectiveness of strain hard-                 resist the propagation of cracks. Tiny cracks and defects are
ening will depend on the amount of deformation imparted                      present in all commonly used materials. These cracks will
and also the type of alloy (some alloys show much greater                    lead to the concentration of stress at the crack tip; the
strain hardening than others). Like grain size refinement,                    critical stress concentration required to propagate the
strain hardening is a widely used method to strengthen                       crack characterises the fracture toughness of the material.
low-cost alloys, since it does not depend on the addition                    Materials with low fracture toughness, such as many
of expensive alloying elements.                                              ceramics, will tend to fail by rapid growth of intrinsic
                                                                             cracks before reaching the yield stress required for general
Precipitation strengthening                                                  plastic deformation. Most alloys have a higher fracture
The most potent strengthening mechanism that is exploited                    toughness than this, and will yield plastically before
in the highest-strength alloys is precipitation strengthening                fracture.
(also known as age hardening). This strengthening                               Alloying and processing often have a large influence on
mechanism involves forming fine (sub-micron) particles of                     fracture toughness of metals. The general trend observed
a second crystallographic phase that are embedded in the                     is that any mechanism that increases the strength of an
matrix crystal. These particles are usually formed by a suit-                alloy concomitantly reduces its toughness. This is because
able precipitation heat treatment, as discussed previously.                  once the yield stress is exceeded at the crack tip, plastic
The precipitate particles increase strength by acting as                     deformation is able to redistribute the stress and reduce
barriers to dislocation motion. It is found that there is an                 the stress concentration. The exception to this trend is
optimum size and spacing of particles that gives the best                    strengthening by grain size refinement, which usually
strengthening effect (the optimum particle size is usually                    increases both strength and fracture toughness. Fracture
only a few nanometres). If the particles are too small,                      toughness is also degraded by the presence of a low-tough-
dislocations are able to cut through them, whereas if the                    ness brittle second phase, which can both act as sites for
particles are large and widely spaced dislocations can pass                  initial crack formation and as easy pathways for crack
between the particles by bending (AluMATTER, 2007,                           growth.
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                       www.icemanuals.com    473
 Metals and alloys
Fatigue
Fatigue occurs when a material is subject to a fluctuating
stress, and can lead to failure after a period of time even if
the maximum stress level experienced is considerably below
the stress required for global plastic deformation (i.e. the
                                                                           (a)                        (b)                         (c)
yield stress). Fatigue is caused by the initiation and growth
of a crack at a point of high stress concentration, which           Figure 4 Thermomechanical processing methods used for the
                                                                    production of wrought alloy components: (a) rolling; (b) extrusion; and
may be due to a design feature (e.g. a sharp corner) or a           (c) forging
microstructural feature (e.g. large, hard particle).
   Microstructure will influence both the initiation and
propagation of fatigue cracks in alloys. Local defects in          solid particles that sink to the bottom or float to the top
the microstructure such as voids or particles (e.g.                of the melt, binding impurity elements).
inclusion particles formed by impurity elements) can act              The molten metal is then solidified. In the case of cast
as stress concentrators and sites of crack initiation. Since       components, solidification takes place in a mould that is
fatigue is often initiated at surface scratches or defects,        close to the final shape of the product, so that once solidifi-
changing the surface properties can have a marked effect            cation is complete little further fabrication is undertaken
on fatigue resistance. Alloying additions and microstruc-          (although heat treatment of the casting is common). The
ture will also influence crack growth. Solute strengthening         majority of metals, however, are predominantly used to
elements tend to increase fatigue properties in parallel           make wrought products, which requires thermomechanical
with their effect on yield strength. Second phase particles         processing (TMP). In the fabrication of wrought products,
and grain size have a more complex relationship with               casting is the first step in a process chain that includes defor-
fatigue properties that depends both on alloy and the              mation of the alloy. Deformation is initially carried out at
fatigue conditions, e.g. whether low-stress amplitude              elevated temperature, since this reduces the strength of
fatigue or high-stress amplitude fatigue (Callister, 2006).        the alloy, making it easier to work. Final deformation
In general, alloys that rely on precipitates to obtain their       steps may be carried out cold. Typical processes used to
strength generally have lower fatigue properties in relation       make wrought components include rolling (to produce
to their yield strength than alloys strengthened by other          sheet, plate and beams), extrusion (to produce rods and
mechanisms.                                                        bars), forging (to produce components with simple shapes
                                                                   but excellent properties), and drawing (to produce wire)
Creep                                                              (Dieter, 1989). These processes are shown in Figure 4.
Creep describes the process by which alloys deform per-               Wrought products generally have better and more
manently when subject to a stress below the yield stress           reliable properties than those of as-cast components. This
when held at elevated temperature. Creep in metals only            is because it is very difficult to produce defect-free castings
becomes significant at temperatures greater than about              with the optimum microstructure (e.g. fine grain size,
0.4 Tm, where Tm is the absolute melting temperature (K).          uniform distribution of strengthening particles). TMP
It follows that metals with lower melting points (e.g.             allows greater control over the final microstructure and a
aluminium Tm ¼ 933 K, lead Tm ¼ 600 K) are more suscep-            reduction of defects such as pores, leading to the better
tible to creep than higher melting point metals (e.g. nickel       properties exhibited by wrought products.
Tm ¼ 1728 K, titanium Tm ¼ 1941 K). Creep resistance                  The microstructural changes that occur during TMP are
also depends on microstructural features. Grain boundaries         complex, since both deformation and heat influence key
accelerate creep deformation, so a fine grain size is undesir-      microstructural features. The size, shape, and orientation
able for maximum creep resistance. Indeed, in the most             of each grain (crystal) is changed by deformation. New
demanding applications, such as high-performance jet               grains may form, consuming the old grains (a process
engines, an entire component (e.g. a turbine blade) is             known as recrystallisation). Alloying elements can form
made from a single crystal. Solid solution elements and            precipitate particles, either during cooling from elevated
precipitate particles can also enhance creep resistance,           temperature deformation, or during a separate precipitation
provided they are stable at elevated temperature.                  heat treatment. Defects from casting, such as pores and large
                                                                   brittle particles, can be largely eliminated by TMP.
Processing and forming of metals
The starting point for nearly all fabrication processes using
                                                                   Physical properties of metals and
alloys is molten metal. Alloying is most easily achieved by        alloys
co-melting the base metal and alloying additions. Impuri-          In some applications, alloys are chosen based on their
ties can also be removed (e.g. by additions which form             physical rather than mechanical properties. The key
474   www.icemanuals.com                                         ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                       The nature and behaviour of alloys
physical properties of relevance to metals and alloys are                    materials that show a high resistance to demagnetisation
discussed briefly below.                                                      thanks to favourable microstructures, making them suit-
                                                                             able for applications where permanent magnetism is
Electrical properties                                                        required.
Most metals are very good conductors of electricity due
to their delocalised electrons that respond readily to the                   Optical properties
application of an electric field. Microstructural features                    Bulk metals are all opaque throughout the whole visible
that act as barriers to electron motion decrease the conduc-                 light spectrum; light radiation falling on a metal is either
tivity of metals. Such features include alloying additions                   absorbed or reflected. Reflectivity for most metals is
dissolved in solid solution and defects such as dislocations                 between 0.9 and 0.95 of the incident light energy. Metals
and vacancies. The conductivity of alloys also decreases                     that appear bright and silvery do so because they are
with increasing temperature due to increased thermal vibra-                  reflective over the whole light spectrum. Metals that
tion of the atoms and an increase in defect density, both of                 appear coloured (such as copper) do so because there is a
which increase electron scattering.                                          bias in the visible light photons they reflect when white
                                                                             light is incident, and photons of certain wavelengths are
Thermal properties                                                           missing from the reflected spectrum.
The thermal conductivity of metals occurs largely through
free electrons, and thermal conductivity is therefore closely
linked to electrical conductivity and is influenced by the                    Corrosion of metals
same microstructural features. Other thermal properties                      In choosing an alloy for a given application, it is critical to
of alloys such as heat capacity and coefficient of thermal                     consider the environment in which the alloy is to be used.
expansion (CTE) vary significantly from metal to metal,                       All metals and alloys can be subject to corrosion. In this
but are relatively insensitive to microstructural changes                    process, metal interacts with its environment leading to
for a given alloy composition.                                               degradation of the metal.
                                                                                Corrosion of metals is most commonly an electro-
Magnetic properties                                                          chemical process that involves both a chemical reaction
Metals may either show a permanent magnetic moment (be                       and a transfer of electrons. Corrosion occurs by the
magnetic) or show magnetisation only in the presence of an                   elemental metal undergoing a reaction that results in a
applied electromagnetic field (be non-magnetic). Non-                         loss of electrons, creating metal ions, which are then
magnetic alloys may be divided into two types: diamagnetic                   taken into solution. The chemical driving force for corro-
and paramagnetic. Diamagnetic metals react weakly to an                      sion varies widely from metal to metal and also depends
applied field, with the weak induced magnetic moment                          on alloying. Another critical factor is whether the metal
being in a direction that opposes the applied field. Dia-                     can form a protective oxide coating which results in its
magnetism is so weak that it rarely has any practical                        passivation (reduction in chemical reactivity). Aluminium,
consequences. Diamagnetic metals include copper, silver,                     for example, is a reactive metal but forms a protective
and zinc. Paramagnetic metals respond to an external                         oxide film in many environments, giving a high level of
field in a way that enhances the field (rather than opposes                    corrosion resistance. Stainless steels have a high corrosion
it, as with diamagnetic metals). This effect, although                        resistance under many conditions due to the presence of
stronger than that exhibited by diamagnetic metals, is                       chromium, which reacts to form a protective surface
weak compared with the magnetism exhibited by magnetic                       layer. Care must be taken with metals that rely on passiva-
metals. Aluminium, titanium and chromium are examples                        tion for corrosion resistance, since a change in environ-
of metals that show paramagnetic behaviour.                                  mental conditions can result in a breakdown of the
   Magnetism is most important in metals that show a large                   protective film, and a very large increase in corrosion rates.
and permanent magnetisation, which is known as ferromag-                        Alloying and microstructure both influence corrosion
netism. Iron (in its BCC ferrite form), cobalt and nickel                    performance. Grain boundaries and second phase particles
show ferromagnetic behaviour. The strength of the mag-                       can act as sites for preferential attack, leading to
netisation depends on temperature. As temperature                            intergranular and pitting corrosion respectively. The
increases, thermal vibration of atoms results in a decrease                  simultaneous action of corrosion and an applied stress
in magnetisation until a critical temperature is reached                     can result in greatly accelerated rates of failure, due to
(the Curie temperature), above which there is no permanent                   stress corrosion cracking.
magnetisation (and paramagnetic behaviour is shown).                            Particular care has to be taken when metals of different
Alloying can be used to optimise magnetic properties for                     reactivity are used together in a component. Coupling
a given application. Steels containing chromium and tung-                    together of two different metals can lead to galvanic corro-
sten, Cu-Ni-Fe alloys, and Al-Ni-Co alloys are all magnetic                  sion, accelerating the dissolution of the more reactive metal.
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                       www.icemanuals.com     475
 Metals and alloys
This problem can be avoided by ensuring the two metals are       often used where electrical conductivity is important, and
not in electrical contact (e.g. by using a non-conductive        they are also used in architectural applications (e.g. as a
interlayer).                                                     roofing material) because of their high corrosion resistance
                                                                 and aesthetic properties (forming a green protective surface
                                                                 film when weathered). Copper is also used with significant
Alloy selection                                                  additions of other metals to form bronzes and brasses;
Metal alloys are extremely versatile materials, offering a        bronze is most commonly used to refer to alloys based on
wide range of properties depending on alloy type, composi-       the copper–tin system, whereas brasses are based on the
tion and microstructure. Steel is by far the most dominant       copper–zinc system. The copper–zinc system in particular
alloy in technological use today, with more than 40 times        can be used to produce a wide range of useful alloys by
more steel produced than aluminium, which is the next            varying the zinc content, which can be as much as 50% in
most widely used metal.                                          some brasses. The microstructure of these alloys can
   The dominance of steel can largely be attributed to           either be single phase, with the zinc as substitutional
the huge range of different microstructures that can be           atoms in the FCC copper phase, a two phase mixture of
obtained through changes in composition and processing           copper-rich FCC and zinc-rich BCC phases, or at the
by exploiting the wide range of solid state phase trans-         highest zinc levels single BCC phase (containing both
formations that are possible. Steel can also be produced         copper and zinc). The wide range of possible micro-
with good properties at a cost that can compete effectively       structures explains the versatility of this alloy system.
with other materials. It should be noted that there are huge        Other metals that are used as engineering materials
ranges of steels of different compositions for different           include lead and tin alloys. Both have a relatively low
applications. Examples of steel types include plain-carbon       melting point and are soft and weak. The advantages of
steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, stainless steel, tool      these attributes are that these metals are easy to cast
steel and many others.                                           (which requires melting and resolidification) and form.
   Other metals are usually used primarily in applications       Metals used in significant quantities in special applications
where there is a special requirement that makes them             include zirconium alloys that are widely used in the nuclear
more suitable than steel. For applications where weight is       industry for in-reactor components because of their combi-
important such as in aerospace or other transport appli-         nation of good corrosion performance and low neutron
cations, aluminium or magnesium are often preferred.             capture characteristics.
Aluminium has density that is approximately one-third
that of iron, giving aluminium alloys specific properties
(e.g. specific yield strength ¼ yield strength/density) that
                                                                 Key points
can exceed those of steels. Aluminium alloys are also            Metal alloys are a versatile class of materials; the addition
highly formable, and many of them are much more                  of the correct alloying elements to a pure metal can lead
corrosion resistant than plain-carbon steels. Magnesium is       to large property improvements.
lighter still, having a density that is approximately two-          The properties of alloys depend critically on their micro-
thirds that of aluminium. However, as a consequence of           structure, which in turn is strongly dependent on both the
their HCP crystal structure, magnesium alloys are more           alloy composition and processing route.
difficult to form. Magnesium alloys can also suffer from               The deformation of alloys is controlled on an atomic
high levels of corrosion if not properly protected.              scale by the movement of crystal defects known as disloca-
   High-temperature applications require alloys that are         tions. Alloy strengthening mechanisms work by inhibiting
resistant to creep and thermal fatigue. Nickel-based ‘super-     the movement of dislocations.
alloys’ are used in aerospace gas turbines (jet engines) to         In addition to mechanical properties, physical properties
produce components for the hottest part of the engine,           and corrosion resistance are often key to determining which
where creep resistance is paramount. Since weight is also        alloy is best for a given application.
important in aerospace applications, titanium alloys are
widely used where temperatures are lower, since these            References
alloys combine good thermal resistance with lower density
                                                                 AluMATTER, 2007, http://aluminium.matter.org.uk.
than nickel alloys. Titanium alloys are often also highly        Callister W. D. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduc-
corrosion resistant and for this reason are used widely in         tion, New York: Wiley, 2006.
the chemical industry and also in biomedical applications        Dieter G. E. Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Education,
(such as for hip replacements and other implants).                 New York, 1989.
   Other alloys have properties that make them suited for        DoITPoMS, 2007 http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/.
applications that are usually dominated by one particular        Hull D. and Bacon D. J. Introduction to Dislocations, Butterworth-
requirement. For example, copper and copper alloys are             Heinemann, Oxford, 2001.
476   www.icemanuals.com                                       ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers
                                                                                                        The nature and behaviour of alloys
ICE Manual of Construction Materials # 2009 Institution of Civil Engineers                                         www.icemanuals.com     477
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