I.
A Brief History of Fuid Mechanics
Water and air, given their inherent character of earthly life, have always
attracted the attention of men. While air has always been everywhere, water is
not evenly distributed in all regions of the world. Thus, before it was studied,
fluid mechanics was widely used for everyday applications related to water
control such as irrigation in agriculture, canals, fountains, etc. The study of
water and its mechanical behavior did not move from concrete applications to
theory until the third century BC with Archimedes who studied the principles
that are at the origin of fluid statics, in particular with his eponymous principle,
then with Leonardo da Vinci who described both the multiple types of flows and
formulated the principle of conservation of mass or principle of continuity. It
was he who laid the foundations of the discipline and introduced many notions
of hydrodynamics, including streamlines. Intrinsically understanding the
problem of flow resistance, he designed the parachute, the anemometer and the
centrifugal pump. Then, the various advances in mathematics and computer
science allowed the study of fluids to be extended to gases as well as the advent
of computational fluid mechanics.
II. Fundamental Laws of Fluid Mechanics
II.1 Definition and main characteristic quantities of fluids
Fluid: A fluid can be thought of as a substance made up of a large number of
material particles, which are very small and free to move relative to each other.
The cohesive forces between elementary particles are very weak, so that the
fluid is a body without a form of its own that takes the shape of the container
that contains it. Fluids include liquids (water, molten metals, etc.), gases and
plasmas.
Fluid mechanics: Fluid mechanics is a field of physics devoted to the study of
the behavior of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the associated internal
forces. It is a branch of continuum mechanics that models matter using particles
small enough to be subject to mathematical analysis, but large enough relative to
molecules to be described by continuous functions. It includes two subfields:
fluid statics, which is the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, which is the
study of fluids in motion.
A fluid is mainly characterized by its density, density, density, and viscosity.
Density: This is the ratio of the mass of the fluid by the volume occupé.il is
denoted ρ. And we have:
m
ρ=
v
When ρ is independent of time, we will say which fluid is incompressible . In0!
Otherwise, the fluid is said to be compressible.
Volume weight: This refers to the weight per unit volume noted:
mg
w=
v
Density: It is measured in relation to a reference fluid. It is the ratio of the
density of the fluid by the density of a reference fluid:
ρ
d=
ρrⅇf
Pressure: In the study of fluid mechanics, forces such as volume and surface
forces will be taken into account. We can therefore define the force that is
exerted at a point in a fluid. Let dS be a surface element around a point M on
which a force dF is exerted see fig. (2.1), we call pressure at the point M , the
scalar quantity
ⅆF
P=
ⅆS
Viscosity: This is a quantity that characterizes the resistance of a fluid to flow
when it is subjected to a force. For example, volcano lava is more viscous than
water. There are two types of viscosity: Kinematic viscosity denoted: and
dynamic viscosity denoted: μ ν
Dynamic viscosity: When we consider two adjacent layers of fluid that are ∆z
apart. The dynamic viscosity is obtained by expressing The frictional force
exerted on the separation surface of these two layers opposes the sliding of one
layer over the other. It is proportional to the difference in the velocity of the
layers, i.e. ∆v, to their surface area S and inversely proportional to ∆z: The
proportionality factor μ is the dynamic viscosity coefficient of the fluid.⃗F
Δv
F=μs
Δz
With
μ: Dynamic viscosity,
F: sliding force between the layers at (N),
S : contact surface between two layers in (m2 ),
∆V: Velocity difference between two layers in (m/s),
∆Z: Distance between two layers in (m),
Kinematic viscosity: This is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density:
μ
ν=
ρ
Fluids can thus be classified into two main families: The family of Newtonian
fluids (such as water, air and most gases) and the family of non-Newtonian
fluids (almost everything else... blood, gels, sludge, pastes, suspensions,
emulsions . . . .). Newtonian fluids have a constant viscosity or one that can only
vary with temperature. The second family is made up of non-Newtonian fluids,
which have the particularity of having their viscosity which varies according to
the speed and stresses they undergo when they flow.
II.3 Main Laws of Fluid Mechanics
II.3-1 Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics or fluid statics is the study of stationary fluids. It was founded by
Archimedes and is based on the fact that the pressure of a fluid is related to the
movements and shocks that the particles it contains exert on the walls of the
enclosure.
Fundamental principle of hydrostatics:
The difference in pressures pA − pB between any two points A and B taken
inside a fluid depends only on the vertical distance between the two points.
P A −PB =ρg ( hB −h A )
This relationship makes it possible to deduce the pressure of a fluid at one point
knowing the pressure at another point, the height separating the two points and
the density of the fluid.
Similarly, it makes it possible to establish that in an incompressible fluid in
equilibrium, pressure variations are transmitted in full: this is Pascal's principle.
II.3-2 Fluid dynamics
1- Laws of conservation of mass
Also called the continuity equation, it expresses the conservation of mass
in a fluid flow. It is written:
∂ρ ⃗ ⃗
+ ∇ ( ρ U ) =0
∂t
With: the density and the flow velocity of the fluid. ρ ⃗
U
Laws of conservation of momentum:
Being a direct consequence of Newton's 2nd law, it allows us to describe the
evolution of the velocity of a fluid as a function of the forces exerted on this
fluid. It looks like this:
∂ ( ρ ⃗v ) ⃗
+ ∇ ( ρ ⃗v ⊗ ⃗v )=−⃗
∇ p+ μ ⃗
∇2 ( ⃗v ) + ρ ⃗f
∂t
p denotes the pressure, density, dynamic viscosity, velocity of a fluid particle
and the resultant of the mass forces acting on the fluid. ρμ ⃗v ⃗f
2- Laws of conservation of energy:
Stated by Bernoulli, it states that During the stationary flow (whose velocity
field does not depend on time) of a perfect fluid (without diffusive phenomena
such as viscous effects, pressure drops or heat transfers) incompressible (whose
density remains constant)[1]:
The following Bernoulli quantity is conserved along each path tangent to the
velocity field (i.e., on a streamline):
2
v P
+ gz + =constante
2 ρ
P: The pressure at the study point
ρ : The density of the fluid
v: Speed at the study point
g: The acceleration of gravity
z: The elevation of the study point
Although it was initially used for fluids circulating in a pipe, it has an important
field of application in aerodynamics. It is thanks to this principle that we can
explain the lift force generated by the wings of an aircraft, a force without which
no aircraft could maintain itself in the air.
III Applications of Fluid Mechanics
III.1 Applications to aeronautics
Lift: The wing of an airplane is designed so that the air flowing over the
airplane travels a greater distance and therefore has to go faster while the
air under the wing travels a shorter distance and therefore has to go
slowly. According to Bernoulli's equation seen above,
1 2
P+ ρ v =constante
2
Since the air speed is higher above the wing, the pressure is lower while
the pressure below the wing is higher. This pressure difference generates
an upward force called lift that allows the aircraft to maintain altitude.
Modeling the airflow around an aircraft wing
Supersonic flight: Aerodynamics at supersonic speeds must account for
these compressibility effects and optimize the wing design to achieve low
wave drag and efficient lift production. In addition, the characteristics of
supersonic profiles, such as thin and steeply banked wings, are essential
for minimizing drag and maximizing performance in supersonic flight
conditions. These fundamental principles form the basis for the design of
efficient and high-performance supersonic aircraft.
Prototype of a supersonic aircraft
III.2 Applications to Naval Hydrodynamics
The application of fluid mechanics to naval hydrodynamics is essential for the
design, optimization and performance of ships and marine structures. Here are
the main aspects of this application:
1. Resistance to the advancement of the ship
Frictional resistance: due to the viscosity of the fluid, it depends on the
roughness of the hull and the speed of the ship.
Wave resistance: caused by the formation of waves on the surface of the
water, influenced by the shape of the hull.
Pressure resistance: related to pressure differences around the ship.
Cavitation: a hydrodynamic phenomenon that can damage propellers and
reduce their efficiency.
2. Propeller propulsion and efficiency
Study of marine propellers and water jets to optimize power transmission.
Use of controlled turbulence and hydrodynamic projections to improve
energy efficiency.
3. Stability and manoeuvrability
Analysis of buoyancy forces and the centre of the hull to ensure good
stability.
Influence of hydrodynamic forces on the rudder to improve
maneuverability.
4. Interaction with the maritime environment
Study of the effects of waves, currents and wind on navigation.
Hull optimization to reduce environmental impacts and fuel consumption.
5. Numerical modeling and simulation
Use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to simulate the flow of
water around ships.
Hull tank tests to validate designs prior to construction.
These applications improve the performance of ships, reduce their energy
consumption and ensure their reliability at sea.
III.3 Applications to the automotive industry
Aerodynamics, apart from its application to aeronautics, is also involved in the
design of cars, especially sports cars, because given that they are supposed to
evolve at very high speeds, their shapes must be optimized in order to reduce the
resistance of the machine to air as much as possible during its evolution, thus
allowing it to reach unimaginable speeds...
Example: The Bugatti Chiron
With a top speed exceeding 420 km per hour, aerodynamics are key to ensuring
stability, cooling and reduced drag. To do this
The Chiron has a streamlined body inspired by fighter jets to reduce air
resistance
Its low, rounded hood minimizes frontal pressure
The extended rear allows for better airflow evacuation
III.5 Hydroelectric dams
One of the most extensive applications of fluid mechanics is in the field of
power generation. Thus, hydroelectric power plants use the principles of statics
and fluid dynamics to produce electricity: The potential energy of water at a
certain height is transformed into kinetic energy when it descends, which turns
the turbine, thus generating mechanical energy that will then be transformed into
electrical energy.
0
Diagram showing the application of hydrostatics to power generation
III.6 Civil Engineering Applications
In the field of construction, aerodynamic studies make it possible to measure the
influence of wind on a building and vice versa before it is built. The shape of
certain buildings, in particular the skyscraper, is optimized with regard to the
aerodynamic constraints of the region concerned in order to minimize the forces
exerted by the wind on the building.
Example: The Khalifa burg in Dubai
At 828 metres high, this building has to withstand extremely strong winds. Thus,
many solutions have been considered by aerodynamics experts such as its design
of staggered and spiral stages which makes it possible to break the vortices of
wind. Similarly, before construction, many wind tunnel texts were produced in
order to analyze the effect of wind at different altitudes.
References:
Fluid Mechanics Course Dr. (MC) V. MONWANOU and Dr. F. LIHONOU c
LMFDNMSB / IMSP 2023
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