What is a Proposition?

A proposition is a sentence that expresses a complete thought and is either true or false.
However, not all sentences qualify as propositions. For instance, commands like "Jump!" or
"Run!" are complete sentences but not propositions, as they don't assert something that can be
true or false.

Elements of a Proposition
A proposition must have:
1. Subject: What the proposition is about.
2. Predicate: What is being said about the subject.
3. Copula: A linking verb such as "is," "are," "was," or "were."

Analyzing Propositions: We can analyze propositions based on quantity and quality.

Quantity

Universal Applies to all members of a class. E.g., "All dogs are loyal."
- All
- Every
- Everyone
- No one
- Nobody
- Nothing
- Whoever
- Whenever
- Wherever
- Whatever

Examples
- "All human beings are subject to perish and disintegrate." (Universal
proposition, true or false)
- "Men are polygamous by nature." (General statement, universal)
- "Everyone is invited to my party." (Universal quantifier: everyone)
- "Whenever you see a rainbow, think of me." (Universal quantifier:
whenever)

Singular Refers to a single member of a class. E.g., "Socrates is a

philosopher."
Refers to a single, definite object or entity.
Examples:
- "That chair is broken."
- "This table is sturdy."

Particular Refers to some members of a class. E.g., "Some birds can’t fly."
 When it applies to at least one member of a class, not necessarily the
whole class.
1. Indefinite Pronouns:
- Some
- Several
- Not all
- Few
- Almost all
- Nearly all
Example: "Some students passed the exam."
2. Numbers:
Even large numbers can denote particular propositions.
Example: "1 million people attended the event."
3. Demonstrative Pronouns:
- Those
- These
Example: "Those are some of my favorite books."
4. Articles:
-A
- An
Example: "A dog barked."

Quality

Affirmative The predicate affirms something about the subject.

Example: "All dogs are loyal."

Negative The predicate denies something about the subject.

Example: "No dogs are allowed."
Common Indicators of Negative Propositions:
- No
- None
- Not all
- Nothing
- Nobody

Analyzing Propositions Using Symbols

We use symbols to represent different types of propositions based on their quantity and quality:
- A: Universal Affirmative (e.g., "All S are P")
- E: Universal Negative (e.g., "No S are P")
- I: Particular Affirmative (e.g., "Some S are P")
- O: Particular Negative (e.g., "Some S are not P")
 Universal Particular

Affirmative A I

Negative E O

"A" and "I" come from the Latin word Affirmo, meaning affirm
"E" and "O" come from Nego, meaning deny.

Quantity of Predicate

Particular If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate is particular.

Example: "All birds can fly." (Predicate: "can fly" is particular)

Universal If the proposition is negative, the quantity of the predicate is universal.

Example: "No birds can swim." (Predicate: "can swim" is universal)

EXAMPLES

1. All dogs are loyal.

- Quantity: Universal
- Quality: Affirmative
- Predicate: Particular
- Symbol: A

2. No cats are dogs.

- Quantity: Universal
- Quality: Negative
- Predicate: Universal
- Symbol: E

3. Some students passed the exam.

- Quantity: Particular
- Quality: Affirmative
- Predicate: Particular
- Symbol: I

4. Some fruits are not sweet.

- Quantity: Particular
- Quality: Negative
- Predicate: Universal
- Symbol: O
 Making Inferences
Creative and Critical Thinking:
- Difference: Creative thinking involves generating new ideas and thinking outside the box,
while critical thinking focuses on analyzing and evaluating information to make well-reasoned
judgments.
- Approach: We need to examine many alternatives before making a choice to avoid errors in
decision-making.
- Challenging Biases: We discussed the importance of recognizing and challenging our biases,
as unchecked biases can lead to poor judgment. Not all biases are harmful, but those that are
can significantly affect our decisions.
- Example: The bandwagon bias, where people go along with what the majority is doing or
believing without much thought.

Making Inferences:
- Definition: Inference is the process of drawing conclusions based on clues and prior
knowledge. It involves reading between the lines to understand events and actions that are not
explicitly stated.
- Components: When making inferences, we use clues from the text plus our background
knowledge to derive new understanding.
- Examples:
- Child and Mango: If a child spits out mango after tasting it, we can infer the child does not like
mango.
- Scott: If Scott maintains law and order and responds to emergencies, we infer that he is a
police officer.
- Lillian: If Lillian arranges books and works in a quiet place, she is a librarian.
- Wedding Venue: Based on descriptions like decorated chairs and a bride, we infer the setting
is a wedding.
- No Vacancy Sign: It means there are no available jobs.
- Mask and Social Distancing: Indicates protecting against a virus, likely COVID-19.
- Other Examples:
- The man removes his wedding ring in public: He doesn't want to be thought of as married.
- The building says "No Vacancy": There are no available jobs.
- The groom didn't show up on the wedding day: He doesn't want to marry his bride.
- Laura wears a face mask and observes social distancing: She wants to protect herself from
contracting the virus.
- Adolf Hitler: Known for his role in World War II and the Holocaust.
- Kathy surrounded by fish in tanks: She is at an ocean park or aquarium.
- Frederick feels alone without his mother: His mother has passed away.

Value of Making Inferences

- It helps us understand unstated information, making the text more personal and
memorable.
- We can connect ideas and create new knowledge.
- Multiple valid inferences can be made based on given clues, provided they are implied in the
text.

Inference Practice
- We practiced making inferences using clues and prior knowledge through various scenarios,
improving our critical thinking and comprehension skills.

Making Inferences: A Lesson

What are Inferences?

Inferences are conclusions drawn from evidence and reasoning rather than from explicit
statements. We make inferences all the time, often without realizing it.

Example:
Your son inferred that you were going to the beach when he saw you packing an umbrella,
towels, a chair, a bucket, and a shovel.

Steps to Make Inferences

1. Look for Clues:

- Clues can come from the text or pictures, just like a detective searching for hints.
- Example: "Mom, I need a napkin. It's melting," gives us clues about something messy and
melty.

2. Combine with Prior Knowledge:

- Use what you already know to make sense of the clues.
- Example: Sticky red juice might remind you of a popsicle, which melts and is messy.

3. Make an Inference:
- Put the clues and your knowledge together to form a logical conclusion.
- Example: From the clues and your experience with popsicles, you infer the person is eating
a popsicle.

Practice with Inferences

1. Text Clues and Inferences:

- Scenario: "Can we please go see the elephants first? They're my favorite," while walking
through a gate.
- Clues: Mention of elephants and the idea of choosing favorite animals.
- Inference: This scenario likely takes place at a zoo.

2. Weather Scenario:
- Text: "Seth grabbed a coat, boots, and an umbrella before heading outside."
- Clues: Items used for rain (coat, boots, umbrella).
 - Inference: It is probably raining outside.

3. Food Description:
- Text: "The cheese was gooey and warm, the sauce was spicy, and the crust was crunchy."
- Clues: Gooey cheese, spicy sauce, crunchy crust.
- Inference: The food is likely pizza.

Applying Inferences to a New Scenario

Now, it's your turn to practice making an inference:

Text: "The lights went dark as the music began. I snuggled down in my seat and stared at the
big screen. I popped a piece of popcorn in my mouth and took a sip of my soda."

Task: Where is the story taking place?

- Clues: Dark lights, big screen, popcorn, soda.
- Inference: The setting is most likely a movie theater.

Inferences help us read between the lines and understand what is not directly stated. By
practicing with clues and using our prior knowledge, we can improve our critical thinking and
comprehension skills.

Making Inferences at GrammarSongs

Introduction
- What is an inference?: A conclusion reached based on evidence and reasoning.
- Importance: Learning to make inferences helps become a better reader by using prior
knowledge and text evidence.

Everyday Inferences
- Real-life Examples:
- Stanley must be hungry: Based on crying.
- Speeding man: Inference based on behavior.
- Scared man: Inference based on appearance.
- Tony does not like sushi: Inference based on refusal.

Detective Waddle Scenario

- Cafe Observation:
- Clues: Party hats, presents, happy children, cake with candles.
- Inference: It’s a birthday party. Birthday girl will blow out candles.

Making Inferences While Reading

- Steps:
1. Look for Clues: Text evidence.
2. Add Prior Knowledge: What you already know.
 3. Form an Idea: Combine clues and knowledge to make an inference.

Short Story Example

- Story:
- Shelton was getting hungry.
- Mother was cooking long, thin noodles in boiling water and heating red sauce.
- Inference: Shelton’s mother is making spaghetti.

Another Short Story Example

- Story:
- Bob came home and found the cookie jar empty.
- Clues: Crumbs leading to the living room, Megan with crumbs on her face.
- Inference: Megan ate all the cookies.

Inference Practice
- Short Story: "The lights went dark as the music began..."
- Clues: Dark lights, big screen, popcorn, soda.
- Inference: The setting is a movie theater.

Conclusion
- Value of Inferences:
- Enhances understanding of unstated information.
- Makes the text more personal and memorable.
- Connects ideas and creates new knowledge.

Quantity: Universal, Singular, Particular

Qualit y: Affirmative, Negative
Predicate: Particular, Universal
Symbol: A (Universal Affirmative), E (Universal Negative), I (Particular Affirmative), O (Particular
Negative)

QUESTION: The student’s final grades are not yet submitted to the registrar’s office.

Answer for Quantity, Quality, Predicate, Symbol