Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

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Building resilience to a warming world: A contribution toward a definition

of “Integrated Climate Resilience” specific for buildings - Literature review
and proposals
Giorgia Peri a, Laura Cirrincione a, *, Domenico Mazzeo b, Nicoletta Matera b,
Gianluca Scaccianoce a
a
Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale delle Science, 90128 Palermo, Italy
b
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Energy, Via Lambruschini 4a, It - Milan 20156, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the forecast of a warmer world, with longer, more frequent and more intense heat waves, it becomes
Resilience essential to have buildings that are resilient to a rapidly warming climate and able to withstand extreme tem­
Buildings perature events.
Climate change
This research investigates the concept of buildings’ resilience. Specifically, the article collects definitions of
Global warming
resilient building found in 32 scientific articles referring primarily to thermal aspects and seeks to associate each
Extreme meteorological events
Heatwaves definition with one of the two interpretations of resilience, namely the engineering and ecological ones, mainly
Engineering resilience identified within the theory on resilience. This aimed to assess whether there is a predominant and – more
Ecological resilience importantly – a clear understanding of resilience for buildings, to which extent this concept is well defined and
Thermal performance clear, which is a topic that, to the best of our knowledge, no study on thermal resilience of buildings seems to
Adaptive behavior have examined to date.
Results showed a significant lack of consensus regarding the interpretation of buildings’ resilience within the
selected literature. Such lack of consensus highlights the ongoing confusion about the concept of buildings’
resilience to the threats posed by the current and future climate; what should this concept include concretely? A
certain discrepancy also emerged even between the interpretation used to define resilience and that used for its
indicators. Furthermore, the available definitions are observed to be rather generic, not specific to buildings and,
in any case, it does not seem easy to make them operative. In addition to the literature analysis, the article
proposes a tentative approach, which could usefully arrive at an attempted definition of resilience that is specific
to buildings and operative. Starting with buildings, the proposed “bottom-up” approach is innovative compared
to the prevailing approach in the literature that starts with definitions of ecological and engineering resilience
(top-down) instead. Furthermore, the article delivers a couple of considerations to be accounted for when
applying the concept of resilience to buildings: the importance of considering not only extreme events but also
climate change understood as an increase in average air temperature and the importance of also including the
inherent resilience due to the presence of occupants, whose thermal adaptive behavior can mitigate the risk of
power outages by making the building less vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
By providing an operational tool for researchers, engineers and planners who intend to strengthen the resil­
ience of the building in the face of climate change, the research contributes to achieving a clearer and shared
understanding of how the concept of buildings’ resilience should be declined.

of buildings’ resilience within the framework of climate change, with a

particular focus on the effects of rising temperatures and the increased
1. Introduction
frequency of extreme heat events. The scientific community is paying
increasing attention to the ensuing effects on the building industry,
This article aims to address the difficulties in interpreting the concept

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (G. Peri), [Link]@[Link] (L. Cirrincione), [Link]@[Link] (D. Mazzeo), [Link]@polimi.
it (N. Matera), [Link]@[Link] (G. Scaccianoce).

[Link]
Received 1 March 2024; Received in revised form 23 April 2024; Accepted 19 May 2024
Available online 22 May 2024
0378-7788/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

the outdoor air temperature, respectively that, in turn, cause the energy
Nomenclature consumption (mainly the electric one) for cooling indoor environments
to rise [22,23,24]. This, in turn, determines a release of heat from the air
ECO Ecological resilience conditioning systems into the external environment that records an in­
ENG Engineering resilience crease in average air temperature. This increase retroactively induces an
HI Heat Index increment of the energy demand for climatization because buildings
HOS Hours of Safety interact with a warmer environment. The negative effects induced by
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning both phenomena are therefore of two types: on one hand, an increase in
IOD Indoor Overheating Degree the amount of (electric) energy consumed for space cooling, and on the
PMV Predicted Mean Vote other hand an increment of the outdoor air temperature that worsens the
PPD Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon [25,26].
SET Standard Effective Temperature In addition to deterioration in the energy and, therefore, environ­
TMY Typical Meteorological Year mental performance of the building, a worsening of the building’s in­
UHI Urban Heat Island door performance provided to the occupants can also occur. To make
this consideration clearer, one must take into account that buildings
respond to heatwaves by raising their indoor temperatures. and this
response, if ventilation and air-conditioning systems are present and
especially regarding building energy performance. By providing a functioning, cause the peak demand for electricity to increase dramati­
summary of how climate change affects building performance, this cally during heatwaves [27,28,29]. A higher energy demand may in turn
section seeks to contextualise the impact of climate change on built lead to a power outage [30,31,32,33,34], which in turn might result in
environments. It highlights how important it is to have resilient building the occurrence of an overheating condition in the building in summer
designs given the current state of the climate and offers a basic under­ (or overcooling in winter). Clearly, the overheating case exposes occu­
standing of the resilience concept overall. pants to thermal discomfort and, even worse, increases the risks of heat-
related morbidity and mortality [35,36,37]. Indeed, it should never be
1.1. The impact of global warming and extreme temperatures on building overlooked the fact that heatwaves extend beyond mere discomfort;
performance they can result in illness and, in severe cases, fatalities, particularly
depending on the age and health status of the occupants. The elderly and
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change low-income people in urban areas are, for instance, particularly
(IPCC), the existence of ongoing global warming is, by now, an indis­ vulnerable to extreme climate events [38,39,40,41]. Hence, it should
putable fact as well as that greenhouse gas emissions from anthropo­ not be overlooked that the ongoing climate change issue with its
genic activities are the main responsible. It is predicted that during the consequential more frequent and severe extreme weather, is not merely
21st century, the Earth’s surface temperature will continue to increase an environmental problem, as also highlighted by the cited UNDRR
under all emission scenarios assessed [1]. Such global warming is also report [4].
responsible for extreme weather events such as hurricanes, winter Fig. 1 illustrates graphically the above-mentioned effects of rising
storms, heatwaves and floods [2] that have become more frequent and temperatures and increasing occurrences of extreme temperatures on
severe over the past two decades [3]. According to a report of the United the overall performance of buildings. As for this figure, to avoid
Nation office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), indeed, in the period misunderstanding and/or confusion, the following should be specified:
2000–2019, there has been a rise from 3,656 climate-related events in common use, the term “climate change” mainly refers to a warming of
(1980–1999) to 6,681 climate-related disasters [4]. Among meteoro­ the Earth’s climate, i.e. an increase in global mean surface air temper­
logical extreme events, heatwaves − for which, it must be said, there is ature; while the worldwide occurrence of heatwaves is considered a
to date no internationally agreed definition − , have shown an increase consequence of climate change [42]. United Nations defines “climate
in intensity, frequency, and duration in the observational record, both change” as follows: “climate change refers to long-term shifts in tem­
on regional and global scales. [5] becoming one of the prevailing peratures and weather patterns” [43].
extreme weather occurrences [6,7]. According to data from Copernicus However, in the present study, as the buildings (focus of the study)
Climate Change Service, the year 2022 was the warmest year on record must face both global warming and heatwaves, it was decided to refer to
for a large part of Europe. The average daily temperature in 2022 these two phenomena, as “total climate change”.
marked the highest recorded since 1950. Across Europe, a majority of
regions saw a greater occurrence of ’warm daytimes’ compared to the 1.2. The need for thermally resilient buildings
average, highlighting the frequent extremes in temperature during the
year [8]. According to the IPCC, it is highly probable that heatwaves will In light of what has just been said, the need arises to have buildings
become more frequent and endure for longer durations in the near future that are climate resilient, no longer only sustainable [44]. In other
[1]. words, nowadays buildings are required to be capable of guaranteeing
The above-mentioned current and future scenarios, which thus paint comfort conditions to their occupants with low energy consumption (i.
a trend toward an even warmer world characterized by longer, more e., energy efficient) and low environmental impact (i.e., environmen­
frequent, and more intense heatwaves [9,10,11], represent a funda­ tally sustainable) [45], and to be capable of dealing with the heat threats
mental threat to cities [12]. Global warming and extreme temperature aforementioned (both stresses/long-lasting and shocks/sudden events)
events, in fact, negatively affect the built environment, in particular [30,45,46]. In practical terms, this latter would mean, for instance,
increasing the energy demand of buildings [13,14,15]. As it is well guaranteeing that indoor areas remain inhabitable even when building
known, buildings are already responsible for consuming a large amount systems are not operating normally during disruptive events [31].
of energy, (they account for approximately 40 percent of final energy To this end, current design and retrofit principles of building enve­
consumption [16,17,18]), of which that consumed for heating is ex­ lopes should thus be rethought by extending the traditional
pected to reduce while that for cooling is expected to increase due to sustainability-oriented view to the concept of resilience to climate
global warming and rising extreme temperatures [2,19,20]. In detail, change [45]. In this regard, it should however be noted that research
the projected increase in electricity consumption for cooling purposes is dealing with the integration of sustainability and resilience for buildings
expected to exceed 110 % by the year 2040 [21]. This is because both still presents knowledge gaps, particularly concerning circumstances
these phenomena lead to an increase of the average and peak values of where the two aspects are synergistic or antagonistic [44,47]. The

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G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

Fig. 1. Effects of rising temperatures and increasing occurrences of extreme temperatures (total climate change) on the energy and indoor performance of buildings.

traditional approach to the design of Heating, Ventilation, and Air- [55] to delineate a characteristic of timber and elucidate why certain
Conditioning (HVAC) systems serving buildings should also be wood varieties could withstand abrupt and intense loads without frac­
reviewed because, it generally takes into account the Typical Meteoro­ turing. Building upon this, Robert Mallet expanded on the notion of
logical Year (TMY) in which extremes are inadequately depicted resilience in the mid-19th century, introducing the concept of “the
[30,32], which could result in buildings not being able to cope with modulus of resilience” as a metric for evaluating materials’ capacity to
increasingly frequent and severe extreme events [38]. This would mean endure harsh conditions.
that during the building design stage, a preliminary analysis of the Nowadays the term resilience is being applied in various fields other
ongoing climate change should be performed [2] with the aim of than engineering, such as ecology [52,56], psychology [57], sociology
determining how future climate conditions will affect the energy con­ [58], business [59] and economy [60,61] − assuming different conno­
sumption of the given building, and so how the given building will cope tations and thus different definitions according to pertinent ambit’s
with climate changes that it will face during its lifetime. This new specificities, demonstrating thus the flexibility of the term [45]. For
approach is useful for the proper identification of suitable actions to instance, Holling, who first applied the term resilience to ecology,
mitigate and adapt to “total climate change” [30,48,49,50]. defined the resilience of an ecosystem as the measure of its ability “to
Resilience in its general connotation (i.e., not specifically referring to absorb changes of state variables driving variables and parameters and
buildings) is a concept that is related to the ability of a system to cope still persist”, while he defined stability as “the ability of a system to
with adverse situations. This concept started from being characterized return to a temporary disturbance. The more rapidly it returns and with
with a relatively narrow focus, meaning the capacity of a system to the least fluctuation, the more stable it is” [56]. In addition, Holling
rebound or regain equilibrium after a disturbance, moving to − through stated as follows: “resilience determines the persistence of relationships
application to other fields − a more developed concept that encom­ within a system”.
passes not only bouncing back but also adaptability and transformation Despite numerous definitions of resilience available in the literature,
[51]. These two interpretations of resilience define the two views however, mainly two different ways of conceiving resilience have
currently recognized in the scientific literature, referred to by Holling emerged. Holling [52] defined these as “engineering resilience” and
[52] as “engineering resilience” (ENG, here) and “ecological resilience” “ecological resilience”, respectively. It is not by accident that the main
(ECO, here), respectively. It is no coincidence that the two major fields fields of resilience implementation are engineering and ecology [62].
of application of this concept are precisely engineering and ecology. The To provide readers with a better understanding of these two ways of
following subsection discusses the general concept of resilience in more conceiving resilience, excerpts from some scientific articles in the rele­
detail. vant literature, which the present authors believe are useful to clearly
capture the differences between the two resilience visions, are listed in
Table 1.
1.3. The general concept of “resilience” As it can be observed, these two definitions represent two distinct
understandings: especially, the first definition, which is the more
The term “resilience” was first introduced in materials science in the traditional one and characterized by a narrow focus, is a static kind of
early 19th Century, [53,54]. Precisely, the term was used by Tredgold

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Table 1 paradigm”; while, for the ecological resilience definition, “shock ab­
Excerpts of scientific articles concerning the two interpretations of the resilience sorption”, “evolving and adapting”, “transforming”, “adaptive change”,
concept. “multiple equilibria paradigm”, and “bouncing fourth”.
Engineering Resilience (ENG) Ecological Resilience (ECO)

Holling, 1986 “… concentrates on stability “… emphasizes conditions far

1.4. Criticisms encountered and contribution of the paper
[52] near an equilibrium steady from any equilibrium steady
state, where resistance to state, where instabilities can As previously mentioned, the interest of the present authors is
disturbance and speed of return flip a system into another addressed to buildings and the manner to conceive resilience for these
to the equilibrium are used to regime of behavior—that is, to
systems. This work particularly focuses on the resilience of buildings to
measure the property…” another stability domain … In
this case, the measurement of both rising temperatures and extreme temperature events, particularly
resilience is the magnitude of heatwaves, i.e. on the so-called “thermal resilience”. The other di­
disturbance that can be mensions of resilience such as, for example, structural resilience, fire
absorbed before the system resilience, and seismic resilience according to the different types of
changes its structure by
changing the variables and
disaster/threat [33] are beyond the scope of the present article.
processes that control The thermal resilience of buildings is a topic that has received the
behavior….” attention of the scientific community; in fact, a certain number of
Pickett et al., “… the ability of systems to “… the ability of a system to pertinent studies (although still quite limited) can be found in the
2004 [63] return to their stable adapt and adjust to changing
literature. Although some attention has been paid to this topic, however,
equilibrium point after internal or external processes
disruption. The entire … The emphasis is not on it should be noted that there is still some confusion about what the
theoretical apparatus and reaching or maintaining a concept of building resilient to the threats posed by the current and
connotation of the term is certain end point or terminal future climate should concretely include.
focused on stable equilibrium condition, but on staying “in In an effort to contribute to the achievement of a clearer and shared
conditions……” the game…”
Benè et al., “…the ability of a system to “… the ability not simply to
vision of how to understand resilience in the case of buildings, the
2012 [51] bounce back or return to bounce back but also to adapt present authors, in addition to literature analysis, propose a new
equilibrium following and to transform…” approach to applying this concept to buildings, starting specifically with
disturbance…” the phenomena that buildings are required to face (bottom-up). Such a
Hassler and “… an approach to maintain “… approach that explicitly
new approach can usefully attain a “tailored” definition of resilience for
Kohler, stability (i.e. the elastic acknowledges a dynamic
2014 [64] behaviour of materials over a system that changes over time. buildings. In addition, they deliver some considerations in applying the
single equilibrium) …” This dynamic system concept of resilience to buildings regarding the importance of consid­
constitutes a (metaphorical) ering the whole “building-plant-occupant” system and thus highlight the
contemporary blueprint importance of also including the occupants’ resilience. Furthermore,
involving multiple equilibria
and an adaptive change
they stress the need to consider not only the extreme events (thermal
concept…” shock) that create the damage but also the increase in average outdoor
Davoudi, “… the ability of a system to “… resilience is defined not just air temperatures (thermal stress) that proceeds over the long term.
2012 [54] return to an equilibrium or according to how long it takes Additionally, it should be noted that this study fills a gap in the
steady state after a disturbance for the system to bounce back
current literature related to buildings’ thermal resilience. In fact, to the
… the resistance to disturbance after a shock, but also how
and the speed by which the much disturbance it can take best of our knowledge, no study in this field seems to investigate to what
system returns to equilibrium is and remain within critical extent this concept is well-defined and clear. Instead, questioning
the measure of resilience. The thresholds. Ecological whether there is a clear interpretation/understanding of this concept, in
faster the system bounces back, resilience focuses on “the the opinion of the present authors, is a rather relevant issue. Indeed, it
the more resilient it is. The ability to persist and the ability
emphasis is on return time, to adapt…”
could facilitate the identification of appropriate and effective strategies
“efficiency, constancy and to improve the resilience performance of buildings, as well as the
predictability”, all of which are identification of simple and reliable indicators to measure the progress
sought-after qualities for a “fail- that, hopefully, mitigation and adaptation actions implemented in a
safe” engineering design…”
building can make.
Krelling et al., “…under the first, the “…the second viewpoint
2023 [65] equilibrium-centered describes multiple equilibria
viewpoint, resilience describes states, with the system being 1.5. Article structure
how fast able to adapt and change,
the variables return towards reaching a stable state that is Based on the above-depicted context, the structure of the paper is as
their equilibrium following a not necessarily the same. This
perturbation…” second viewpoint …is focused
follows: Section 2 delivers criteria used to select the examined literature;
on “maintaining existence of Section 3, in order to provide insight into the current advancements in
function, while the former the application of the resilience concept to buildings, illustrates results
engineering approach is of a large review of studies concerning buildings, with specific attention
focused on maintaining
to thermal resilience. Specifically, the review mainly aims at identifying
efficiency of function…”
(whether it exists) by means of the delivered definition, the currently
adopted interpretation when applying the concept of (thermal) resil­
interpretation; while the second, which is more elaborated and inclusive ience to buildings. Section 4 presents a critical analysis of the obtained
[51,63], is a dynamic kind of interpretation [62]. The difference be­ results with both a proposal of a new approach (specifically starting
tween these two interpretations essentially lies in the paradigm under from the phenomena that buildings have to cope with) and some con­
which the analyzed system is considered, i.e. whether characterized by siderations in applying the concept of resilience to buildings. For the
one or more equilibrium states [52,54]. sake of clarity, the logical structure of the study presented here is
Based on the information in Table 1, expressions commonly used to depicted in Fig. 2.
describe the two resilience views can be derived; for the engineering
resilience definition, it can be stated: “maintaining stability”, “returning 2. Methodology of selection of the literature studied
to pre-shock situation”, “bouncing back”, and “single, stable equilibrium
As stated earlier, this paper dealt with resilience to rising

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Fig. 2. Logical scheme beyond the work presented here.

temperatures and heatwave events, i.e., the thermal resilience of

buildings. The present authors tried to understand the resilience concept
for building through a review of selected literature, from which point of
view it was treated, i.e., through which of the above two interpretations.
The literature search was conducted by querying the main scientific
databases (i.e., Scopus, ScienceDirect, WoS, ResearchGrate) using the
search strings “building resilience,” “building thermal resilience,”
“building climate change resilience,” and “climate change resilience in
the built environment”. The research carried out showed that the
number of works published before 2017 was found to be small and not
specifically concerning the aspects of interest for this article. For this
reason, the present study has considered only works published in the
past eight years. Fig. 3 shows, on the other hand, that since 2017 there
has been a gradual increase in interest in the topic under consideration,
which has been even more evident, especially in the last two years.
In addition, Fig. 4, which shows the geographic dispersion of papers
covered by the literature search, demonstrates (as was to be expected) Fig. 3. Trend of papers on the topic of resilience of the built environment from
how the topic of resilience of the built environment in recent years has 2017 to present (the percentages on the y-axis are those emerging from the four
found strong interest in countries that have historically been more applied research keys, namely “building resilience“, ”building thermal resil­
sensitive to issues concerning sustainability, climate change, and energy ience“, ”building climate change resilience“, and ”climate change resilience in
savings, while it is attracting less interest in countries currently under­ the built environment“).
going economic development.
As mentioned earlier, as a first criterion for skimming the articles were specifically considered in which the literal definition of resilient
found, it was chosen to consider papers published from 2017 onward. In building was also associated with a qualitative and/or quantitative
detail, the number of papers published before 2017 that were excluded assessment through approaches based on the use of indicators/param­
was 2. Then, to further refine the literature base for analysis, articles eters. In detail, among papers between 2017 and 2023 found with the 4

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purposes covered (energy, environmental, etc.). In any case, it must be

said that, although several procedures exist to date, there still seems to
be a lack of one structured resilience assessment of urban buildings, that
is shared and commonly adopted [65].
It is observed that about a quarter of the analyzed papers are instead
mainly directed at qualitatively establishing possible strategies to be
implemented for improving resilience in the built environment. About
10 % of the papers have the integration of sustainability and resilience as
their main themes, followed by review studies. A very small percentage
of authors dealt with standards and regulations, and some other authors
instead treat the topic of resilience in a very generic way addressing the
most important issues related to thermal resilience of buildings.
Existing definitions – Generally speaking, finding a universally
acknowledged definition poses a challenge [49]. In the 32 analyzed
papers, many definitions of resilient building and/or thermal resilience
of buildings (25 over 32) could be found. Only in a few cases (7 over 32)
no definition is provided, despite dealing with the topic of buildings’
resilience. Table S2 of the Appendix lists for each article, extracts indi­
cating precisely the given definitions. Here, by way of example, are only
a few definitions: “…ability of a building and its systems to maintain or
Fig. 4. Geographic dispersion of papers on the topic of resilience of the built rapidly return to desired functions in the face of disturbance, to adapt to
environment from 2017 to the present. change, and to quickly transform systems that limit current or future
adaptive capacity… …resilient building may not resist any disaster, and
keywords used, those not considering quantitative or qualitative as­ its function during stress situation can be decreased. However, it is easy
sessments, which were therefore excluded 18. to put the building back into operation, even after a stressful situation
The appendix attached to this article, particularly Table S1, provides that would exceed the resistance of a resistant building…” [66]; “…
general information on the 32 articles analyzed showing the references, building’s ability to withstand or easily overcome the most important
issues mainly treated, and prevalent purposes (the first column indicates threats….” [67]; “…while reducing the environmental footprint of
a numerical code assigned here to each article). buildings, these green buildings must also withstand external stressors
that may arise over the buildings’ lifetime…” [45]; “…the building is
3. Resilience of buildings to global warming and extreme defined to be resilient if it is able to prepare for, absorb, adapt to and
temperature events according to the selected literature recover from the disruptive event ….… the building is able to prepare in
the initial state, absorb and adapt during the disruptive event (phase I)
After a description of selected articles, in this section the authors and recover after the disruptive event (phase II)...” [68]; “... ability of a
focus on how thermal resilience of buildings is conceptualized in the building to prepare and plan for, absorb, recover from, and more suc­
literature, highlighting the various interpretations that exist in the cessfully adapt to adverse events...thermal resilience, which is a build­
selected literature. ing’s ability to maintain a comfortable and safe indoor thermal
environment for its occupants throughout its lifetime; particularly dur­
ing extreme weather events arising from climate change or building
3.1. The selected literature: aspects mainly treated, existing definitions system disruptions due to technical failure or power outages....” [33];
and current metrics “...thermal resilience of the built environment can be defined as the
ability of a building to withstand disruptive events while maintaining
The issue of buildings’ thermal resilience is a topic that has raised comfortable conditions indoors….” [49].
interest in the scientific community, as can be seen in Table S1. As it can be seen, the given definitions in some cases appear to be
Aspects mainly treated – Several aspects are covered on this issue. In rather generic, not specifically referring to a building, in any case, it does
this regard, Fig. 5 shows the breakdown of papers by type of issue mainly not seem easy to make them operative. Furthermore, there is a sense that
treated with reference to Table S1. the authors started from the definitions of resilience described above (i.
It is possible to note that half of the articles analyzed have as their e., engineering and ecological) and then “dropped” them on the building
main objective to identify metrics that allow to be able to quantitatively system, thus employing their respective characteristic terms. In other
assess the resilience of buildings, related to the different and specific words, it seems that the prevailing approach in the literature in applying
the concept of resilience to buildings is top-down.
Current metrics − Relative to the type of indicator(s)/criteria/
parameter(s), it emerged a prevalence of certain metrics that are indi­
cated by multiple authors. Specifically, those of greatest relevance
appear to be the following: Indoor environmental conditions as opera­
tive temperature (◦ C) and relative humidity (%); Heating and cooling
thermal performance in terms of energy demand (kWh/m2); Predicted
Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) [69];
Standard Effective Temperature (SET), that is a temperature metric that
considers indoor air dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, mean
surface radiant temperature, and air velocity, as well as the activity rate
and clothing levels of occupants [70]; Heat Index (HI), which combines
air temperature and relative humidity to measure the human-perceived
equivalent temperature to assess physiological discomfort conditions
[71]; and Indoor Overheating Degree (IOD) that is a multi-zonal indi­
Fig. 5. Breakdown of selected papers by type of issue mainly treated. cator, which quantifies the severity of indoor overheating risk taking

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into account severity and frequency of high indoor temperatures, as the Table 2
summation of the temperature difference between the indoor operative Comparison among the interpretations of resilience on which the studied defi­
temperature and a preferred comfort temperature [72]. nitions appear to be based for the 32 analyzed documents (information extracted
from Tables S1 and S2).
3.2. How is the building (thermal) resilience understood? N. Authors Year Issue mainly Resilience against Resilience
treated what kind of definition
event? (as it is used
Once definitions have been collected from the 32 selected articles,
stated in the (ENG or
the present authors have tried to provide an answer to the following article) ECO)
questions: among engineering (ENG) and ecological (ECO) resilience
1 [73] 2018 Metric Extreme hot
definitions, is there a predominant definition? If so, which definition is
−
Lassandro temperatures
mainly adopted in the case of buildings to date? Answering these et al. especially in
questions, according to the authors, is of non-negligible importance for summer)†.
greater awareness and deeper understanding of what resilient building 2 [44] 2017 Strategies to Climate change ENG
Phillips improve and its negative
should concretely mean.
et al. resilience impacts
Therefore, an attempt was made to associate each definition with one 3 [74] Coley 2017 Metric Global warming‡ ¡
of the cited interpretations of resilience. Results are illustrated syn­ et al.
thetically in Table 2. Specifically, it reports for each analyzed article (i) 4 [75] Katal 2019 Metric Extreme weather§ ENG
the issue mainly treated, (ii) an indication concerning against what kind et al.
5 [66] 2019 Metric Climate change ECO
of event resilience is treated in the articles, and (iii) how the concept of Nehasil and extreme
resilience has been interpreted based on the previously introduced et al. events
interpretation categories, i.e., ENG, ECO. In some cases, it was not 6 [46] 2019 Metric Heatwaves (or ECO
possible to identify a single interpretation of resilience behind the Lassandro rising
et al. temperatures in
definition, that is, the definition appeared to refer simultaneously in
summer)
some ways to the engineering definition and in others to the ecological 7 [76] Ladipo 2019 Metric Natural disaster** ENG
definition. As a result, ENG/ECO was assigned in these cases. et al.
Information contained in Table 2 has been critically analyzed and a 8 [32] 2019 Strategies to Heat disaster††
ENG
discussion on it is given in the next section. Baniassadi improve
et al. resilience
9 [77] Shahin 2019 Strategies to Changes ECO
4. Discussion et al. improve occurring in
resilience climatic
This section is divided into two subsections: the first reporting a conditions.
10 [67] Volf 2020 Metric Climate change ENG/ECO
critical analysis of the results of the selected literature review, and the
et al. and extreme
second in which the authors make − in light of findings − a couple of events
considerations to be taken into account when applying the concept of 11 [30] 2020 Metric Climate‡‡ ENG/ECO
resilience to buildings and propose a new “bottom-up” approach to Javanroodi
addressing buildings’ resilience, which starts specifically with the phe­ et al.
12 [25] 2020 Strategies to Heat §§
nomena that buildings face and leads to an operative building-specific
−
Samuelson improve
definition of resilience. et al. resilience
13 [68] 2021 Metric Disruptive event ENG
4.1. Lack of a unique way of understanding the concept of buildings’ Homaei (with a fixed
et al. duration) ***
resilience in the selected literature
14 [13] 2021 Integration Climate-related ECO
Rostam sustainability extremes†††
The information in Table 2 highlights the lack of a single, shared et al. and resilience
vision in the way in which the buildings’ resilience has declined. 15 [45] 2022 Integration Disturbing forces ENG/ECO
Moreover, in some cases, it was not possible to identify a single inter­ Roostaie sustainability of weather events
et al. and resilience or other disasters.
pretation of resilience because the pertinent definition somehow ap­ 16 [78] 2022 Literature Future events, ENG/ECO
pears to refer simultaneously to the engineering definition and the Tavakoli review overheating risk
ecological definition, as stated earlier. In other words, for some defini­ et al.
tions, it is not clear the type of interpretation which they rely on. In 17 [34] Zeng 2022 Strategies to Heatwaves −
et al. improve
addition, in certain cases, it was not even possible to assign any of the
resilience
three suggested categories (ENG, ECO, ENG/ECO). 18 [28] Flores- 2022 Metric Heatwaves ECO
It is also worth noting that there has been a certain discrepancy Larsen et al.
between the resilience interpretation used within the same category of 19 [79] Lopez- 2022 Metric Heat, overheating −
issue mainly treated. To try to explore this in more detail, it was García et al.
20 [80] Ismail 2023 Metric Power outage ENG/ECO
therefore decided to analyze the different approaches also in reference et al. disruption‡‡‡
to the issue mainly treated in the analyzed papers. In more detail, Fig. 6 21 [81] Ji et al. 2023 Metric Heatwaves ENG
was depicted starting from the information contained in Table 2, for the 22 [29] Flores- 2023 Strategies to Heatwaves ECO
32 analyzed papers, (a) the allocation of papers by type of resilience Larsen et al. improve
resilience
interpretation used and (b) the resilience interpretation approach dis­
23 [82] Sheng 2023 Strategies to Heatwave and ECO
tribution in reference to the issue mainly treated. et al. improve cold snap with
The pie chart reported in Fig. 6 (a) shows that the ENG interpretation resilience power outages.§§§
seems to predominate substantially when considering the entire set of 24 [49] 2023 Strategies to Heatwaves**** ENG
papers analyzed. However, the histogram shown in Fig. 6 (b) indicates Borghero improve
et al. resilience
that the ENG interpretation generally seems to prevail in the papers
(continued on next page)
dealing with buildings’ resilience metrics. Moreover, the graph high­
lights something that would not have been expected, namely, a

7
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

Table 2 (continued ) prevalence of the ENG-ECO circumstance in papers primarily focused on

N. Authors Year Issue mainly Resilience against Resilience the integration between sustainability and resilience (other than in
treated what kind of definition general literature review studies), and conversely a total lack of such a
event? (as it is used circumstance in studies concerning precisely strategies to improve
stated in the (ENG or resilience.
article) ECO)
Furthermore, a certain discrepancy has been noted between the
25 [31] Siu 2023 Literature Climate change ENG interpretation used to give a definition of resilience and that used in
et al. review and extreme
materials and methods: in some articles, a different type of resilience
weather events
26 [33] Hong 2023 Most important Extreme weather ECO interpretation should be associated with indicators proposed in the
et al. issues events coincident selected papers to measure thermal resilience of the building. For
regarding with power instance, in the article, whose code/number is 23 (see Table 2), the
thermal outages. definition of resilience proposed is: “…the ability of a building to meet
resilience of
buildings in the
the occupant’s needs and provide for a safe, steady and comfortable use
face of climate in response to changing conditions outside…building energy resilience
change. characterizes the ability to perform building energy services, such as
27 [65] 2023 Metric Extreme events ENG heating, cooling, ventilation, critical plug loads, and shelter, during and
Krelling causing power
in response to a major disruption…”. This definition seemingly refers to
et al. outages††††
28 [83] Jia 2023 Literature Climate change ENG the ECO resilience interpretation. While, indicators proposed to evaluate
et al. review and extreme resilience are the following: the SET degree hours, which is a tempera­
weather events ture parameter that considers indoor air dry-bulb temperature, relative
29 [84] Grassie 2023 Metric Future climate − humidity, mean surface radiant temperature and air velocity, as well as
et al. and heatwave
periods
the activity rate and clothing levels of occupants [31,78,80,81,82]; the
30 [85] Assaad 2023 Metric A “shock” that ENG Heat Index (HI), which combines air temperature and relative humidity
et al. causes a rise in to measure the human-perceived equivalent temperature [49,78,82];
the and the Hours of Safety (HOS), which is a measure of the duration of
concentrations of
time a building can maintain safe conditions above a predefined tem­
prominent
pollutants in the perature threshold during a cold event [80,82]. This set of indicators
built environment seemingly refers to the ENG resilience interpretation, instead.
for a certain Clearly, the presence of different definitions of resilient building that
duration. underlie equally different ways of understanding resilience for build­
31 [2] Baglivo 2023 Standards An extreme case
ings, together with the aforementioned discrepancy as well as − in some
−
et al. of a long period
without a gas cases − the presence of too far generic definitions generates some
supply§§§§. confusion regarding how to understand resilience for these components.
32 [37] Younes 2023 Integration Heatwaves ENG/ECO It is noteworthy that when the theme of buildings’ resilience is
et al. sustainability
treated, the focus is primarily on their ability to withstand extreme
and resilience
weather events. Fig. 7 shows the breakdown of the 32 analyzed papers
†
It is considered the following period July 23–26. by type of categories of events against which resilience has been
‡
It is studied the variability of the studied historical annual weather time series investigated with reference to the information reported in Table 2.
particularly those concerning the daily mean outdoor temperature and the Specifically, to simplify the representation, the categories reported in
running mean outdoor temperatures.
the 5th column of Table 2 (“Resilience against what kind of event?”)
§
In detail, it is investigated the resilience against the three-day power outage due
have been grouped into three macro-categories, that is: “total climate
to the storm.
**
It is not further specified. change”, “global warming”, and “extreme events – heat waves” (the
††
Authors consider the AC loss period coincident with hot weather events. category assignment for the 32 articles is illustrated in detail in Table S3
‡‡
Typical and extreme climate conditions are considered. of the Appendix). The graph shows that the predominant aspects in
§§
Specifically, authors consider a power outage scenario, because of the extreme reference to which resilience studies have been conducted appear to be
conditions. those related to extreme events and, among these, particularly the heat
*** It is not specified the type of disruptive event. It is only stated the following: waves with a percentage of more than 60 %. This is followed by cir­
“… disruptive event will affect the thermal performance of the building during cumstances related to total climate change (25 %) and finally global
and after the disruptive event….”. warming (only 9 %).
†††
“…the responses of the building sector against climate-related extremes can
Fig. 8 reports, for the 32 analyzed papers, the allocation of papers by
be categorized under climate change resilience…”.
resilience interpretation used in reference to the categories of events
‡‡‡
“…simulations are conducted … over the summer months of July and August
against which resilience has been investigated. It is possible to observe a
under normal HVAC conditions (set-point temperature at 24.C), except for the
peak summer week where the power outage occurs starting from the first hour of prevalence of the ENG approach in studies concerning extreme events
July 30 and remains off until the last hour of August 5 (one week long)…”. and heat waves, hence, as previously mentioned, those resulted here as
§§§
A six-day heat wave in 2015 and a three-day cold snap in 2021 with power the predominant category. Likewise, in studies considering the resil­
outages. ience against total climate change (i.e. global warming and extreme
**** Present and future heatwaves. events), the ENG approach has been mostly used. While papers primarily
††††
Disruptions that cause overheating. focused on resilience to only global warming, the ENG/ECO and N/A
‡‡‡
“…Shocks are defined as extreme unexpected events that occur without prior circumstances have been encountered, revealing a situation of pre­
knowledge of the building residents or designer and thus, no prior action (e.g., dominant unclearness when it comes to considering only an increase in
preventive maintenance) can be taken to prevent them…”.
the mean outdoor air temperature.
§§§§
“…the forecasting analyses were carried out considering the years 2030,
Obviously, all this makes the application of the concept of resilience
2050, and 2070 and three Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios
(RCP 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5). The analysis of the results focused on trends of heating,
to buildings still a complex task. In the opinion of the present authors,
cooling and total thermal performance index from the years 2030–2070…The figuring out this issue is of paramount importance, on the one hand,
work analyzed the resilience to climate change of the building envelope…”. because the concept of resilience to climate change is increasingly
coming alongside that of sustainability, establishing itself as a driving

8
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

Fig. 6. Allocation of the analyzed papers by type of resilience interpretation used (a) and resilience interpretation distribution in reference to the issue
mainly treated.

force in the planning and design processes of human systems particu­

larly those related to buildings, and on the other hand, because of the
strong role that the buildings can play in the path aimed to strengthen
the resilience of cities [25,47,86,87]. Having resilient buildings can play
a role in diminishing urban vulnerability to extreme heat [73], as they
are a predominant component of urban contexts and key nodes as re­
cipients of the various activities that people carry out in them
[25,73,82,83].

4.2. Future considerations in applying the concept of resilience to

buildings

In an effort to contribute to a shared view on how to understand

resilience in the case of buildings, two reflections on the topic are offered
below, particularly: (a) on the importance of also paying attention to the
Fig. 7. Breakdown of papers by type of categories of events against which theory of ecological resilience in the case of buildings; (b) on a possible
resilience has been investigated. new approach in applying the concept of resilience that could usefully
arrive at a definition of resilience “specific” to buildings (Fig. 2).
a) The use of engineering resilience is acknowledged as suitable for
the physical and infrastructural components of the urban environment
that demand a stable equilibrium. [88]. Indeed, the analysis of the

Fig. 8. Distribution of papers by resilience interpretation used with reference to the categories of events against which resilience has been investigated.

9
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

selected literature showed that the ENG interpretation of the concept of thermal shocks (resilient in the engineering sense of the term).
resilience seems to predominate substantially when considering the Such a view recalls the ecological interpretation of resilience that
entire set of papers analyzed (Fig. 6). This applies to addressing both indicates, in fact, resilient a system that is not only resilient in the en­
total climate change and, as expected, extreme weather events (Fig. 8). gineering sense of the term but is also capable of adapting to changing
However, in the opinion of the present authors, in the case of conditions and self-regulating (Table 1). Therefore, this last consider­
buildings a circumstance should not be overlooked, namely the fact that ation suggests that attention should also be paid to the theory of
buildings are not properly “static” infrastructural elements since the ecological resilience as equally appropriate for buildings; in fact, it is
envelopes can be equipped with components and materials that give capable of taking into account not only extreme events but also climate
them adaptive capacity to changing environmental conditions of the change understood as an increase in average temperatures.
surrounding climate [77,89]. Furthermore, buildings are also charac­ b) As mentioned earlier, in the literature, the prevailing way of
terized by non-technological components, i.e., the occupants,1 repre­ applying the concept of resilience to buildings seems to be a “top-down”
senting a natural component whose thermal adaptive behaviour can approach, and the resulting definitions appear to be rather generic, and
contribute to implementing adaptive measures [31,78], both objectives poorly calibrated to buildings. Instead, the present authors wondered
(such as window opening and shading) and subjective (a personal whether a bottom-up approach should be taken, one that starts with
adaptation, such as clothing change) in response to environmental buildings and particularly their needs. In this way, they believe that a
changes [50,74]. Moreover, the capacity of occupants to adjust and building-specific and also constitutionally operational definition of
acclimate gradually to rising or falling temperatures over an extended resilience can usefully be achieved.
duration. might induce also a change in indoor thermal requirements for Adopting a bottom-up approach involves, as a first step, identifying
their comfort [27,74]. In detail, if a majority of residents are willing to the adversities that buildings must withstand. In this regard, as
compromise on their thermal comfort by slightly increasing the cooling mentioned above, buildings in our cities will have to face a climate that
setpoint, peak electricity demands can be markedly reduced, thus is slowly and progressively tending to be warmer as a result of ongoing
mitigating the risk of power outages. [50]. This behaviour is crucial, as global warming and with increasingly frequent and longer periods of the
informed users can notably enhance comfort through natural ventilation year characterized by progressively extreme outdoor air temperature
and achieve an average energy consumption reduction of 15 % when weather conditions. As a second step, it would be necessary to detail the
using air conditioning [49]. The capability to influence occupant characteristics, both in terms of envelope and system that the building
behaviour and their adaptive actions is thus of great importance when must possess to withstand the identified adverse conditions (stress and
assessing the thermal resilience of buildings [33]. Therefore, in shocks), always providing comfort conditions for its occupants and at
consideration of all this, in addition to the resilience of the “building- the same time guaranteeing energy efficiency. In this regard, the enve­
plant” system, the resilience of the occupants should not be neglected lope needs to allow a high degree of decoupling between the internal
[78]. and external environments. The plant needs to be characterized by
In light of this, buildings can thus reasonably be thought of as “dy­ flexibility abilities, prompt response, power adequate to the system life,
namic” infrastructural elements, namely as systems that possess adap­ and a smart management and control system. Based on what was said in
tive and transformational capacities and therefore not characterized by consideration (a) of this sub-section, the recognition of the occupants’
a single equilibrium condition but by different states of equilibrium that involvement in resilience seems to be necessary [94]. In other words,
may be the indoor comfort conditions required by the occupants (that also occupants with their thermal adaptability can contribute to deter­
can be regarded as “the equilibrium states of the system”), which likely mining and/or improving the level of resilience of the building. The
change along with the changing climate and weather of the site [74]. compliance of the occupants to engage in such adaptive measures can
The above suggests that attention should also be paid to the theory of indeed greatly influence the response habitability of indoor spaces to
ecological (as well as engineering) resilience, as also appropriate for disruptive events. It needs to incorporate systems for occupants to sense
buildings in that it can capture their “dynamism”. and provide feedback [95]. In other words, it needs to give data/infor­
Furthermore, the analysis showed that the theme of the climate mation to the building’s occupants, enabling them to gain insights over
resilience of buildings is mainly treated with reference to extreme time and adjust their actions in response to climate and energy loads
weather events (Fig. 7). Actually, it should not neglect the fact that [77].
buildings have to counter not only extreme weather events (which are With such a “bottom-up” approach, it would be easy to obtain a kind
becoming more intense, frequent, and longer) but they also have to deal of resilient building profile that, being constitutionally operational,
with a changing climate, characterized by gradually increasing average could also serve as a basis on which to build reliable methodologies for
outdoor air temperatures (Fig. 1). Therefore, it seems actually reductive assessing the effectiveness, in terms of resilience, of mitigation and
to refer the term “resilience,” solely, to the building’s ability to tolerate adaptation actions taken on a building (or groups of buildings).
(withstand), adapt and recover its function (i.e., ensure indoor condi­ Fig. 9 shows, by way of example, a possible flowchart using the
tions of comfort for occupants) in the shortest possible time, when approach just described, showing some of the envelope and system
subjected to an extreme temperature event, i.e., to adopt the engineering characteristics that would make buildings more capable of maintaining
interpretation of resilience. Rather, the term resilience – when applied to comfortable conditions for their occupants while at the same time
buildings – should also account for the climate change understood as an ensuring energy efficiency, despite ongoing climate change and extreme
increase in average air temperatures, thus adopting a view of resilience weather. The scheme also considers occupant participation.
that takes into account both phenomena (integrated view). As can be observed, thanks to the proposed approach, it has thus
Therefore, a resilient building is intended here as one that can pro­ been possible to achieve a definition of climate resilience more targeted
vide high comfort performance with low energy consumption, despite (“tailored”) to buildings.
being subjected to slowly and gradually changing climatic conditions
(adaptive capacity), and at the same time can be able to withstand and 5. Conclusions
quickly reestablish adequate internal comfort conditions in the event of
This research investigated the concept of buildings’ resilience to
rising temperatures and increasing occurrences of extreme tempera­
1
In addition, the engagement of mixed technologies, for example, green roofs tures. In this section, after summarizing the research conducted and its
and waste-based materials, which certainly have a natural component main findings, the authors provide some recommendations for future
embedded with technological components (substrate, etc.), is gaining popu­ research on this topic and outline possible research advancements from
larity [90,91,92,93]. the current results.

10
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

Fig. 9. Logical scheme underlying a bottom-up approach to arrive at a building-specific definition of resilience.

5.1. Summary and main findings buildings’ resilience. Another advantage of this proposal essentially lies
in the fact that the bottom-up approach, starting precisely with the
This paper aims to provide an answer to a crucial question in the building and its constituent elements, i.e., envelope, systems, and oc­
building sector, namely how buildings’ climate resilience is conceptu­ cupants, allows for an in-depth exploration of each them of the re­
alized to date. In conclusion, this study proved that, although some quirements needed to make or improve their resilience performance.
attention has been given to this topic, there is still some confusion about This approach, in turn, brings the advantage of facilitating the identi­
what should be concretely understood by thermal resilient building; this fication of a simple and reliable set of operational indicators of build­
confusion is mainly related to the lack of a unique way of understanding ings’ resilience for each element (building envelope, plant, and
this concept in the case of these components, as emerged from the occupants).
performed extensive literature review. The main findings of this research work can be summarized as
According to the present authors, a need arises, therefore, for a follows:
reevaluation of conceptual frameworks and assessment methodologies.
In this regard, in an effort to contribute to the achievement of a clearer • a significant lack of consensus regarding the interpretation of
and shared vision on how to understand resilience in the case of build­ buildings’ resilience within the existing literature, highlighting the
ings, the present authors deliver some reflections on: (i) the opportunity complexity and multifaceted nature of this concept;
to consider buildings as “dynamic” infrastructural elements mainly due • a need for a more cohesive and standardized approach to under­
to the presence of occupants, which confer adaptive capacity; (ii) the standing and operationalizing resilience in the built environment;
opportunity to adopt an integrated view of resilience that takes into • a critical importance of developing a shared understanding of
account both rising average temperatures (global warming) and extreme buildings’ resilience, particularly in the face of escalating climate
events (heat wave). Relative to point (i), according to the present au­ change impacts and increasing urbanization pressures;
thors, the concept of a dynamic adaptation to changing climatic condi­ • current definitions and interpretations of buildings’ resilience may
tions is embedded into that of resilience. While relative to point (ii), it not adequately capture the dynamic and adaptive nature of built
has not to be overlooked the fact that in this type of system, there is a environments, necessitating a reevaluation of conceptual frame­
kind of inherent resilience due to the presence of the occupants who, works and assessment methodologies.
through their thermal adaptation behavior, can mitigate the risk of
power outages thus avoiding situations of thermal discomfort inside. In 5.2. Findings’ implications
our view, occupant resilience should therefore be taken into account
because it can reduce the building’s vulnerability to rising temperatures From a scientific perspective, the research results, by highlighting a
and increasing occurrences of extreme temperatures. Based on these two knowledge gap, may help to trigger an advancement of knowledge in the
considerations, paying attention also to the theory of ecological resil­ field of building sector resilience to climate change. While, from a
ience in the case of buildings is highly recommended. practical perspective, the proposed new “bottom-up” approach is
In addition, the authors propose a possible new (bottom-up) intended to be an operational contribution, especially for planners and
approach in applying the concept of resilience to buildings that could technicians in their efforts to study solutions and steer the building
usefully arrive at an attempted definition of resilience “specific” to sector towards a path of ecological and energy transition, in a resilient
buildings, to overcome the presence of rather generic definitions of context, in line with what is indicated in the National Recovery and

11
G. Peri et al. Energy & Buildings 315 (2024) 114319

Resilience Plan (NRRP). Particularly, the potential of the proposed new in order to foster resilient, sustainable, and inclusive built environments
approach mainly pertains to the possibility for users to decline the that can withstand and thrive in the face of future uncertainties and
concept of resilience in a precise and “tailor-made” way for buildings. disruptions.
This, in turn, will facilitate the identification of a simple and reliable set
of operational resilience indicators to quantitatively assess the effects of CRediT authorship contribution statement
mitigation and adaptation actions taken with regard to buildings’
resilience and thus to allow a clearer reading of the effectiveness, pre­ Giorgia Peri: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
cisely in terms of resilience, of such actions. Also at the application level, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Laura Cirrincione:
both the resilient building profile and any indicators that may be derived Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology,
from it can also provide useful support in investment decision-making Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Domenico Mazzeo: Writing – re­
processes and/or for developing guidelines for improving the resil­ view & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Nicoletta
ience of the building sector to ongoing climate change. Matera: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Formal
analysis. Gianluca Scaccianoce: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
5.3. Future research and recommendations original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.

It should be noted that, with regard to point (ii), and in particular the Declaration of competing interest
suggestion to move toward an integrated view of resilience, one cannot
overlook the fact that to date, with the available forecasting tools, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
designing a building to withstand an increase in average outdoor air interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
temperature is feasible, while designing buildings to withstand future the work reported in this paper.
extreme temperature events is not yet. In detail, existing methods for
integrating climate projections into research are available, but they are Data availability
primarily tailored to future “typical” conditions. Further research is
required to validate the simulation of extreme weather conditions. [31]. Data will be made available on request.
This being the case, we propose for the present design only to withstand
an increase in average outdoor air temperature. On the other hand, one Acknowledgement
advantage of such a design is that the building will be placed in an ad­
vantageous position compared to a non-resilient building. This is due to • Funder: Project funded under the National Recovery and Resilience
the fact that, despite being subjected to slowly and gradually changing Plan (NRRP), Mission 4 Component 2 Investment 1.3 - Call for tender
weather conditions, the building will always be able to provide high No. 341 of 15.03.2022 of Ministero dell’Università e della Ricerca
performance to its occupants with lower energy consumption and, if (MUR); funded by the European Union – NextGenerationEU.
disturbed suddenly, the building will suffer less loss of indoor comfort • Award Number: Project code PE0000021, Concession Decree No.
performance. In other words, designing buildings to resist the increase in 1561 of 11.10.2022 adopted by Ministero dell’Università e della
average air temperature will prepare buildings to resist also to extreme Ricerca (MUR), CUP UNIPA B73C22001280006 - to be indicated by
events. However, future research of the present authors will explore this each Beneficiary, according to attachment E of Decree No. 1561/
aspect further. 2022, Project title “Network 4 Energy Sustainable Transition –
Regarding point (i), future research on the inclusion of occupants’ NEST”.
adaptive mechanisms to high and low temperatures at the microclimate
level for the improvement of resilience characteristics at the building
scale, is needed. Appendix A. Supplementary data
As for the proposed “bottom-up” approach, the study showed how its
use allows to obtain a building resilient profile (to achieve a definition of Supplementary data to this article can be found online at [Link]
resilience specific for buildings) that, being constitutionally operative, org/10.1016/[Link].2024.114319.
could serve as a basis on which identifying simple and reliable meth­
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