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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youths have

received increased attention in the empirical literature in the past decade. Most of the

literature has focused on the experiences of anti-LGBT victimization and its

consequences, such as higher rates of suicidal thoughts and attempts, substance use, and

sexual risk behaviors (Bontempo & D’Augelli, 2002; Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, &

Russell, 2010; cited by Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., Kull, R. M., & Greytak, E. A. 2013) .

This literature review gives a brief overview of various concepts, factors associated with

LGBTQIA+ students’ experiences that were drawn from relevant literatures, and

empirical studies. This review also connects models with existing theories and research

on LGBTQIA+ students, which is centralized more on harsh edges. This review is

divided into (5) sections: (1) Bullying and Discrimination; (2) Minority Stressors; (3) The

Role of Learning Institutions and Students’ Environment; (4) Resilience among Sexual

Minority Groups; and (5) A Gap in Research and Conclusion.

Bullying, Discrimination, and Harassment

The issue of school bullying, specifically LGBTQ bullying, discrimination, and

other mistreatments towards LGBTQ people has recently grown in importance as an issue

that needs to be resolved. It is the 21st century, and people are evolving to be more open

minded and welcoming to what people in the past called 'absurd'. Just in the recent

decade that people started accepting choices of others, but despite that being said there
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are still ill-treatment lingering and being done towards these marginalized groups or

rather community. Even though Philippines is considered as a gay-friendly country, it is

reported that Filipino Lesbian, Gay, Transgender and Bisexual (LGBT) community,

especially LGBT students are struggling with bullying and discrimination from families,

communities and schools. Still, few LGBT students still experience mistreatment from

people despite our country being a gay-friendly nation. Other people consider them as a

sinful person; hence why being part of LGBTQ is not easy, especially if your family is

against LGBT community. According to (Tang, and Poudel, 2018) It is recommended to

the government to act positively to pass the ‘anti-discrimination bill’ that was already

prepared Specific population belonging to this community are the LGBTQIA+ students.

(Human Rights Watch, 2017) in a report released states that students in the

Philippines encounter bullying and discrimination at school because of their sexual

orientation and gender identity. Legislators and school administrators must take action to

guarantee that the rights against discrimination and exclusion in schools provided by

Philippine law are fully applied.

Bullying and discrimination in schools based on sexual orientation and gender

identity and expression adversely affects LGBT and gender non-conforming students’

physical and psychological health. Documented effects include depression, anxiety, fear,

stress, loss of confidence, low self-esteem, withdrawal, social isolation, loneliness, guilt,

sleep disturbance, alcohol and drug abuse, homelessness, self-harm, and even suicide

(OHCHR, 2019). Other educators are also said to approach LGBT students differently

than they do to other pupils. Because of this, LGBT youths experience harsh verbal and

physical harassment, which they may find agonizing. Several LGBT adolescents are still
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subjected to verbal bullying at school, by adopting certain regulations against it,

educational institutions are sending a clear message that bullying and discrimination are

abhorrent and should not be condoned. (Human Rights Watch, 2017, p. 35)

According to (Hanson, T., et. Al ,2019) LGBTQ secondary students performed

poorer academically because they were more vulnerable to harassment than their straight

and non-transgender peers. They also had more frequent thoughts of suicide. Less social

and developmental assistance from instructors was another complaint made by LGBTQ

pupils. Yet, the study's analysis indicates that discrepancies would vanish or significantly

lessen if LGBTQ children felt the same levels of support and safety at school as non-

transgender and straight pupils.

Research demonstrates that LGBTQ youth are exposed to more negative

experiences in school compared to their heterosexual and cisgender counterparts,

including bullying and harassment (Abreu & Kenny, 2018; Kann et al., 2016; Kosciw et

al., 2020). For example, according to (Kosciw et al. 2020), approximately 95% of

LGBTQ students have heard homophobic remarks and approximately 92% have heard

negative comments about gender expression in schools within the past year. In addition,

a study of 398 transgender youth, (Day et al., 2018) found that transgender youth were

more likely to experience victimization, bullying, and to report a more negative school

climate.

Minority Stressors

Research shows that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning or queer

(LGBTQ) youth are at high risk for bullying and violence, poor mental health, and other

challenges (Hanson, Thomas; Zhang, Gary et al., 2019).

The minority stress model (Meyer, 2003; cited by V. Paul Poteat t. al, 2014)

offers one framework to understand sexual orientation-based disparities in school and

academic outcomes. The minority stress model posits that sexual minorities face unique

and hostile stressors (e.g., homophobic victimization) related to their sexual minority

identity; consequently, these stressors have negative effects on their health. Although the

model was originally conceptualized for sexual minorities, it can be applied similarly to

gender-variant individuals. The model outlines distal and proximal stressors that are

unique and chronic for minority populations. Distal stressors may constitute experiences

such as discrimination, while proximal stressors represent more internally based

processes such as internalized homonegativity (Meyer, 2003; cited by V. Paul Poteat t.

al, 2014). Although the model has received much empirical support, its focus has been

on mental and physical health outcomes with little attention to academic outcomes. We

believe, however, that the model offers a useful lens to conceptualize sexual minority and

gender-variant youths’ school experiences and academic outcomes.

One of the minority stress processes in LGBTQ people is caused by the

internalization of negative social and cultural attitudes regarding their sexual orientations

and gender identities, also known as internalized stigma. In general, internalized stigma

significantly impacts the formation and the level of concealment of individual sexual

identity. Additionally, adolescents experience notable changes at this stage: an increase

in self-consciousness, concern for social acceptance, risk-taking behaviors, and mental

health problems. Therefore, if they constantly receive a low level of acceptance and have

frequent stigma experiences at schools, they will internalize heterosexism over time and
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suffer from severe psychological and developmental issues (Shi, Y., Wu, F., Wu, Z., &

Zhang, Q., 2023)

The Role of Learning Institutions to the students’ School Climate

Research has shown that school-based supports for LGBT students can improve

the school climate and educational outcome. In the study of (Goodenow, 2006; Kosciw et

al., 2010; Szalacha, 2003; cited by Kosciw, J. G., Palmer, N. A., Kull, R. M., & Greytak,

E. A. 2013)

According to (Russell, Kosciw, Horn, & Saewyc, 2010; cited by Loverno, S. et. Al,

2021) When educators engage in LGBT-supportive practices such as intervening when

anti-LGBT harassment occurs, enforcing LGBT-supportive policies, and incorporating

inclusive curricula, students and teachers report safer and more inclusive school climates.

Several school policies, strategic programs, and practices have been proven to

reduce the stigma experiences of LGBTQ students on campus (Shi, Y., Wu, F., Wu, Z., &

Zhang, Q., 2023)

However, schools are not prepared to fulfill their need and scrambled to provide a

positive and inclusive environment. European Journal of Humanities and Educational

Advancements (EJHEA) the school and the other stakeholders must learn gender and

development policies and practices to address the needs of LGBTQ+ students. In

addition, it is important to understand the importance of LGBTQ+ inclusivity in the

curriculum. These can help them receive validation of their experiences, backgrounds,

sexual orientations, and gender identities, as well as a safe environment to share their

perspectives and values. (Mutya, R. C., 2021).

“It’s like walking through a hailstorm…” said a parent of gender non-conforming

son, describing the hostile environment that LGBT children face in schools. Students also
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report difficulty obtaining information about LGBT issues from teachers and counselors

at school.

An important point to emphasize is that schools are not helpless in improving

outcomes for sexual minority youth; rather, school personnel have the ability to decrease

the negative outcomes for sexual minority youth through improving school climate and

reducing homophobic victimization (Birkett, Espelage, & Koenig, 2009; 2013).

Detailed examination of (Melissa M., 2021) showed how peer victimization can

result in less accepting schools and poor educational outcomes for LGBTQ students.

LGBTQ students who had been harassed or discriminated against had lower educational

expectations and lower grades. These results also revealed that an unsupportive school

environment could negatively affect an LGBTQ student’s sense of identity and mental

health. Participants who were harassed at school responded by dropping out or avoiding

all forms of formal education, including college. LGBTQ graduates supported by

educators and friends overcame obstacles, completed high school, and looked forward to

postsecondary education.

It has been demonstrated by (Mutya, R. C., 2021) that they found a supporter in

the classroom who fights up for their rights and supports, respects, and accepts them for

who and what they are it can help to reduce or eliminate discrimination and bullying.

These allies demonstrate that LGBTQ+ students are not alone. The research investigates

the situation of the students and how these students can help develop a positive and

inclusive environment for them. This can help to promote intervention to the LGBTQ+

students.
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One strategy for enhancing the SMY environment in schools is the establishment

of Gay Straight Alliances (GSAs). A GSA is an extracurricular club that has a faculty

advisor and is made up of gay and straight students. Its stated goal is to make the school

environment better for all students and to specifically address issues that are related to

Sexual Minority Youths. (Burton, C. M., Marshal, M. P., & Chisolm, D. J., 2014)

It is important for schools to address stresses experienced by these marginalized

group (LGBTQIA+ community) and ameliorate their effects is by providing educational

resources as well as support and an inclusive environment to LGBTQIA+ students,

teachers, and staff to familiarize them with LGBT students and issues. The researchers

conducted this research to open the eyes and minds of homophobic people that all people,

despite their gender identity, deserves to be treated equal and to understand the

perspective of life of the LGBTQ students. The LGBT community deserves acceptance.

Nevertheless, society is showing a more positive attitude towards the LGBT community

than before (Tang, and Poudel, 2018)

Resilience among Sexual Minority Groups

Safe and welcoming school climates are also essential to achieving positive

educational outcomes for all youth, especially students of color and LGBT youth who

often face harassment, bias, and discrimination at school based on their race, sexual

orientation, and gender identity or expression (Beyond Bullying - Center for American

Progress, 2014).

Resilience is defined as young people’s ability to adapt effectively to conflict by

fostering successful development in the face of adversity (Schmitz & Tyler, 2019).

Resilience Theory claims that the most important thing is not the essence of adversity but
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how individuals cope with it. Resilience helps LGBTQ students bounce back when they

experience discrimination, tragedy, or anger. In the face of victimization, it allows them

to live, heal, and even succeed. A hostile school atmosphere allows instantaneous or

continuing discrimination, leading to LGBTQ students hiding their true selves. (Melissa

M., 2021). It seeks to understand how particular young people overcome risk laden

experiences and environments and analyzes the traits associated with positive adaptations

to stress (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005; Zimmerman, 2013)

One of the common relational defense mechanisms is the parents' good

relationship stood out as a general characteristic protective system with a more significant

impact. It reduced the negative effects of internalized homophobia, LGB conflicts, and

homophobic victimization on suicidal thoughts and self-esteem. Hence, a larger number

of internal and external adaption indicators were found to be associated to a positive

relationship with the parents (Benibgui, 2011; cited by Freitas et al., 2017), especially the

sense of unity and perceived parental support (Pearson & Wilkinson, 2013; cited by

Freitas et al., 2017).

A Gap in Research and Conclusion

As pointed out in this literature review, there have already been several studies on

discrimination, bullying, and harassment towards LGBTQIA+ students coming from

peers, staffs and even educators. Almost all of the studies’ results concentrated on

unfavorable concepts such as the ones mentioned earlier (discrimination, bullying,

harassment) thus lacking imperative information that leans towards constructive

encounters of LGBTQIA+ students in the present time, and in a more welcoming,

inclusive, and sensitive society.

With that being said, future research should concentrate on the LGBTQIA+

students experience as well as their situation in the present time or rather in the present

generation, where it is said to be more ‘accepting’ generation compared to the rest

(Oxford Royale Academy, 2021)

Despite the fact that those in power have already signed laws, made necessary

actions that address these issues which stands with the LGBTQIA+ youths, it appears to

be unimportant and inapplicable to some because LGBTQIA+ youths still face

discrimination, which is one of the main reasons why some sexual minority youths have

an aversion to disclosing their gender. It is challenging to persuade close minded

individuals that LGBTQIA+ people are also humans who have feelings, and, thus should

be treated equally just like the rest.

Although the literature analysis does not fully detail all potential hardships, there

is a surprise silver lining that highlights the courage and resiliency of sexual minority

groups and those who support them on their path. This clearly suggests that despite

LGBTQIA+ youths feeling isolated, quite utterly alone in their fights, there are still

people who remind them that they are not alone.