AGBM 131: AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT NOTES

Topic 4-7

TRAINING DEVELOPMENT IN AGRIBUSINESS MGT

Training and Education

There is need to understand the distinction between training and education.

Training is specific to the needs of an organization. It helps people to perform
better in a job either through improving their fit with the overall strategies,
philosophies and culture of the organization as a whole. In contrast, education
focuses on the goals of the individual. It prepares people for the multiple roles
they play in life and contributes to personal growth. Thus learning and change is
transferable from one employer to another; training may or may not be
transferable in the same sense.

Education
Education seeks to develop within the individual an awareness of cause and
effect and the ability to appraise and criticize information. An educated person is
capable of understanding the wider contexts of particular tasks while appreciating
the implication of particular knowledge and the foundations upon which it is
based and undertaking constructive criticism and independent thought.

In formal education, learning is carried out in specially built institutions such as

schools and colleges. What is taught is carefully structured by means of
syllabuses and timetables. The teaching provided is carefully supervised by an
external or internal administrative body. The achievements of those who learn in
formal education are often recognized by the award of certificates of merit.

Non-formal education is any organized learning activity outside the structure of

the formal education system that is consciously aimed at meeting specific
learning needs of particular groups of children, youths or adults in the community.
It includes various kinds of learning activity such as agricultural extension, skill
training, health and family planning, adult education and functional literacy. What
is learned is structured but not in such an elaborate manner as found in formal
education and there is more flexibility when it comes to the places and methods
of learning. At the end of the session, participants may be awarded certificates of
attendance.

In the case of informal education, much of the learning goes on unconsciously,

for example, the way a child learns from the family, friends, experience and
environment. The effects of informal education tend to be more permanent since

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 it pursues its own course at its own place, by its own means throughout a
person’s life. This is different from formal and non-formal systems that are
confined to learning experiences planned in a specific context for a particular
time.

It is worthwhile to note that not all learning can be defined as education. True
education is characterized by the following four conditions:

i). It deals with knowledge that is recognizable and worthwhile.

ii). It is capable of achieving a committed and voluntary response from
the learner.
iii). Leads to a quality understanding that gives rise to new mental
perspectives in the learner.
iv). Uses methods that encourage the exercise of judgement by the
learner and the use of the critical faculties.
In the context of the above conditions, aspects like role learning, aspects like
note learning, mechanical training, indoctrination or brainwashing are nowhere
near education in the correct sense and meaning.

Reasons for Training

Training is basically utilization, meaning that is intended to improve skills the
individuals use in their day to day activities. Sometimes training is routine e.g. all
new employees in certain jobs automatically go through a training course. More
often, training is given as a response to some event, for example:

a) The installation of new equipment or techniques which require new or

improved skills.
b) A change in working methods.
c) A change in product, which may necessitate training not only in production
methods but also in marketing functions of the company.
d) A realization that performance is inadequate.
e) Labour shortage, necessitating the upgrading of some employees.
f) A desire to reduce the amount of scrap and to improve quality.
g) An increase in the number of accidents.
h) Promotion or transfers of individual employees.
Training which is routine and traditional sometimes becomes out of date,
irrelevant or inadequate. A review may show that the purposes, methods and
standards of the training should be changed.

Systematic Approach to Training

Like any other business process, training can be very wasteful if it is not carefully
planned and supervised. Without a logical systematic approach some training
may be given which is not necessary, and vice versa, or the extent of training
may be too small or too great. When the training is complete, validation will show
whether it has been successful in achieving its aims and evaluation will attempt
to measure its costs-benefit. The systematic approach to training follows the
programme below:

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 i). The job is analyzed and defined.
ii). Reasonable standards of performance are established, perhaps by
reference to experienced employees.
iii). The employees being considered for training are studies to see if the
required performance standards are being attained.
iv). The difference (if any) between (ii) and (iii) is considered. It is often
called the training gap though it may be partly due to faults in the organization,
poor materials or defective equipment.
v). Training programmes are devised to meet training needs revealed in
(iv) above.
vi). Training is given and appropriate records kept.
vii). The performance achieved after training is measured, if the training
programme has been successful the performance standards set in (ii) should
now be achieved (validation).
viii). An attempt is made to calculate the cost of training and compare it
with the financial benefit gained by improved performance of the employees.
The following mnemonic is useful in understanding the systematic approach to
training:
Analyze the job.
Performance standards.
Performance attained.
Requirements of training.
Originate training program.
Administer training.
Check results.
How can training be improved next time?

Assessment of Training Needs

Most discussions of training and development start with a treatment of

procedures for establishing training needs. These needs exist when there is a
gap between current job performance or potential for performance, on the one
hand and desired performance or potential for performance on the other hand,
and there is reason to believe that raining can reduce that gap. Needs
assessment therefore helps to determine whether training is necessary.

Needs assessment involves the following analysis:

i). Organizational Analysis – This involves determining the appropriateness of

training given the organization’s business strategy, its resources available for
training and support by managers and peers for training activities. It focuses on
identifying where within the organization training is needed.

ii). Operations/Tasks Analysis – Includes identifying the important tasks,

knowledge, skills and behaviours that need to be emphasized in training. It

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 attempts to identify the content of training – what an employee must do in order
to perform competently.

iii). Individual/Person Analysis – Involves determining whether performance

deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill or ability or from a motivational
or work design problem. Also involves identifying who needs training and
determining the employee’s readiness for training. It therefore determines how
well each employee is performing the tasks that make up his or her job.
Based on Needs assessment, factors that may suggest that training is necessary
include:
a) Performance problems.
b) Job redesign.
c) New technology.
d) New legislation.
e) Changes in customer preference.
f) New products.
g) Employee’s lack of basic skills.
h) Internal or external customer requests for training.

The training needs of individuals and groups will vary depending on the nature of
the job and particular tasks, the abilities and experiences of the employees. New
recruits in an organization may have:

1. No previous experience or training.

2. An academic qualification in a related skill or discipline.
3. Experience in a similar job in another organization.

These three cases reflect three different individuals whose need, type and
intensity of training vary accordingly. Clear instructional and measurable
objectives are essential to the efficiency and effectiveness of the training
programme.

Techniques of Needs Analysis

A wide range of techniques are used to conduct training needs analyses at the
organizational, task and personal levels. They include:

i). Job Analysis – Careful analysis of the job will help determine the performance
level being attained by an employee.
ii). Tests and Examinations – Giving employees tests and examinations to test their
knowledge in a particular field will help determine whether there is need to train
them to improve on their skills and knowledge on a particular job.

iii). Questionnaires – Involves giving out questionnaires to employees and

depending on answers given you can determine the need for training.

iv). Observation – Involves observing employees in their work stations as they work.

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v). Interviews – You can hold interview sessions with the employees to determine
the training needs.
vi). Management by Objective – This shows a different technique by reviewing
measurable performance in previously agreed key are as of the job. Any
disparities between standards and performance levels show possible training
needs.

vii). Self-assessment – Indicates not only different needs but less overall need as
well.

viii). Performance Appraisal – Performance being attained by employees can be

assessed through an appraisal scheme. Disparities between target performance
and the current performance levels show possible training needs.

ix). Analysis of existing Records Or Reports – This can also help determine the
training needs.

With the assessment of need for training, it is possible to plan what kind of
training that will be required in future, when it should begin, and how many
present or new employees need to be trained. Where financial or material
resources are limited, the analysis may help to decide which departments and
activities should be given priority.

Development Needs

Development needs can be divided into three categories:

1. Knowledge required to perform a manager’s job in the organization

concerned, including:

 Background of organization, its organization and practices.

 Organization resources available.
 Organization technology.
 Specialist management techniques e.g. operational research.
 Relevant law.
 General, social and economic environment.

2. Planning, analytical and creative skills which include”:

 Recognizing objectives and putting them in order of importance.

 Assessing the value of available resources.
 Formulating and administering plans, delegating as necessary.
 Solving day-to-day management problems.

3. Social skills which include:

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 Communication upwards, downwards and laterally.
 Coordination within a department or between departments.
 Motivation of subordinates.
 Awareness of other’s needs, attitudes and perceptions.

Methods of Training

Training methods and modes need to be evaluated and a training programme

designed. The methods of training will to a large extent dictate whether the
training shall take place on or off the job.

a) On-job (Informal) Training – This is given in the normal work situation, the
trainee using the actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that he or she
will use when fully trained. The trainee is regarded as partly productive worker
from the time training begins. It is a common form of training especially where
the work involved in not complex. Trainees require more coaching and may be
given assignments or projects as part of a planned programme to develop their
experience.

Advantages of on-the-job training

 It is less costly than off-the-job training since learning takes place on the
equipment which will actually be used when the trainee is proficient.

 The trainee quickly adjusts to the normal working environment right from
the beginning of the training unlike the readjusting circumstance in the off-the-job
training programme.

Disadvantages

 The supervisor may be a poor teacher and may not give proper training.

 The trainee may be exposed to bad methods instead of the more efficient
ones.

 A lot of spoilt work and scrap material may be inevitably experienced.

 Valuable equipment may be damaged.

 Training occurs under stressful production conditions that are noisy and
demanding. Stress inhibits learning.

b) Off-job (Formal) Training – This takes place away from the normal work
situation, usually employing specially simplified tools and equipment. The trainee
is not regarded as a productive worker from the beginning, the initial work often
consisting of exercises. It is conducted through internal or external residential
courses, distance learning or computer aided learning. Team building,

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 supervisory and administrative courses are integral training components in most
organization.

Advantages of off-job training

 It is normally high quality training from a specialized instructor.

 In the long-term, it may be less costly because it enables workers to reach

high standards of performance.

 The trainee will learn correct methods from the onset.

 The negative aspect of damaging valued equipment or products spoiled,

work or scrap does not arise.

Disadvantages

 Unless an individual wants to learn and has the drive, he/she may not
benefit from formal training.

 Rigid individuals may never accept that what they learn on a course
applies in the context of their particular job.

 There will not be immediate and relevant feedback on performance and

progress from the learning process since the course participant will be out of the
place of work. This may affect the learner’s moral.

 It does not suit activists and pragmatists.

Whether on-job or off-job training, the following are some of the methods that can
be applied in training:

1. Coaching – May vary from a rather casual “siting next to Nellie” approach to
formal regular session in which an experienced employee, usually a manager,
explains the job, asks the trainee questions to test his or her knowledge and
often exercises general supervision over the trainee to check that he/she is
making correct use of the knowledge. Often, coaching consists of a
demonstration followed by the trainee imitating the instructor’s actions.

2. Mentoring – Is a relatively informed process whereby an elder, more

experienced member of an organization counsels a younger colleague about the
way the organization works. Potential benefits of mentoring include enhanced
employee motivation, job performance and organizational culture. People learn
what is expected of them and what it is reasonable to expect from the
organization. In some organizations, new employees are allocated a mentor as
an integral part of the induction process.

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3. Formal Lectures – When an organization has a number of trainees in the
same kind of work simultaneously, it may arrange for the group to have lectures
on the subject by means of its senior employees. When this cannot be done,
trainees may attend lectures outside the organization. Lectures are transmission
of predetermined sets of facts and opinions within a controlled enrolment.

4. Visits and Tours – Arrangements are made for trainees to visit other
departments or establishments of the organization and talk to employees with
whom he or she would normally only deal by letter or telephone. The trainee
often benefits by seeing the stages or work preliminary and subsequent to his or
her own.

5. Manuals and Charts – The trainee is sometimes given a detailed written

description of the job, perhaps incorporating charts which show the route the
work take or explain the decisions the employee has to make.

6. Simulation – Instead of putting the trainee immediately to work, he or she

may be asked to simulate the job using dummy materials or documents. A
programme is devised which grades tasks from easy and obvious to the more
complex.

7. In-tray – Here, a trainee is asked to deal with a batch of miscellaneous

documents which he or she is supposed to find in each day’s in-tray. The value
of this technique for training depends on the review which should follow, when
the trainer discusses with the trainee the decisions made.

8. Auto-Instruction – Trainees are given a programme of assignments or tasks

which take them to various parts of the organization and require them to obtain
information from departmental managers or from organization files. The trainees
are required to report back to their trainer periodically for a discussion and
review.

9. Discovery Method – Occurs when the trainee finds out for him or herself the
principles of the job and the correct method of performing it.

10. Programmed Learning – Consists of a carefully ordered sequence of units or

frames arranged so that the trainee masters each unit before proceeding to the
next. It is individual instruction, each trainee working at his or her own pace and
can be presented as a teaching book, teaching machine or a visual display unit
controlled by a computer which holds the programme. Each frame contains
some information; the trainee is then asked a question to test whether he or she
has learned or understood it.

11. Computer-Based Training (CBT) – It is training based on computer software

packages. Most if them are menu driven meaning that the user selects from

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 various options that appear on a visual display unit about how training is to
proceed.

12. Interactive Video – Are videos of simulated interpersonal communications in

which actors portray various characters in workplace scenes.

13. Classroom Instruction – Is effective for certain types of employee training.

Instructors may convey a great deal of information in a relatively short time.

14. Apprenticeship Training – This combines classroom instruction with on-the-

job training. Such training is traditionally used in craft jobs such as those of
plumber, barber, computer machinist and printer. While training, the employee
earns less than the master crafts person who is the instructor.

15. Vestibule Training – Takes place away form the production area on
equipment that closely resembles equipment actually used on the job. A primary
advantage of this kind of training is that it removes the employee from the
pressure of having to produce while training. The emphasis is on learning the
skills required by the job.

16. Job Rotation – The trainee is successively assigned jobs in different

departments in order to gain experience over a wide range of activities. Even
experienced employees may rotate their jobs to gain wider experience.

The Need for Training

1. Organizational Viability and the Transformation Process - The primary

concern of an organization is viability and hence efficiency. Viability of an
organization depends on the skills of its employees especially the managerial
staff to relate to the environment within the political, economic and social
dimensions. There should also be a continuous need to examine and improve
the existing organization structure, systems and procedure to cope with any
changes in technology. Organization’s effectiveness depends on its ability to
accomplish three objectives, that is, to achieve its goals, to sustain itself internally
and to adapt to its environment.

2. Technological Advances – To keep pace with advanced industrialization, an

organization is likely to increase its level of automation for the organization’s
survival. It therefore trains its employees for more skilled positions in processes
and techniques.

3. Organizational Complexity – To keep pace with increasing mechanization

and automation in organization, the range of complexity also increases. Increase
in the number of employees and hierarchical levels of management results in
complex problems of coordination and integration of activities hence the need for
training at all levels of management.

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4. Training in Human Relations – This is a crucial requirement for the
execution of organizational tasks with confidence, commitment and
understanding amongst workers, particularly those working in the same
department. Human relations refers to the way we understand one another and
how we relate to one another in the course of performing our tasks.

5. Training Inputs – The primary purpose of training is to establish the optimum

personnel/tasks relationships. Training activities are aimed at making desired
modifications in skills, attitudes and knowledge of employees so that they
perform their jobs most effectively and efficiently.

6. Skills – Training activities range from acquisition of simple routine skill to

complex administrative skills. Training for a particular skill enables one to be
more effective on the job and attain levels of output set by senior workers.

7. Attitudes – Through orientation (induction) programme, organizations instill

attitudes in new employees which are favourable towards the achievement of
organizational goals. The objectives of training programs are: moulding
employee attitudes, obtaining better co-operation and ultimately attaining the
loyalty of workers to the organization.

8. Knowledge – The knowledge acquired by the worker is specific to the job and
all the process involved.

Areas of Training

1. Training in Company Policies and Procedures - During induction of a new

employee, the objective is to orient him/her with the set rules, procedures,
organizational structure, environment and management of the organization.
Orientation imparts organization factors on rules and policies, creates the attitude
of confidence in the organization, pride in the services of the organization and
work organization. Induction also enables employees to get a first impression of
the culture of the organization and the kind of people they will deal with.

2. – This is meant to inculcate meaningful training

Training in Particular Skills
to enable employees to be more effective, efficient and reliable on the job.

3. Human Relations Training – This emphasizes concern for individual

relationships and treating people as human beings rather than as machines.
This training is geared towards the development of the individual and
consequently the organization’s efficiency through better team work.

4. Problem Solving Training – Officers from different managerial levels in

different environments can come together in a forum to discuss common
problems and possible solutions across the table. This serves as a forum for
exchange of ideas, experiences and information which could be utilized in
different scenarios and circumstances.

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5. Managerial and Supervisory Training/Development - A managerial job
entails techniques and conceptual knowledge hence requires broad training.
Training in fields like finance, human resources, management, projects
management and logistics is emphasized depending on one’s line of
specialization; management development programmes mainly focus on:

 Improving the performance of managers.

 Identifying managers with potential and ensuring that they get the
necessary training and experience to shape them for greater responsibility.

 Providing management succession through effective and relevant

training.

Training Policy

A policy is a guide to action. A training policy statement sets out what the
organization is prepared to do in terms of facilitating training to the employees.
The policy is expressed in the rules and procedures which govern or influence
the standard and scope of training in the organization.

Training policies are necessary for the following reasons:

 To highlight the firm’s approach to the training function.

 To provide information regarding training programmes and opportunities to

all employees.

 To help in the identification of priority areas in training and since resources

are scarce, they may have to be prioritized according to felt need.

 Helps to communicate the firm’s intent regarding an employee’s career

development.

 Gives employees the opportunity to better their prospects through training.

Training Budgets

A training budget for each programme has to be prepared including cost of

facilities. For internal programmes, the budget should cater for training rooms,
meals, transport, guest faculty, cost of teaching and learning resources and also
the salary of employees participating in the course since they will temporarily be
pulled out of their regular jobs while attending training.

Validation and Evaluation of Training

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 After implementation of the training scheme, there should be validation and
evaluation.

a) Validation. This means observing the results of the course and measuring
whether the training objectives have been achieved. The trainee may be given a
test to see if he or she is now able to reach the performance standards that have
been set, or the quantity and quality of the trainee’s production may be measured
for the same purpose. The more specific the training, the easier validation
becomes.

Methods of Validating a Training Programme

 Course critique, that is, the trainee reactions to the experience. The
trainees should be able to say whether the program was relevant to their work
and whether they found it useful.

 Trainee learning – this is measuring what the trainees have learnt on

course usually by means of a test.

 Changes in behaviour on the job following training.

 Organizational change as a result of training particularly where senior

managers are expected to effect changes after training.

b) Evaluation of Training. This means comparing the actual cost of the

programme against the assessed benefits being obtained by the organization
from the improved performance of the trainees. It focuses on the value of a
particular programme to an organization. The attempt to obtain feedback on the
effects of a training programme and to assess the value of that programme is the
key point in evaluation. If the costs of a given course exceed the benefits, it will
need to be redesigned or withdrawn, validation may be extended to become
evaluation.

Reasons for Evaluation Training

a) To determine whether the programme is meeting objectives, is enhancing

learning, and is resulting in transfer of training to the job.

b) To determine whether trainees believe that the content and administration

of the programme were satisfactory.

c) To determine the financial benefits and costs of the programme.

d) To compare the costs and benefits of different training programmes to

choose the best programme.

CONCLUSION

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 Rapidly changing technology, illiteracy, foreign competition and changes in
organizational strategy are putting pressure on organizations to socialize, train
and develop employees. This requires careful attention to needs assessment,
program development and implementation and evaluation. Four types of needs
analysis-organizational, job, person and demographic – are designed to
diagnose systematically the short – and the long – term human resource needs
of an organization. When actual performance and desired performance differ,
training may be needed.

The content of the training should be designed to maximize learning. In

evaluation, not only should reactions to training be assessed, but also the degree
of learning, the change in job behaviour and organizational outcomes should be
examined against objectives. Training consists of planned programmes
designed to improve performance at the individual, group and or organizational
levels. Improved performance, in changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and/or
social behaviour.

Developing human resources has become crucial with the rapid advances in
technology. High technology has made the need for development quite
apparent. As jobs grow increasingly complex and impersonal, the need for
improved human relations within a firm also becomes increasingly significant.
Because of this, training and development should be continuous.

 Revision Questions

1. Outline some of the importance of training in organizations.

2. Discuss the various learning styles that suit different individuals.
3. Compare and contrast on-the-job training with off-the-job training.
4. Examine the various factors that determine the necessity for training in an
organization and various areas of training.

5. Give a clear distinction between the terms training and education.

6. Discuss the various methods of training suitable in an organization.
7. What do you understand by the terms:
a) Training need.
b) Training budget.
c) Training policy.
d) Validation of training.
e) Evaluation of training.
8. What are some of the changes that you think can be brought about in
organizations as a result of training?
9. Analyze the various techniques of needs analysis in training.
10. Discuss the systematic approach to training.

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  References

1. Betts, P. W. (2000), Supervisory Management, 7th Edition, England; Prentice

Hall.

2. Cole, G. A. (1991), Management: Theory and Practice, London: DP

Publications.

3. Cole G. A. (1993), Personnel Administration; Theory and Practice, London:

DP Publications.

4. Cascio, W. F. (1998), Managing Human Resources, Boston: Irwin McCoraw

Hill.
5. Graham, H. T. (998), Human Resource Management, 9th Edition, Great
Britain: Pitman Publishing.

6. ICSA (1998), ICSA Personal Administration, London: DP Publishing.

7. Miner, J. B. & Crane, D.P., (1995), Human Resources Management, New

York: Harper Collins College Publishers.

8. Mondy, R. W. (1987), Human Resources Management. 4th Edition, Boston:

Allyn and Bacon.

9. Noe, R. A. (1997), Human Resource Management: Gaining a Competitive

Advantage, Chicago: Irwin.

10. Schular, R. S. (2000), Managing Human Resources: A Partnership

Perspective, Boston: South-Western College Publishing.

11. Waweru, E. M. (1984), Management of Human Resources in Kenya, Nairobi:

Kenya Literature Bureau.

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 MOTIVATION IN AGRIBUSINESS MGT

4.1 Motivation

To achieve organizational goals effectively, employees need more than the right
raw materials, adequate facilities and equipment that works. Every organization
must have motivated employees. The level of the performance of an employee is
a function of his/her abilities and motivation. The first determines what he can
do, the second determines what he will do. Where there is a positive motivation,
employees’ output increases, but where it is negative, or weak positive
motivation, his/her performance level is low. One of the key elements in Human
Resources Management is motivation. It is the core of management which
shows that every human being earnestly seeks a secure, friendly and supportive
relationship which gives him a sense of worth. Managers believe that motivation
is one of the most important factors in managing human resources today. The
level of motivation does not only affect perception but it also affects the total
performance of the individuals as expressed by:

PERFORMANCE = ABILITY X MOTIVATION

What is Motivation?

The word motivation comes from ‘motives’ which are the expression of human
needs by human beings. We may define motivation as a willingness to expend
energy to achieve a goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies
and sets in motivation the action of the people. Motivation is an inner state that
energizes, activates or moves and directs or channels behaviour towards goals.
It represents unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium,
causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state
of equilibrium by satisfying the need.

Motivation consists of the three interacting and interdependent elements of

needs, drives and goals:

(a) Needs – Are the deficiencies and are created whenever there is a physiological
or psychological imbalance.

(b) Drives or motives – Are set to alleviate needs.

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 These are action oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward goal
accomplishment.

(c) Goals – Are anything which alleviate a need and reduce a drive.

An employee’s motivation to work therefore consists of all the drives, forces and
influences – conscious or unconscious – that cause employee to want to know
about the factors that create motivation in order to be able to induce employees
to work harder, faster, more efficiently and with great enthusiasm. Employees
are motivated in part by need to earn a living and partly by human needs for job
satisfaction, security of tenure, respect of colleagues etc. The organization’s
reward system (pay, fringe benefits, job security, promotion opportunities etc)
may be applied to the first motive and job design to the latter.

Motivation has the following characteristics:

(i) Motivation is an internal feeling. It develops or generates within an

individual.

(ii) Persons in totality and not in part are motivated.

(iii) Motivation is the product of anticipated values from an action and

the perceived probability that these values will be achieved by the action.

Objectives of Motivation

1. To create conditions in which people are willing to work with zeal, initiative,
interest and enthusiasm.

2. To stimulate employee growth.

Defence Mechanism

If the need is not satisfied because of some reason, the person may feel
frustrated. At this stage, the person will try to modify behaviour to eliminate
factors responsible for the non-fulfilment of needs, for example, putting more
force for need satisfaction. However, there may be numerous such factors and
many of them may be beyond one’s control. As such, one is not able to remove
the frustration through need satisfaction. Since frustration is not an ideal position
for persons, they will try to bring with them an alternative behaviour known as
defence mechanism as shown below in the frustration model.

Frustrations

A goal which is attempted may not always be reached; the individual may be
frustrated when attempting to reach it. The positive reaction to frustration is to try

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 to solve the problem, perhaps by finding a way round the obstacle that prevents
the person from reaching the goal, perhaps by perceiving an alternative goal
which will satisfy the need – though probably not to the same extent. The
perception and achievement of an alternative goal is sometimes called
deprivation, because the individual, is deprived of the extra satisfaction goal he or
she would have gained if the original goal had been obtainable.

Frustration may also produce various forms of negative reactions. A negative

reaction may occur for various reasons:

(a) The goal being attempted seems unique and there appears to be no practicable
alternative.

(b) There is a strong emotional attachment to the goal.

(c) The individual is by nature prone to react negatively.

Negative reactions can take the following forms:

(1) Aggression: Is the most common reaction to frustration. It is an act against

someone or something. An employee who has been denied promotion may
become aggressive and verbally berate the superior. There are many forms of
aggression, the most common being:

i) Displacement – The aggression may be either towards the

sources causing frustration, or it may be displaced to other subject or objects.
The displaced aggression may be either towards a person or towards an
inanimate object. For example, a frustrated employee who is not able to abuse
superiors responsible for the frustration may attach his wife or child. If this is not
possible, he may kick an inanimate object such as door or table.

ii) Negativism – This is an act of passive or active resistance

operating consciously or unconsciously within an individual. For example
manager who has been unable to give out a committee assignment may opt to
side throw every suggestion made by others in the meeting.

iii) Fixation – The frustrated individual maintains a persistent non-

adjustive reaction even though all the clues indicate that the behaviour will not
cope with the problems following uneconomic procedures in doing work.

(2) Regression – This is a situation in which a frustrated person reverts to childish

behaviour e.g. sulking or tears.

(3) Resignation – This is giving up, apathy, withdrawal. For example, a person
disappointed in promotion may come late, leave early and avoid making
decisions.

17
(4) Withdrawal – This involves withdrawing from the scene causing frustration
anxiety or conflict, either physically or psychologically. Forms of withdrawal
include:

i) Fantasy – Is an act of day dreaming or other forms of imaginative

activity which provides an escape from reality and imagined satisfaction.

ii) Repression – Is an act of completely excluding from

consciousness impulses, experiences and feelings which are psychologically
disturbing because they arouse a sense of guilt or anxiety. For example, a
subordinate may ignore to tell the superior the circumstances of an embarrassing
situation.

iii) Flight – This is a more extreme form of withdrawal in which one

chooses to physically leave the field causing frustration. For example, an
employee may leave the job which is frustrating.

(5) Compromise – Here the individual may try to compromise with the situation
forming a relatively satisfactory adjustment. Forms of compromise may include:

i) Identification – Is the process through which a person takes on the

attributes of a model.

ii) Projection – The individual protects the self from the awareness of
one’s own undesirable traits or unacceptable feelings by attributing them to
others.

iii) Rationalization – The individual tries to justify inconsistent or

undesirable behaviour; beliefs, statement and motivation by providing acceptable
explanations for them.

iv) Reaction forming – In this form, urges not acceptable to

consciousness are repressed and instead opposite attitudes or modes of
behaviour are expressed with considerable forces.

Frustration at Work

Frustration may frequently occur among employees of an organization for the

following reasons:

a) Their methods and speed of work may be closely controlled and not what they
themselves would choose.

b) Their work may appear meaningless.

18
c) Their grievances and problems may not be dealt with speedily or adequately by
the management.

d) They may not be told or cannot understand the reasons for many management
decisions which affect them.

Reducing Frustration

The possibility of frustration at work can be reduced in the following ways:

a) Designing job to give them greater meaning.

b) Improving selection and training. A person will be more satisfied in jobs for which
they are suitable and for which they have been trained.

c) Recognizing effort and merit, thus providing satisfaction of higher needs.

d) Improving communication, consultation and disputes procedures so that potential

causes of frustration may be identified and removed as far as possible.

Classification of Motives

1. Physiological/biological/unlearned or Primary Motives – Include hunger,

thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex and material concern.

2. Competence or Capacity Motives – Are those motives which receive substantial

contributions from activities, which, though playful and exploratory in character, at
the same time show direct selectivity and persistence in interacting with
environment. Such motives are drives for curiosity and manipulation.

3. Secondary Motives – Are closely tied to the learning concepts. Such motives
are for power, achievement and affiliation.

4. Security Motive – Are concerned with the security regarding life, accident, love,
job etc.

5. Status or Prestige Motive – Is concerned with achieving status or rank in a

group, organization or society.

Types of Motivation

1. Positive or Incentive motivation – Involves the possibility of increased motive

satisfaction. It is generally based on reward. It is a process of attempting to
influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward. People
work for incentives in the form of the four P’s of motivation – Praise, Prestige,
Promotion and Pay Cheque.

19
2. Negative or Fear motivation – Involves the possibility of decreased motive
satisfaction. It is based on force and fear. Fear causes a person to act in a
certain way because they are afraid of the consequence, if they do not. If
workers do not work, they are threatened with lay-off or demotion. Fear
motivation is therefore a push mechanism.

Limitations of Negative or Fear Motivation

 Through its use, only the minimum effort is put in to avoid punishment.

 The imposition of punishment frequently results in frustration among those

punished leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour.

 Punishment creates a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude to

the job.

 May result in low productivity because it tends to dissipate such human

assets as loyalty, co-operation, etc.

Inspite of these demerits, negative motivation has been used to achieve the
desired behaviour as in the case of a riot. There is no management which has
not used the negative motivation at some time or the other. However, in recent
years, the trend has been towards the use of positive motivation.

3. Extrinsic Motivation – Is concerned with external motivations which employees

enjoy – pay, promotion, status, fringe benefits, retirement plans, health insurance
schemes, holidays and vacations etc. By and large, these motivators are
associated with financial rewards.

4. Intrinsic Motivation – Is concerned with the feeling of having accomplished

something worthwhile i.e. the satisfaction one gets after doing one’s work well.
Praise, responsibility, recognition, esteem, power, status, competition and
participation are examples of such motivation.

5. Self Motivation or Attitude Motivation– Before one can motivate others, one
must motivate oneself. One can motivate oneself by setting certain objectives
and goals before oneself.

6. Group Motivation – Others can be well motivated, when they are informed of
ideas, plans, innovations or systems. A group can be motivated by improving
human relations and dealing with people in a human way, by developing the will
to do, by encouraging people to feel involved in their work and by giving them an
opportunity to improve their performance and by complimenting or praising them.
Steps Involved in Motivation

20
1. Sizing up – Involves ascertaining motivated needs. All employees need
motivation but of varying kinds and in varying degrees. Stress must be laid up as
individual differences.

2. Preparing a set of motivation tools – This requires a selection of specific tools

of motivation. An executive may draw up a list of the devises that may motivate
different types of people under different circumstances.

3. Selecting and Applying motivators – The executive should decide about the
words, the tone of voice, the gestures etc to be used and make a necessary
rehearsal for their proper use. It has also to be considered where and when
motivation is to be applied. The place and timing for this purpose are important.

4. Feedback – This involves the finding out of whether an individual has been
motivated. If not, some other device may be applied.

Guiding Principles in Motivation

1. Variability – The methods of motivation should not be the same but should
change according to the circumstances, and also because no one set of
motivators will be effective for everybody or for the same person over a period of
time.

2. Self-interest and Motivation – People are by nature, selfish. When a person

realizes that his own interest are best served by the attainment of an
organization’s goals, he is likely to be motivated.

3. Attainability – It is necessary to establish goals which are reasonable and

attainable. When such goals are attained, employee satisfaction is achieved.
Unattainable goals often frustrate people.

4. Participation– The desirability of the participation of those to be motivated

ensures that their co-operation is enlisted. This reduces suspicion of a
management’s motivational aims.

5. Proportioning Rewards – Motivation should be in proportion to the efforts made.

6. The Human Element – Motivation appeals to the emotions. The executive who
is most successful as a motivator can trace his success in variably to his skill in
dealing with other people’s feelings.

7. Individual Group Relationships – Motivation must be based on group as well as

individual stimuli.

8. Situational – Motivation must be based on a sound managerial theory.

21
 Management Techniques Designed to Increase Motivation

Management generally use financial and non-financial motivation techniques to

motivate their employees.

1. Financial Motivators – Such motivation is connected directly or indirectly with

money, wages and salary, bonuses, profit-sharing, leave with pay, medical
reimbursement, etc are included under this type of motivation.

2. Non-financial Motivators – Are not connected with monetary rewards. Are the
psychic rewards or rewards of enhanced position that can be secured in the work
organization.

Some of the most commonly used non-financial motivators are:

(a) Appraisal, Praise or Recognition – When one does his/her work well, the
employee naturally wants to be praised and recognized by his/her boss and
fellow workers. Recognition satisfies human need for esteem by others and for
self-esteem. This recognition may be shown in the form of praise, or a
recommendation for pay raise, promotion, or assignment of more interesting
tasks.

(b) Status and Pride – Status refers to the social rank of a person and satisfies
social and egoistic needs. Good products, dynamic leadership, for treatment,
service to the community, ethical conduct and such other things serve to
stimulate an employee’s pride in his work and organization. This pride is
regarded as a powerful and valuable motivation towards higher productivity.

(c) Competition – Individuals do compete with one another in organizations if they

feel they have chances of wining and satisfying their ego. The person who is
adjudged the best is awarded the coveted prize.

(d) Delegation of Authority – An authority is the right to act, to direct and to

requisition resources needed to properly perform the job. The delegation of a
substantial amount of responsibility to execute a given task often proves to be a
strong motivating force.

(e) Participation – It implies the physical and mental involvement of the people in an
activity, especially in that of decision making. This satisfies one’s ego and self-
esteem and the needs of creativeness and initiative.

(f) Job Security – This implies that an employee would continue on the job in the
same plant or elsewhere, and that he/she shall enjoy economic and social
security through health and welfare programmes providing security against
sickness, unemployment, disability, old age and death.

22
(g) Job Enlargement – Is the process of increasing the complexity of the job in order
to appeal to the higher order needs of workers. This makes the job less
monotonous. Job enlargement motivates employees in so far as it reduces the
monotony of repetitiveness. It increases efficiency and interest in work because
fatigue is lessened.

(h) Job Rotation – It implies the shifting of an employee from one job to another so
that monotony and boredom are reduced. Here, workers learn to do all the
different activities necessary for an operation or unit of work.

(i) Job Loading – It implies making the job more interesting. The worker is
motivated because his job is more challenging and more meaningful. He is given
as much responsibility as possible and is encouraged to be accountable for
his/her work with little supervision.

Factors that Reduce Motivation of Workers (Disincentives)

1. Unsatisfactory bosses. Those who have no respect for work ability or

leadership, give responsibility without commensurate authority, do not give
decisions and support when needed.

2. Advancement is limited i.e. work is not really challenging, opportunity seems

blocked by blind adherence to sensitivity.

3. Poor pay e.g. outsiders brought in at a higher pay, inadequate compensation

plan.

4. Lack of recognition e.g. only get criticized, status symbols are overlooked.

5. Unsatisfactory working conditions e.g. too much travel, inadequate staff,

comfort factors overlooked.

6. Security threatened e.g. fear of merger, complacency about inroads in

competition.

Theories of Motivation

Understanding why people do things they do on the job is not an easy task for
the manager. Predicting their response to the Management’s latest productivity
programme is even harder. Managers need to motivate employees to join and
remain in the organization and to exhibit high attendance, job performance and
loyalty.

There are various theories which help to explain the motivational influences in
the person and these include needs and beliefs. These theories include:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

23
 Abraham Maslow believed that people satisfy their needs in a specific order from
the bottom to top. Maslow divided human needs into the following classes:

(i) Physiological or Basic needs – People must satisfy these needs just to keep
alive. They include food, water, sex, shelter and clothing. In the work
environment, the fundamental purpose of a wage or salary is to provide the
means of satisfying basic needs.

(ii) Security or Safety needs – Are concerned with self protection, avoidance to
harm and provision for the future. At work, the wish for security of tenure, the
existence of restrictive practices and many aspects of trade unions show how
employees try to satisfy needs of this kind.

(iii) Esteem or Ego needs – Include the need to become independent, to receive the
esteem of others, to dominate and acquire possessions, at work, a position of
authority, a company car, an office carpet or a special type of overall means by
which these needs are satisfied.

(iv) Self-actualization needs – comprises the needs to make the fullest use of one’s
capabilities to develop oneself and to be creative.

Self
actualization

Self-esteem
Social
needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

Fig. 4.2 – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

According to Maslow, people are motivated to satisfy the lower needs before they
try to satisfy the higher needs. Once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a powerful
motivation.

2. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivational Hygiene

24
 Herzberg’s divides the factors of the work environment into two classes:
Motivators or Satisfiers on the one hand and hygiene factors or maintenance
factors on the other. He developed this theory by analyzing the answer to two
basic questions, he and his collaborators put to engineers and accountants:

(a) What events at work have resulted in a marked increase in your job satisfaction?
(b) What events at work have resulted in marked reduction in your job satisfaction?

The replies showed that, in general, the experiences which were regarded as
exceptionally satisfying were not the opposite of those which were exceptionally
dissatisfying. For example, someone might say that a job is disliked because of
poor working conditions but very rarely would that person say that a job is liked
because of good working conditions. From his analysis, Herzeberg concluded
that the elements in a job which produced satisfaction were:

 Achievement.
 Recognition.
 Responsibility.
 Promotion prospects.
 Work itself.

He called these ‘motivators’ or ‘satisfiers’.

The elements whose absence or inadequacy in a job produced dissatisfaction

were:

 Pay.
 Relations to others.
 Type of supervision.
 Organization policy.
 Physical working conditions.
 Fringe benefits.

Herzberg called these hygiene factors (because, using the analogy of drains and
refuse collection, they made the job environment fit to occupy) or maintenance
factors (because they tended to maintain an employee on his or her job.

3. Alderfer’s ERG theory

Alder examined more recent evidence which caused him to reformulate Maslow’s
theory into three basic needs and refine Herzberg’s two factors or motivation –
hygiene theory into the following was:

25
(i) Existence Needs – are all material and physiological desires. Desires for
material substances are in finite supply, typically food, shelter and money. The
implications are that one person’s gain is another person’s loss.
(ii) Relatedness Needs – Involve relationship with other people and are satisfied
through the process of mutually sharing thoughts and feelings. This assumes
people desire to inform others and expect them to reciprocate.
(iii) Growth Needs – Involve the interaction of the person with the environment to
develop ability and capacity along lines which are most important to that person.
This assumes people seek to change their capacities according to their perceived
requirements.

Motivators
- Achievement
Growth - Recognition
- Challenging work
Full - Increased responsibility
creativeness - Growth & development

Egoistic
Needs

Relatedness

Social needs Hygiene factors

-Policies & administration
-Supervision
Safety needs -Working condition
Existence -Interpersonal
Relations.
-Money, status
Basic needs security

ALDERFER’S (MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEED) HERZBERG’S

ERG NEEDS THEORY

Fig. 4.3: Needs and Motivations: Three Important Theories

Like Maslow and Herzberg, Alderfer felt that there was value in categorizing
needs, but he viewed them more as a continuum. He disagreed with the ideas
that a lower need must be satisfied before a higher need and that deprivation is
the sole way to energize a need. The ERG theory proposes that several different
needs can operate at once.

26
 Regardless of whether the manager prefers the Maslow or the Alderfer version of
the need hierarchy, he or she can achieve significant motivation by offering
opportunities to satisfy self-actualization and growth needs.

4. Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

According to this theory, employee’s work efforts leads to some level of

performance. Their performance results in one or more outcomes for the
employee. This is shown by the figure below.

Effort Performance Outcome

Expectancy Instrumental

Fig. 4.4: Valence Expectancy Model.

The theory states that the effort to satisfy needs will depend on the person’s
perception that he or she can expect the effort to be followed by a certain
outcome which will bring desirable rewards. According to Vroom, an individual’s
behaviour is affected by:

a) What the person wants to happen

b) His or her estimate of the probability of the things happening

c) How strongly the person believes that the event will satisfy a need.

Individuals normally base their predictions of what will happen in the future on
what has occurred in the past. In consequence, new situations workers hire not
previously experienced cause uncertainty and thus may reduce employee
motivation, because individuals involved have no prior knowledge of the likely
consequences of altered circumstances.

Implication of Vroom’s Theory

a) Management should make clear to employees what exactly it expects from new
working practices.

b) Workers should be able to see a connection between their efforts and the
rewards these efforts generate.

27
 c) Rewards should satisfy workers’ needs.

d) Complicated reward schemes are unlikely to increase employee’s effort because

workers cannot relate harder work to higher wages.

5. McClelland’s Need theory

McClelland identified a number of basic needs that guide people. The most
important needs for managers, according to him, are the needs for achievement,
affiliation and power. The need for achievement is characterized by a strong
orientation towards accomplishment and obsession with success and goal
attainment. The need for affiliation reflects a strong desire to be liked by other
people. Individuals who have high levels of this need are more oriented towards
getting going with others and may be less concerned with performing at high
levels. The need for power is a desire to influence or control other people. Every
manager must remember that need hierarchies vary from organization to
organization that subordinates may not be motivated by the same needs as their
manager.

6. Job Design Theory

This involves satisfying needs through intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are
those that the worker derives directly from performing the job itself. An
interesting project, an intriguing subject that is fun to study, a completed sale to a
challenging customer, and the discovery of the perfect solution to a difficult
problem can all give people the feeling that they have done something well. This
is the essence of motivation that comes from intrinsic rewards. Jobs that are too
simple and routine, however, result in employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism and
turn over. Increasingly, jobs are being designed in a way that increases their
intrinsic rewards and therefore motivation.

7. Equity Theory (Advanced)

Is based on the principle that since there are no absolute criteria for fairness,
individuals generally assess fairness by making comparison with others in similar
situations. Therefore the motivation to put effort into a task will be influenced by
the individual’s perception of whether the rewards are fair in comparison to those
received by others. To assess fairness, an employee is likely to make a
comparison between the level of inputs and outputs they are making compared
to the level of input and output they consider the comparator to be making. It is
important for mangers to be aware of what employees perceive to be fair and
equitable and to recognize that this will vary from group to group.

For Human Resource Manager, equity theory illustrates how important it is to

provide a performance management reward system in which the outcomes are

28
 perceived by individuals to be relevant and to acknowledge the truth that different
employees value different things.

 Revision Questions

1. What are the three basic assumptions underlying the study of motivation?

2. Define frustration and illustrate how it may produce either positive or negative
reactions.

3. Describe the expectancy approach to motivation.

4. Outline the factors that reduce motivation of workers (disincentives).

5. What management techniques are designed to increase motivation?

6. Give out the guiding principles in motivation.

7. Analyze the ways of reducing frustration.

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4. COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENT

 Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define each element in the communication process;

2. Explain why communication is essential for effective
management;
3. Describe communication in organizations;
4. Explain how communication channels influence the quality of
management;
5. Explain how managers use communication to persuade and
influence others;
6. Discuss non-verbal communication and its importance in
organizations;
7. Compare situations in which informal and formal channels of
communication would be utilized;
8. Discuss how open communication and dialogue can enhance
team spirit and effectiveness; and
9. Identify the barriers to organizational communication and suggest
ways to avoid or overcome them.

Introduction

Managing people effectively requires an understanding by the manager of the

kind of power and influence required in order to get work done. The quality of
information flowing between the organization and the external environment
needs to be determined since this will affect the viability of the organization.
Managers on a daily basis work on information about things. This makes
communication to pervade the management functions of planning, organizing
and controlling. As such, without effective communication, it will not be possible
for the manager to effectively perform these functions.

The manager may be able to conceive very good ideals and plans, but these will
not serve any purpose if they are not passed on to the relevant people for
implementation. The management task is to get work done by and through
people (employees), and unless they have an idea about what is to be done and
the expected results, they cannot put the ideas of the manager into some
tangible result.

30
The purpose of communication includes coordinating action, sharing information,
reducing uncertainty and expressing emotion. Communication has been defined
as the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or
more people with the intent to motivate or influence behaviour. Communication
therefore helps the manager to influence and induce his subordinates towards
the accomplishment of predetermined goals. It allows for the unification of
organized activity and also the modification and change of behaviour. Through
communication therefore, information is made productive and goals of the
organization are achieved.

Communication Process

It is possible the think of communication as a simple process because many

people communicate without conscious thought or effort. However,
communication is usually complex and the opportunities for sending or receiving
wrong information are innumerable. To fully understand the complexity of the
process, the key elements of the communication process must be understood.
Since communication is the transfer or transmission of common understanding
through the use of symbols (verbal or non verbal), nothing can logically be called
information unless informs someone.

Figure 6.1: Communication Process

The above diagram represents the key elements of the communication process.
The two common elements in every communication situation are the sender and
the receiver. The sender is the one who wishes to convey an idea or concept, to
others information, or to express a thought or emotion. The receiver is the
person to whom the message is sent. The sender encodes the idea by selecting
the symbols with which to compose the message and put it in a meaningful form.
The message is the tangible formulation of the idea that is sent to the receiver. It
is the result of the encoding process and is thus what the sender hopes to
communicate, the form of which is determined by the channel to be used. This
message will be sent through a channel, which is the communication carrier. The
channel can thus be a formal report, a telephone call or a face-to-face meeting.

31
 It may also include some non-verbal communication such as a smile, a worried
expression, seating arrangements at a committee meeting, size and location of
an office, office furniture and fittings, etc. All these may indicate a person’s
power, status, position or friendliness. The interpretation of these non-verbal
ones cues is important for the decoding process. This is where the receiver
interprets the meaning of the message. It represents the thought process of the
receiver, since the receiver will interpret the message in the light of their own
previous experiences and frames of reference.

Decoding is thus the procedure that the receiver of a message uses to decipher
the message. Effective communication requires the communicator to an
anticipate the receiver’s decoding ability, to know where the receiver “comes
from” – that is, his frame of reference for interpretation of the message received.
This makes communication to be receiver oriented and not channel oriented.

Finally, feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender’s

communication with a return message. Without feedback, the communication is
one-way, but with feedback it becomes tow-way. Feedback is a powerful aid to
communication effectiveness, because it enables the sender to determine
whether the receiver correctly interprets the message sent. It decreases the
potential for distortion between the intended message and the received
message. A feedback loop provides a channel for receiver response, enabling
the communicator to determine whether the message has been received and if it
has produced the intended response. In any communication process, these may
be interfering factors that distort the intended message. These factors are
referred to as noise.

Communication Channels

Managers have a choice of many channels through which to communicate to

other managers or employees. A manager may discuss a problem face to face,
use the telephone, send an electronic message (e-mail), write a memo or letter,
or put an item in a newsletter depending on the nature of the message. A
communication channels physical characteristics limit the kind and amount of
information that can be conveyed among managers.

The channels available to managers can be classified into hierarchy based on

information richness. Channel richness is the amount of information that can be
transmitted during a communication episode. The capacity of an information
channel is influenced by three characteristics:-
a) The ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously.
b) The ability to facilitate rapid two-way feedback.
c) The ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.

Face-to-face is the riches channel, because it permits direct experience and

multiple information cues. It also gives immediate feedback and personal focus.

32
 Face-to-face also facilitates the assimilation of broad cues and deep emotional
understanding of the situation.

Telephone conversations and interactive electronic media such as voice mail and
electronic mail (e-mail) while increasing the speed of communication lacks the
element of personal focus. In recognition of the importance of this element to
ensure channel richness, interactive communication is nowadays taking to the
increased use of video conferencing.

Written channels that are personalized such as memos, notes and letters can be
personally focused but they convey only the cues written on paper and are slow
to provide feedback. Impersonal written channels such as fliers, bulletins and
standard computer reports are the lowest in richness. They are not focused on a
single receiver, use limited information cues and do not permit feedback.

It is important for managers to understand that each channel has advantages

and disadvantages, and each can be an effective means of communication in the
appropriate circumstances. Channel selection will therefore depend on whether
the message is routine or not. Figure 6.2 shows the continuum of channel
richness.
Disadvantages Advantages
 Impersonal -
Personal
 One way -Two-way
Formal Electronic Face-
 Slow- -Fast
Reports Mail to-face
feedback
Bulletins

Low Channel Richness High Channel

Richness

Advantages Disadvantages
 Provides record -No record
 Premeditated -Spontaneous
 Easily disseminated
 Easily disseminated Memos Telephon -Dissemination is
difficult Letters e

Figure 6.2: Continuum of Channel Richness – Adopted from Management by

Richard Daft. 5th Edition, pp. 570.
Flow of Communication

The design and structure of the organization should provide for communication in
four distinct directions: Downward, Upward, Horizontal and Diagonal. These four

33
 directions establish the network within which communication takes place in an
organization.

Downward communication flows from individuals at higher levels of the hierarchy

to those at lower levels. The most common downward communication are
instructions or commands, official memos, policy statements, procedures
manuals and publications. In many organizations, downward communication is
often both inadequate and inaccurate. The absence of job related information
creates unnecessary stress among organizational members.

1. Upward Communication

A high performing organization needs effective upward communication as much

as it needs effective downward communication. Effective upward communication
is difficult to achieve, especially in larger organizations. However, it is often
necessary for sound decision making. Formal upward communication includes
messages that flow from the lower to the higher levels in the organization’s
hierarchy. Most organizations take pains to build in healthy channels for upward
communication. Employees need to air their grievances, give progress reports
and provide feedback on management initiatives. Thus, when an organization
couples a healthy flow of upward and downward communication, it will ensure
that the communication circuit between managers and employees is complete.

2. Horizontal Communication

Often overlooked in the design of most organizations is the provision for the
horizontal flow of communication. This is the lateral flow of communication that is
necessary for the coordination of diverse organizational functions between
departments. Horizontal communication also informs and requests support
where teams of workers are continuously solving problems and searching for
new ways of doing things.

3. Diagonal Communication

This is the least used channel of communication in organizations. It is mainly

used in situations where organization members have been unable to
communicate effectively using other channels. The flow of communication
becomes diagonal when an individual prefers to move directly to the affected
level instead of using upward and then horizontal communication. This channel
will minimize the time and effort expended by the organization.

Informal Communication Channels

These exist outside the formally authorized and recognized channels. They do
not adhere to the organization hierarchy of authority, though they coexist with

34
formal communications. Informal channels cut across vertical chains of
command to connect virtually everyone in the organization. Managers
sometimes interact directly with workers in order to exchange information. This is
done by developing positive relationships with employees and learning directly
from them about their departments, divisions or sections. Rather than schedule a
formal meeting, the manager will go directly to the lowest level employee and
have an informal conversation. This style of informal communication is also
referred to as “Management By Waling Around”. It enhances both the upward
and downward communication, since the manager has a chance to describe key
ideas and values to employees and in turn learn about the problems and issues
confronting employees.

Another type of informal channel is the “grapevine”, which is a person-to-person

communication network of employees, that is not officially sanctioned by the
organization. The grapevine links employees in all directions, ranging from the
top management, middle, lower and even the shop floor workers or operatives.
The grapevine will always exist in an organization, but it can become a dominant
force when the formal are closed. In such cases, the grapevine is actually the
only source of information which employees use to fill in the communication gaps
to clarify management decisions. Informal channels are thus part and parcel of
the organizational process. Management should therefore minimize the adverse
effects of this channel may have to the organization.

Measuring Effectiveness of Communication

Communication is the lifeblood of an organization and without it the organization

cannot exist. As such, management should ensure that adequate and smooth
communication flows in all directions and it is effective as well. A periodic review
of the existing pattern of communication effectiveness should be made. This
review would on one hand reveal the direction in which the existing situation falls
short of organizational requirements and on the other, would reveal the
underlying forces responsible for the prevailing state of affairs and the remedial
actions necessary to remove these.

Communication is however one of the most difficult managerial activities to

measure. There are no qualitative and objective measures that show the
success or effectiveness. However, in evaluating communication, much can be
accomplished by a systematic approach to utilizing a planned method of
evaluation that looks for results in terms of stated objectives and takes into
account both success and failure. Any assessment of communication, as such,
requires the determination of the criteria for this evaluation and fixation of norms
in respect of these criteria. In general terms, the objective of communication may
be defined as the passing of ideas and understanding from the sender to the
target with the view to getting the desired behavioural response from the latter.
Finding out the actual behavioural responses and comparing these with the
expected ones, however, presents multiple difficulties because of the continuity
of the process.

35
 Effective communication as such will be the accurate transmission and receipt
and the correct understanding of the information. For this to happen, the
following key elements need to be evaluated to assess the effectiveness of
communication.

1. Clarity of Communication – The communication process must ensure

clarity by facilitating exchange of ideas. Clarity will exist when the
communication is expressed in a language and transmitted in a way that will be
comprehended by the receiver. The basic object of communication is to bring
two minds together and this will be possible only when what the sender means is
understood by the receiver in the same way.

2. Adequacy of Communication – This is in terms of both coverage and

quantity. The problem of determining adequacy in regard to coverage is covered
through a communication audit. This measures the information needs of various
groups of managers and employees and compares these with what has been
made available to them and in sufficient quantities.

3. Timing of Communication – The timeliness of any message affects its

utility to the receiver. The process of communication should not only ensure that
the message reaches the receiver but also that it reaches him when he requires
it. A suitable time span should thus ensure that the receiver has sufficient time to
respond effectively.

4. Integrity of Communication – This suggests that the purpose of

communication is to support understanding by the individuals in their achieving
and maintaining the co-operation needed to meet organizational goals. Effective
communication is thus a means to an end, and as such, its ultimate objective
goes beyond behavioural response to persuasion and convincing the receiver to
act accordingly.

Barriers in Communication

When the clarity of meaning and understanding are impaired, a breakdown in

communication results. A manager has the responsibility to develop effective
communication through minimizing the barriers that bring about the
communication breakdown. These barriers include:

1. Differing Frames of Reference – Individuals can interpret the

same communication differently depending on their previous experiences. This
comes about because of variations between the encoding and decoding

36
 processes. In any situation, individuals will choose that part of their own past
experiences that relates to their present experiences to help them form
conclusions and judgements.

2. Selective Perception – This occurs when people block out new

information, especially if it conflicts with what they believe. Thus, when a person
receives information, they will choose to hear only those parts that conform to or
reaffirm their beliefs. Information that conflicts with pre-conceived notions will
either not be processed or is distorted to confirm the pre conceptions. Selective
perception results in stereotyping, where individual has preconceived ideas about
other people and refuses to discriminate between individual and behaviours.
They will choose to hear only those things that confirm their stereotyped images.

3. Poor Listening Skills – This should consume about half of the time
that a superior and subordinate spend together. Failing to listen may result from
a host of personal habits. We speak at the rate of 100-200 words per minute,
read at two or three times our speaking rate and think several times faster than
we read. As a result, a listener can move through a discussion much faster than
a speaker can. Because of this, we tend to develop poor listening habits where
we fill in the gaps and make conclusions for ourselves without waiting for the
speaker to do this.

4. Value Judgements – In every communication, the receiver makes

value judgements by assigning an overall worth to a message prior to receiving
the entire communication. This judgement is based on the receiver’s: evaluation
of the sender, previous experience with the sender and the messages’
anticipated meaning.

5. Sourcing Credibility – This refers to trust, confidence and faith that

the receiver has in the words and actions of the communicator. The level of
credibility that the receiver assigns to the sender/communicator directly affects
how the receiver views and reacts to the words, ideas and actions of the
communicator.

6. Semantic Problems – Communication is the transmission of

information and understanding through the use of common symbols. However,
the symbols used are the ones that determine whether or not there will be
understanding. Unfortunately, the same words/symbols may mean entirely
different things to different people. The understanding of the message is in the
receiver not the words or symbols. Semantic problems arise due to unclarified
assumptions, faulty translations, lack of clarity and precision in a message and
use of technical or specialist’s language.

7. Filtering – This is a common occurrence in upward communication

in organizations. It amounts to manipulation of information so that the
information is perceived as positive by the receiver. Subordinated cover up

37
 unfavourable information in messages to their superiors. This is because
management makes merit evaluation, grants salary, increases and promotes
individuals based on what it received by way of the upward channel.

8. Time Pressure – Since managers do not have the time to

communicate frequently with their subordinates, there is usually a tendency to
short-circuit the formally prescribed communication system. In so doing,
someone who normally would be included in the system is left out of the formal
communication channel.

9. Information Overload – One of the necessary ingredients of

effective decision making is information. Because of the advances in technology,
difficulties may arise not from the absence of information, but from excessive
information. Because of too much information, managers cannot absorb or
adequately respond to all the messages directed to them. They end up
screening out majority of these messages without reading them.

Improving Communication in Organizations

As managers strive to become better communicators, they must first improve

their messages and then improve their own understanding of what other people
are trying to communicate to them. They must strive not only to be understood
but also to understand. Techniques of improving communication include:

1. Utilizing the grapevine – Since the grapevine operates with speed

and some subject in communication may not require the formal channel, the
manager use this channel to correct any negative information that may be flowing
through this informal channel. This would make the grapevine fast, efficient and
accurate in fulfilling people’s need to communicate. For management, it is likely
to have a stronger impact on the receiver because it is face to face and allows for
feedback.

2. Following Up – This involves assuming that you have been

misunderstood, and whenever possible, attempting to determine whether your
intended meaning was actually received.

3. Regulating Information Flow – Ensures an optimum flow of

information to managers thereby eliminating information overload. Both quality
and quantity of information are controlled.

4. Utilizing Feedback – this assists in two-way communication. It

provides a channel for the receiver to respond, enabling the sender to determine
whether the message has been received and has produced the intended
response.

5. Empathy– this is the ability to put oneself in the other person’s role
and to assume the viewpoints and emotions of that person. In involves being

38
 receiver oriented than sender oriented. The communication should depend more
on what is known about and by the receiver. Empathy requires the senders to
place themselves in the receivers’ position for the purpose of anticipating how the
message is likely to be decoded.

6. Appropriate Language – managers must remember that effective

communication involves transmitting, understanding, and if the receiver does not
understand, there will be no communication. Use of technical jargon, for
example, should be restricted to professionals on the particular technical area.

7. Effective Listening – a good communicator must be a good

listener too. It is important for the sender to remember that lack of attention is
what is being said is one of the major problems occurring in any conversation. A
person must therefore:

 Listen carefully to key issues and questions.

 Check to determine whether you understand what has
been communicated.
 Jot down key points and what the next step or course of
action will be.

References
1. Cole G. A. (1993). Management, Theory and Practice.

2. Donnelly, J. M., Gibson J. L. and Ivancevich J. M. (1990). Fundamentals of

Management 7th Edition. Richard D. Irwin Inc.

3. Daft R. L. (2000). Management

39
 6. STRESS MANAGEMENT

Stress is the experience of unpleasant over stimulation or under stimulation,

which actually leads to ill health.

Causes of Stress

At the Individual Level

 Unrealistic expectations of oneself.

 Inability to manage time efficiently.
 Personal disorganization.
 Feelings of personal inadequacy and insecurity.
 Underestimation or overestimation abilities.
 Frustrations at not being able to get things done.
 Not knowing which tasks should assume priority and thus trying
(unsuccessfully) to complete all of them simultaneously.
 Need to be in control.
 Inability to delegate duties.
 Inability to set limits for example by saying NO!
 Financial matters.
 Career change.
 Death of spouse, close relative or friend.
 Marriage, separation or divorce.
 Injury or sickness.
 Loss of job or retirement.
 Overwork which may be quantitative (having too much work to do) or
qualitative (finding work too difficult). Moreover long working hours are frequently
connected with a poor diet, lack of exercise and inadequate relaxation.

At the Interpersonal Level

 Bad personal relationship with other workers.

 Being required to fulfill other expectations.
 Demand for perfection from family or superiors.
 Lack of autonomy at work.
 Dealing with aggressive or manipulative people.
 Lack of respect from others.
 Being taken for granted.
 Not being involved in decision making.

Organizational level

 Lack of communication with superiors and conflicting demands placed on

the individual by superiors who impose incompatible goals.
 Unclear job descriptions and organization charts/manuals leading to
ambiguity about who should do what.

40
 Working with an inexperienced staff.
 Lack of clarity and agreement about the values and goals of the
organization.
 Lack of positive and or critical feedback to employees.
 Inadequate staffing for the job.
 Lack of team or organizational identities.
 A highly competitive system.
 Conflict between two incompatible roles resulting in ambiguity, conflict and
dissonance.
 Organizational change.

At the Community Level

 Inadequate local services.

 Noise pollution.
 Traffic congestion.
 Lack of a sense of direction in the community.
 High crime rates.
 Lack of space in buses and parking space.

At the Cultural Level

 Racial, religions, gender prejudice and discrimination.

 Rigid expectations of certain types of behaviour from people according to
their gender, class or status irrespective of their individuality.

At the National Level

 Government policies affecting defence, the economy, unemployment,

public services, taxation and rates.
 Civil unrest.
 National disasters.
 Threat of war and the actual war.

At the International Level

 Difficulties in understanding different values, politics and cultures.

 Migration.
 War and disaster in other countries.
 Environmental damage affecting large parts of the entire planet e.g.
Nuclear threat.

At the Universal Level

 The experience of being vulnerable.

 Accepting the frailty of the human body.
 Having to sacrifice some individuality to function in a group partnership or
team.

41
 The transition that must be experienced as one grows older.
 Spiritual ambiguities.
 The comparative insignificance of the individual human within the
universe.
 The inevitability of death.

From the various levels a t which stress develops within an individual, it is

apparent that stress is triggered not by the external problems faced by individuals
but by the way they cope or fail to cope with those problems. Most people can
cope with a variety of pressures in their lives and many seem to thrive on
pressure especially at work. It is when individuals fail to deal adequately with
pressure that symptoms of stress appear. In the short term they can be
manifested in such conditions as indigestion, nausea, headaches. Stress
eventually leads to reduced employee performance at work, increased sickness,
absence and may ultimately lead to early death.

The Various Stages and Manifestations of Stress

With time, stress builds up in stages and each one of these stages is
characterized by different signs. The common occurrence of negative
experiences intensifies stress on the individual. This eventually destroys the
worker unless stress therapy or counselling is administered in good time.

The various stages and the warning signs in every stage are outlines hereunder.

Stage One

 A lot of energy and enthusiasm.

 Over-conscientious and feeling over-worked.
 Feelings of uncertainty.
 Doubts about coping.

Warning signs in stage one

 Too busy to take holidays.

 Reluctant to take days off.
 Taking work home.
 Too little time with partner/family.
 Frustrated with results.
 Unable to refuse more work.

Stage Two

 Short lived bouts of imitation.

 Tiredness and anxiety.
 Feelings of stagnation.
 Blaming others.

42
 Warming signs in stage two

 Complaints about the quality of other people’s work.

 Unable to cope with pressure of work commitments.
 Working long hours.
 Unable to manage time efficiently.
 Too many social or work commitments.

Stage Three

 General discontent.
 Increasing anger/resentment.
 Lower self esteem.
 Increasing guilt.
 Lack of emotional commitment.
 Apathy.

Warning signs in stage three

 Lack of enjoyment of life.

 Extreme exhaustion.
 Reduced commitment to work.
 Reduced commitment at home.

Stage Four

 Withdrawal.
 Illness.
 Feelings of failure.
 Extreme personal distress.

Danger signs in stage four

 Increasing absenteeism.
 Avoiding colleagues.
 Reluctance to communicate.
 Increasing isolation.
 Physical ailments.
 Alcohol or drug abuse.

The fourth stage is a dangerous burn-out print. The person has no reserves left
to cope with any added pressure and the slightest additional stress may cause
mental or physical breakdown.

43
 Note that symptoms of stress can be physical, psychological and or behavioural.
Physical manifestation include restlessness, hyperactivity, impatience, high blood
pressure, headaches, weight loss and skin complaints. Illness which result from
effects of stress are like:

 Excessive smoking.
 Drinking.
 Poor diet.
 Severe exhaustion.
 Cramp.
 Backache.

Anxiety, is the clearest indicator that someone is unable to cope with stress
because it affects the abilities to concentrate and relax, creates amiability and
generates feelings of malaise and unease. Perceptions of stress-ridden
individuals can be affected among them become more irrational, emotionally
volatile and excessively suspicious. Employees who experience stress-created
fatigue will be dull, clumsy, unable to think clearly or perform work for long
periods.

Controlling or Coping with Stress

1. Training in personal assertion and or psychological self-awareness methods such

as transactional analysis.

2. Restructuring jobs or duties in order to remove exceptionally stressful elements

(which should then be redistributed equally among all the staff).

3. Delegation of duties to subordinates to avoid work overload.

4. Keeping a tress diary to record all stressful occurrences and hence identify
common causes.

5. Deciding in advance when to withdraw from particularly stressful activities; for

example, making a conscious predetermined decision to leave a meeting if
certain contentious issues are discussed, or specifying a maximum personal
workload and never exceeding this.

6. Participation in decision making helps prevent stress by encouraging the

development of a social support networks among coworkers that is social support
networks help people cope effectively with the stresses they experience on the
job.

7. Deciding on priorities and goals.

8. Planning by obtaining the right information or resources to achieve a given

objective or solve a problem.

44
 9. One can utilize other people around them by asking for help or advice, asserting
to them your wants and needs and also challenging the person causing the
stress.

10. Active distraction at the organization/system by:

 Telling people in power one’s views.
 Helping people in power to make a case for change.
 Joining a particular group such as a Christian group.
 Conversing about topics not related to sources of stress.
 Helping someone else to avoid stress.
 Engaging in activities that keep one mentally and physically busy.
 Regular physical experiences.

11. Self nurturing as a way of controlling or coping with stress can be through:
 Taking proper breaks.
 Relaxation programmes that is getting away from stressors/stressful
situation.
 Rest over holidays and weekends.
 Eating proper meals.
 Restricting intake of alcohol, caffeine and nicotine.
 Having something special (out of routine).
 Meeting friends.
 A hot bath.
 Taking a sauna.
 Taking a massage.

12. Emotional expression

Expressing one’s feelings verbally thus unburdening to a friend, colleague or
counselor, writing down one’s uncensored feelings then tearing up the paper ,
joining a support group, engaging in cathartic behaviour such as crying thereby
letting off stem without abusing anyone, sweating or shouting into a pillow or in
the privacy of a car. The activity of getting emotional expression such as writing
poetry, painting, writing essays, sculpting, playing a musical instrument, signing,
dancing or sporting, dart, scrabble, solving mathematical puzzles and reading
humorous books or jokes. Every person suffers from stress at sometime but
learning certain skills to manage stress enables one to function effectively hence
helps cope with current stresses in life.

Stress is the result of a mismatch between the challenges experienced and belief
in one’s ability to cope. The challenges may come from external sources and
may be the result of too much or too little pressure. They may also come from
within and be a product of own value systems, needs and expectations. Out of
our diverse personal histories and backgrounds, we perceive and interpret things
in different ways.

45
 Performance Health Tension

Burnout

Breakdown for health

Amount of Pressure

Figure 7.1: The Human Function Curve.

Moderate stress is good for and can improve performance, efficiency and
productivity. Too much stress may generate disabling emotions such as
overwhelming anxiety and tension, difficulty in thinking clearly and a wide range
of behaviour responses.

The human function curve highlights the concepts of healthy tension. The
upward curve operates when one feels good, perform well and can easily cure
tiredness by periods of rest. The downward curve represents the slope towards
burnout. Burnout is a progressive condition characterized by loss of energy and
purpose.

Burnout is a syndrome of physical and emotional exhaustion. It involves

development of negative job attitudes and loss of concern, that is loss of feelings
for those who one works with or is close to.

What can a manager do to help employees suffering from stress?

 Change individual’s job responsibilities (give more or reduce

responsibilities).

46
  Provide greater opportunities for personal autonomy in the course of
performing the job.
 Provide appropriate training in relevant areas of duty.
 Stop any form of bullying and sexual/tribal harassment.
 Improve physical working conditions.
 Relocate employees to another office or region.
 Provide counselling facilities and services.
 Organizing group workshops on stress.
 Availing sports facilities and social facilities.
 Encouraging relaxation session.

 References
1. Cole G. A. (1993). Personnel Management: Theory and Pracitce, DP
Publication, London.

2. Schuler R. S. (2000). Managing Human Resources: A Partnership Perspective:

South-Western College Publishing, United States of America.

3. Graham H. T. (1998). Human Resources Management. Pitman Publishing,

Great Britain.

4. Cole G. A. (1993). Management: Theory and Practice. D.P. Publication,

London.

5. Chin-Ning Chu (1997). Thick Face Black Heart. Nicholas Brealey Publishing,
London.

6. Mulligan (1988). The Personnel Management. Handbook, Warner Books.

47
 6.2 TIME MANAGEMENT

Time is a resource which gets depleted constantly and often without one being
aware of it. High achievers function within stringent time pressures which low
achievers do not necessarily give appropriate time to their activities. When one
wants to achieve even if one is hard pressed for time, one learns to use every
minute judiciously. Personal competencies, skills and abilities should match with
job demands and fit within reasonable working hours.

Time management is therefore about the effectiveness and efficiency of what you
do and how you do it.

Characteristics of Time

1. Time is irretrievable i.e. after time has passed it is gone forever.

2. It is fixed i.e. it is inelastic and cannot be extended. The twenty –four hours
available per day is the same time available for everybody.
3. Time is a resource as the saying goes time is money.
4. To waste time is to waste life.

Essential requirements of good time management include: -

1. Clear objectives or goals

2. Careful forward planning
3. The definition of priorities and action
4. The ability to delegate successfully.

Note that for one that achieves effective time management he/she should be able
to: -

1. Establish the key tasks i.e. the most important tasks

2. Set your objectives i.e. the achievements you are trying to attain in the key
post.
3. Identify performance standards i.e. the quantifiable measure of the
objectives.
4. Identify constraints i.e. things standing in the way of your objectives.
5. Decide on action plans i.e. ways of removing the constraints.

Factors Affecting Time Management

The Nature of the Job

The managers/workers allocation of time over a given task may be determined by

the nature of work. For example, a person whose job involves regular contracts
with others may experience unforeseen interruptions but someone whose work is
of solitary nature normally has a lot of time.

48
 Similarly, a person who is employed in a new and developing job is more likely to
suffer from conflicting priorities and unpredictable events than someone working
in an established position where predictability and routine can easily be
determined.

Requirements of the Office Bearer

It is necessary to consider what the individual job holder has to do in order to

fulfill tasks in their order of priority. Some jobs call for administrative skills and a
sound knowledge of organization procedures others demand social skills and
sensitivity to people’s needs- yet others require technical and specialized
knowledge and the ability to apply it. Individuals therefore need to examine the
processes associated with their jobs to enhance personal alignment to the job for
efficient time utilization

Time Wasters

In the various functions of management, time wasting factors have been

identified at each functional level. These time wasters are outlined at each
function. One goes through the list of time wasters at each functional level. It is
prudent to consider a practical counter measure for each time waster.

Planning Functions

1. Lack of clearly achievable objectives or no objectives at all.

2. Pending or in finished tasks over the day, over the week or over longer
times.
3. Shifting priorities thus lack of clear order of priorities.
4. Crisis management. A crisis is a turning point for better or for worse.
Crisis management involves removal of the risks uncertainty from a given
situation and thereby allows one to be more in control of one’s destiny.
5. Lack of deadlines thereby giving a learner to stray to other less important
and time wasting matters.
6. Unrealistic time estimates for example too much time estimated or
allocated to tasks that could have been accomplished in less time.
7. Attempting to do too much work at once that biting too much than one can
chew.

Organizing Functions

In the course of the organizing function the following are common time wasters.

1. Personal disorganization well –exemplified by stacked desks.

2. Duplication of effort.
3. Confused responsibilities and authority. This results in uncertainty when
responsibilities assigned or delegated may not be commensurate with authority.

49
4. The existence of multiple bosses. This ultimately leaves the subordinate
in a dilemma and not very sure of what to do.

Directing Function

1. Lack of initiative makes an individual waste time while waiting for single
direction and guidance for the superior.
2. Lack of effective delegation. This leaves subordinates uncertain of the
extent the delegated tasks. Similarly the superior officer would also waste a lot of
time handling petty tasks that ought to be delegated to those working below.
3. Involvement in routine details that could have been handled by the junior
far down the line.
4. Inability to manage conflict and poor human relations in the work place. A
lot of time is therefore wasted by workers as they attempt to sort out their
differences.
5. Failure to cope with change or resistance to change. The change may be
technological attitudinal or otherwise and lack of acceptance to change may
consume a lot of time since the officer and other workers may cling to lengthy
methods of doing things or thinking about whether to accept change or not.
6. The “do it myself” syndrome. This results from lack of trust of one’s
juniors thereby making a lot of work pile and wasting time.

Controlling Function

1. Frequently receiving and making telephone calls.

2. Frequent official and unofficial visitors.
3. Lack of standards or progress report. This makes the workers take the
time they would want in doing their job.
4. Overlooking poor performance. This may result in repetition of the same
job in search of thoroughness but time will already have been wasted.
5. Compiling incomplete briefs/information thereby resulting in wrong
decision making after which the same thing may be repeated all over again in
search of thoroughness hence wasting time.
6. Inability to says “no” when necessary to do so.
7. Over controlling people and activities. This wastes time.

Communication Styles

1. Meetings. Too many meetings especially those with insufficient or

insignificant agenda should be avoided. Meetings should be well planned and
expected participants’ timed as a matter of necessity.

2. Telephone. Calling i.e. calls without a clear aim should be avoided.

Callers’ should not be encouraged to continue talking out of context and
relevance.

50
3. Under communication or over communication would misuse time optimum
communication is a time saver.

4. Failure to listen.

Decision Making Process

1. Procrastination and indecision. Postponing issues can be both time

wasting and can cause work backlog. This usually happens due to inability to
make decisions within an acceptable time limit.
2. Tendency to ask for all the facts. Some of which may not be necessary at
a certain time.

3. Holding everything to standstill waiting decision by committees

Effective Time Management

To enhance effective time management a re-organization of oneself and the

approach to day-to-day functions is necessary so that tasks for the day and for
the week are accomplished within the most reasonable time. Time management
is part of self- management and it is as much as attitude and philosophy of life as
a mechanical exercise in clock watching.

What follows hereafter attempts to focus on the time spent on work-related

activities particularly those occurring at the office. How one spends one’s work
life can be influenced if a logical sequence of steps is followed.

Setting Clear Goals/Objectives

The first step in effective management of time is setting clear goals or objectives
that is what is to be achieved. Both personal and organizational goals provide
both a basis for decision and criteria for measuring efficiency. As an employee
within an organization one is expected to meet certain responsibilities that
commensurate to the position held. As an individual one also brings certain
personal goals for example sociability to the job work life is spent in meeting the
organization demands and personal needs in such a way that a mutual benefit is
derived.

It is therefore an accepted fact that people achieve goals by meeting their job
responsibilities. However, many hours are spent during a work-week on activities
that are personally satisfying but contribute little or nothing at all to the
organization’s objectives, for example the prolonged time spent in the lounge, in
the smoker room, on the telephone. A good manager or worker should be able
to sort out the imbalance between job related activities and personal activities.

Careful Forward Planning and Scheduling of Activities

51
 An effective manager knows how time should be spent in the course of executing
duties. He/she therefore exerts some control on time spending in the
organization.

 Interesting activities - these may or may not be related to activities

which contribute to organizational goals and job responsibilities. It is the role of
the manager to cultivate and maintain an interest in work and also control time
spent on “ non productive” but interesting tasks at a time when his/her energy is
at a peak to ensure their completion.

 Well-done activities - there is a natural tendency to carry over the old

well done activities to new job/appointment or to regard – them as part and
parcel of the new job. But effective managers accepts new responsibilities and
develops the skills necessary to perform them by discarding old activities and
commitments if inappropriate and literally forces themselves to go through the
agonies of the past job/appointment. This consequently saves time and effort in
addition to skill development

 Short time activities - short time routine activities force out long –range
planning action, for example it is characteristic of the manager to answer the
phone if it rings or to pick up a memo and read it rather than to spend time
planning for next month or next year. For effective management long term
planning should not be suspended at he expense of the short time activities
that they will never be accounted for.

 Pleasurable activities - these are activities that may bring pleasant

results. Actions leading to immediate rewards will take precedence over long
range ones. For example taking coffee with friends may be preferred to drinking
the same stuff alone even though it takes more time. The effective manager gets
time for some sacrifice other activities for the long-range reward. He /she
anticipates will be unpleasant as soon as possible to minimize the possibility that
drastic action will be required if postponed. This reduces the time spent in
worrying about how great the unpleasantness may be.

 “Never have time” syndrome - it is a common cry that, “I never have to

do what I should do or what I want to do”. This is often correct. This trap may be
brought about by spending time on activities that are not related to the job at
hand. This can be the result of ill-defined objectives or due to failure to accept
responsibilities persistence in old work habits may be another cause of not
having time. One could have been successful in his previous job when following
those old patterns but is reluctant to change to new working styles. This is
particularly in appropriate when the shift is from doer to manager. In this
particular case an NCO who is commissioned to an officer should clearly realign
to the new requirements of the job.

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 Time consciousness - a manager who is faced by ever- increasing
demands on time should realize that he/she cannot do every thing to everybody
hence must decide how to spent his time so as to yield the greatest reward to the
organization and to one. One must plan and zealously guard time.

 Handling decision - one remarkable time robber is in decision. To arise

at a decision may managers vacillate, procrastinate or in other ways refuse to
decide. Indecision wastes time and instills worry. A worrisome person gets
tired even before starting his /her day’s work. Decisions should be made in good
time to facilitate correction if it was a wrong decision. Postponing a decision may
be the waste alternative a manager could choose. It is understandable that
managers who are unsure of their authority would be reluctant to make decisions.
Job descriptions should explicitly clarify decision-making responsibilities. This
will prevent managers from avoiding or delaying decision because others are
involved.

 Fear for mistakes - a manager who is afraid of the consequences of

mistakes is a timid manager. Experience may have shown hat despite high-
sounding phrases to the contrary, the boss simply does not like mistakes so the
smart boys do not stick their necks out. Fear of failure may so immobilize a
manager that he/she is prevented not only from making decisions but also from
delegating work afraid that mistakes made by subordinates will reflect on him/her.
Thus the error avoidance culture percolates down through the ranks.

 Setting deadlines - it is common for managers to fail to set deadlines on

other decisions and tasks. The imposition of due dates is mandatory for time
management when delegating a task or scheduling the steps to be taken,
towards the accomplishment of an objective, it is advisable to set deadlines. No
delegation is complete until the assignment has been defined, the person
responsible notified and the deadline set. An assignment will almost always be
completed sooner if it has a deadline than if it has not. Deadlines are therefore
time savers.

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  References
1. Cole G. A. (1993) Management. Theory and Practice D. P. Publication. London.

2. Mulligan John (1988). The personal Management Handbook. Warner Books.

3. Singhal (1994) Senior Management – The Dynamics of Effectiveness. Sage

Publication.

4. Manlins Lurie J. (1996) Management and Organization Behaviour. Pitman’s

London.

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 7. GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONS

A group refers to two or more persons who interact for a common explicit
purpose. Such persons are jointly characterized by a sense of collective identity
and shared goals. A group can be defined as two or more people who interact
with and influence each other towards a common purpose. A group can thus be
said to be a number of persons who communicate with one another often over a
span of time and who are few enough so that each person is able to
communicate with others face-to-face. The group should thus be a small unit so
that the members are in a position to communicate with each other easily and is
based on their activities, interactions and sentiments.

Groups are not static entities since they are continuously changing and adjusting
themselves within among individual members. Man being social by nature will
naturally tend to join groups for reasons such as security, status, self-esteem,
power, affiliation and goal achievement. A group is therefore a number of
individuals assembled together or having some unifying relationship. They share
a set of norms and generally have differentiated roles that they pursue jointly.

Group Dynamics

This is concerned with the interactions and forces between group members in
social situations. The focus of this interaction is on the members in social
situations. The focus of this interaction is on the members of both formal and
informal groups in organizations. It is concerned with gaining knowledge of
groups, how they develop and their effect on individual members and the
organizations in which they function. Group dynamics therefore describes how a
group should be organized, conducted and how they affect individual members,
other groups and the organizations.

Principles of Group Organizations

A group can work effectively only if its members stick to certain desired norms.
These norms are termed as the principles and include:

i. If a group is to be used effectively as a medium of change, those

who are to be changed and those who wield the influence for change must have
a strong sense of belonging to the same group i.e. the barrier between the leader
and the led should be broken down.

ii. The more attractive a group is to its members, the greater the
influence it would exercise on its members. If attitudes, values or behaviour are

55
 relevant as a basis of attraction to the group, the group will wield a tremendous
influence over them.

iii. The greater the prestige of a group member in the eyes of other
members, the greater the influence he will exercise on them.

iv. Successful efforts to change individuals or sub parts of a group

would result in making them conform to the norms of the group.

v. Strong pressure for changes in a group can be established by

creating a shared perception by members for the need for change, thus making
the source of the pressure for change to lie within the group itself.

vi. Information relating to the need for change, plans for change and
the consequences of change must be shared by all the members of a group.

vii. Changes in one part of a group produce a strain on other related

parts which can be reduced only by eliminating the change or by bringing about
readjustment in the related parts.

Types of Groups

There are two types of groups, formal and informal. Formal group membership
and existence is determined by assignment. The Organization in which we work
is a formal one. If several subordinates are assigned a task of generating a
proposal, they become members of a formal group. Typically, formal groups
have leaders assigned to them. After the formal Organization is established, an
informal structure evolves naturally through the interaction of participants.
Informal groups are created in the Organization because of the operation of
social and psychological forces operating at the workplace. They arise naturally
within the formally established Organization. Informal groups may fulfill needs for
the workers and provide a positive benefit for the Organization. In some cases it
may not. Informal groups may have no goals other than socialization, that is,
introducing and familiarizing the members with the norms of the Organization.
The informal group is spontaneous and dynamic. It is an emergent Organization
that is best represented by influence and structure rather than the authority of
hierarchy of an Organization.

Members of the informal groups tend to subordinate some of their individual

needs to those of the group as a whole. In return, the group supports and
protects them. Informal groups may further the interests of the Organization, for
instance, games may strengthen the player's ties to the Organization.
Organization choirs may increase identification with the Organization. Informal
groups may also oppose organizational regulation e.g. clocking in. The goals of
the informal Organization may run counter to the organization’s goals, for
example, to undermine Organization policy or spread misinformation.

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 The Organization can influence the development of informal groups, for example,
a no fraternization policy would inhibit informal group development. Workplace
design, seating arrangements, work parties, and lunch rooms usually contribute
to the development of informal groups. Our challenge as employees of the
Organization is to ensure that our membership to informal groups is used for
enhancing commitment and dedication to work. We should not allow ourselves
to be influenced by the group beliefs and drives to an extent where our work
standards go down hence interfering with our contribution towards the realization
of organizational objectives.

Formation of Groups

Groups arise from the interaction of people. Major factors influencing group
formation include the following:
 Physical proximity at work encourages people to communicate with one
another quite often. This enhances familiarity among workers.
 Safety and security consideration may bring the employees together.
Employee groups often discuss such matters as job security. Such aspects as
redundancy, summary dismissal, suspension, written or verbal warnings and
hostile supervisors could initiate group formation. Insecure employee may form
groups that work on survival strategies and suggestions that such employees
groups are anti-management.
 Unsatisfactory communication between management and workers is
the major cause of "Grapevine" among workers. Grapevine is an informal
transmission of information or rumour. It encourages the formation and
effectiveness of informal groups.
 The need for socialization among workers may give rise to informal
groups. Groups formed for the sake of affiliation, among workers are unlikely to
affect management adversely.
 Employees may form informal groups out of common financial
experiences, for, example, low wages, low house allowance and promotion
prospects. They discuss these problems among themselves.
 Similar or same backgrounds for example ethnic background, level of
education, out of-job interests, religion. If their existence interferes with the
status quo (performance of official duties) they can be counterproductive.

Characteristics of Groups

Groups develop patterns of interaction and behaviour that tend to be repetitive

thereby constituting the structure and characteristics of the group.

1. Size: Size plays a significant role in the way a group functions. A small
group of two to four members generally demonstrates agreement and solicitation
of opinions from members. This results in group cohesion. When compared to
larger groups, small groups tend to reach agreement more often and encourage
all members' inputs. Members of small groups also tend to be more satisfied. As
groups increase in size, absenteeism and turnover increase, communication

57
 begins to break down and satisfaction is reduced. In large groups, a few talkative
members may dominate. Cliques may form and agreement may become quite
difficult.

The ideal group size is four to seven members but the objective for the group
should determine the size. For every member to participate, a small group is
best. For diversity of opinions, a larger group (eight members) may be
appropriate. As the group size increases, the group becomes more cumbersome
and difficult to manage.

2. Cohesion: This is the closeness of the members to each other and to the
group. A good example is a football team where members are drawn together to
win. Each member understands his or her role and the interrelationship of that
role to the roles of others. Successful football teams end to exhibit high levels of
cohesion. Raising the prestige of the group within the Organization, developing a
cooperative environment and fulfilling the needs of group members can facilitate
group cohesion. Cohesion may also be realized when members have similar
values and backgrounds. Cohesion may also result from an external threat to the
group.

3. Norms: These are essentially the rules that establish standards for behaviour
in the group. For example, the group resolves on how to deal with members who
fail to follow the rules. Norms tend to develop gradually. Group members vary in
the importance they place on group norms.

4. Roles: These are sets of behaviours associated with a position in the group.
In a formal group, one's role is generally set by one's job. Informal group roles
can be identified as outlined as follows: Task-related roles: These facilitate goal
attainment of the group. Examples of such roles are generating ideas, solving
problems, coordinating or evaluating. Maintenance-related roles are those
pertaining to perpetuation of the group like supporting and encouraging others in
the group, facilitating group communication, reducing tension when it arises and
providing feedback. Self-related roles address the needs of the members without
consideration of the group. Boasting, resisting, avoiding and manipulating are
self related roles and if not addressed in time by the group could be dangerous to
the continuity of the group.

5. Conformity: This is the degree to which members adhere to the rules of the
group. Conformity is necessary for the group to accomplish anything.
Procedures and rules allow communication to flow and the group is enabled to
achieve its goals. Groups where all the members conform to a single opinion
may not be as effective as groups with more diversity of opinions and ideas.
When a group is demonstrating high levels of cohesion and conformity,
groupthink may occur. Characteristics of groupthink are; ridicule of critics,
illusions of invulnerability and overestimation of the likelihood of success on a
risky plan. A delicate balance, therefore, becomes critically necessary.

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6. Goals: These constitute the hub around which all the activities in the group are
centred. The individual's commitment to the group is primarily a function of the
consistency between ones goals and those of the group.

7. Reward and Punishment Systems: These are established as means of getting

individuals to conform to group norms and support group goals and values.
Rewards may involve leadership and respect while punishment may involve
ridicule and isolation.

8. Informal Leadership: A feature of all groups is that informal leaders emerge to

influence group activity and are looked upon by other members in time of crisis or
at key decision points. But a leader is not normally the same in all situations.
Leaders may come up on the basis of age, seniority, knowledge and charisma.

9. Status Relationship: As individual members become aware of each other

through group processes, they attribute certain competencies to their colleagues
resulting in a status structure within a group.

10. Communication Network: Intimacy of group members makes communication

open and rapid. The grapevine spreads both fact and rumour.

11. Decision Making Process: Strong informal leaders tend to dominate the decision
making process. In groups with well educated members, analytical approach is
characteristic.

Stages of Group Development

1. Orientation. The first activities to occur in a group are establishing the goal of
the group and formulating the tasks required for a goal attainment. Rules and
roles are established. Members develop the identity for the group. A leader is
chosen or one emerges during this phase.

2. Differentiation. The group members become more familiar with one another.
They also become more familiar with the task of the group. Group members
begin to confront problems and attempt to solve them. Interpersonal conflict and
competition tend to arise during this phase as a result of diverse backgrounds,
individual needs and expectation of group members. This is a crucial stage
where members must resolve the conflict or the group may never advance from
here.

3. Integration. Interpersonal relationships tend to exhibit increased cohesion,

which occurs when the group resolves the conflicts of the earlier stage. This
enables them to address and evaluate the task. Discussions tend to be open,
frank and problem focused. Groups can become dysfunctional if cohesion leads
to "groupthink". This is a process characterizing highly cohesive groups that do

59
 not engage in critical thinking. It is also characterized by making decisions
without obtaining relevant information and considering alternatives.

4. Maturity. At this final stage, members recognize the importance of the norms.
They become free to generate alternative ideas or to accept ideas from outside
the group and integrate the ideas into group activities.

Characteristics of Well Functioning Groups

Environmental Influence

 Team members are in close physical proximity and able to meet regularly.
 The appropriate skills are represented in the team.
 The approximate levels of organizational authority are present within the team

Goals and Objectives

 Team members are involved in the setting of objectives.

 All individuals agree with objectives.
 Objectives are set and met within realistic time frames.

Roles

 Roles are clearly defined and do not overlap.

 Team members and their leaders clearly know their assignments.
 Roles are understood by all and are supported.
 There is strong effective leadership with clearly defined responsibilities.
 Members and the leaders are accessible to help one another.

Procedures

 Decisions are made by consensus.

 Meetings are efficient and improvement oriented
 Emphasis is on solving problems and not blaming the individual responsible for
the problem.
 All members participate in discussions and meetings.
 Minutes of meetings are promptly distributed.
 Deadlines are clearly established and agreed upon by the team.

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 Relationships

 There is team identity and pride.

 There is tolerance for conflict, with an emphasis upon resolution.
 Conflicts are openly discussed, often resulting in growth and learning.
 Team members support one another.

Group Conflict

This is observed when two departments within the same Organization come into
conflict and behave towards each other as if they are competitors. Various
branches of the same Organization may develop conflicting views on a joint
undertaking. Small sections within the same department could develop conflicts
among themselves. Group conflict may also arise from the facts that they must
share scarce resources share, work activities or from the fact that the groups
have different status, goals, values or perceptions.

Common Conflict Triggers

 Communication problems among the groups.

 Egocentric and self conceited leaders. Some leaders would like to be identified
as better than other leaders. If they do not foresee any chance for them to
outshine others, they oppose joint projects or try to complicate the project.
 Where rewards or promotion may be at stake conflict is inevitable.
 Past experiences and training orientation, particularly of the leaders. Some
people are not flexible, cannot adapt to internal and external changes hence
conflicts from within and from outside the Organization.
 Ambitions or overlapping jurisdiction
 Time pressure
 Differences in values or perception. This brings in personality clashes.
 Unrealized expectations resulting in frustrations.

Consequences of Group Conflict

 Each time a group becomes more cohesive, intra-group differences among,

members are put aside.
 Each time a group becomes more task-oriented, task accomplishment becomes
paramount.
 Inter-group communication decreases.
 The winning group tends to strengthen its cohesiveness. But the group's
motivation to fight is reduced. Relaxation sets in. The group becomes fewer
tasks oriented. The losing group searches for scape goats within and outside the
group. The group become more task oriented but the group tends to
disintegrate.
 Leaders emerge in the course of the conflicts.

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 Conflicts Resolution Methods

 Dominance and suppression.

 Majority rule.
 Compromise.
 Integrative (common) problem solving.
 Forcing the other group into submission.

Management of Groups

Groups are unique to manage as individuals are. As a manager you will face a
number of challenges when managing a group. Groups like individuals change
as they develop. A manager can facilitate the evolution of an effective group by
way of the following ideas.
 When selecting members of a group there is need to consider personalities and
work habits of potential members. -
 You should consider the functional capabilities of individuals you intend to assign
to the group. They should possess the skills necessary to accomplish the task.
They should as well possess the technical and educational background essential
for success. To attain a majority vote easily, groups should have an odd number
of members.
 Establish and communicate the purpose of the group to members. A clear
description of the task to the group and linking the purpose of the group task to
the overall strategic goals of the Organization. This is very important because
the group does not operate outside the culture of the organization and there is
need to make the link between the activities of the group, the output expected
and the Organization.
 Encourage the group members to be supportive of one another. Ideas should be
invited, acknowledged and where possible used in a gainful manner. For
criticism to be helpful to group functioning they should address topics relevant to
the task and should not be aimed at individual members. If need be, training
may be availed to provide necessary skills for the development of a successful
group.
 The composition of the group will be contingent upon the purpose of the group.
For a group that would think creatively, a diverse group will bring forth a wealth of
experience and a greater number of perspectives on any particular issues.
 Where homogeneity and cohesion may have led to groupthink, you may assign
someone within the group to play the role of the "'Devils Advocate". The group
may also be required to obtain regular evaluation of their work. Two like groups
may as well meet and discuss ideas.
 The group should manage itself as much as possible during its tenure. Left
alone, groups can accomplish amazing feats. Trust the process. Let the group
develop and operate. The manager should provide he resources needed 'Lo
complete the task and allow the group to resolve its own conflicts whenever
possible.

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 References
Maulins Laurie J. (1996) Management and Organization Behaviour, Pitmans,
London.

Dawson Tony (1998) Principles and Practice of Modern Management, Tudor

Business, Publishing, London.

Cole G.A. (I 993) Management, Theory and Practice D.P. Publishers, London.

Donelly James H., Gibson James L, Ivancevich John M. (1990) Fundamentals of

Management, 7th Edition. Richard L. Daft (2000), Management 5 th Edition. The
Dryden Press, Orlando.

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