Vignharta Trust

Shivajirao Jondhle Polytechnic, Asangaon

of Diploma in Engineering & Technology
Opp. Asangaon Railway Station, Shahpur, Thane 421601

Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education

Micro project
CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTANCE
• Academic Year: 2022-23 • Institute Code: 3280
• Program: Information Technology • Semester: First
• Course: Micro Project • Subject: Physics

Sr Roll No. Name of the Students Enrollment Seat No.

No. (Sem-1) No.

1. ZAIDUDDIN JAVEDUDDIN KAZI

37 2209350255

2. MANASI RAMANAND KUMAVAT

38 2209350256

3. MOHD AYYAN SAFI BARDI

39 2209350257

4. GUFRAN IRFAN SHAIKH

40 2209350258

5. SHREYASH ASHOK VEKHANDE

41 2209350259

6. RUSHIKESH SURESH WAGHMARE

42 2209350260
MISN-0-118

CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTANCE

by
Frank Zerilli

1. Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................1

a. General Statement of Ohm’s Law ........................................... 1
b. Current Density vs. Electric Field ........................................ 1
c. Current vs. Potential Difference ............................................. 1
d. Resistivity, Resistance, Conductivity, Conductance .............. 2
e. Non-Ohmic Systems .................................................................. 3

2. Derivation of Ohm’s Law .......................................................... 4

a. Definition of Drift Velocity ...................................................... 4
b. Relating Drift Velocity to Current Density ......................... 5
c. Ohm’s Law ................................................................................ 6
d. Validity of Ohm’s Law ............................................................ 6

3. Power Dissipation In Current Flow ....................................6

a. The General Expression ........................................................... 6
b. Where the Dissipated Power Goes ......................................... 7
c. If Ohm’s Law Holds .................................................................. 7

Acknowledgments .............................................................................. 7
Glossary ............................................................................................... 8

1
ID Sheet: MISN-0-118

THIS IS A DEVELOPMENTAL-STAGE PUBLICATION

Title: Conductivity and Resistance OF PROJECT PHYSNET

Author: Frank Zerilli, Dept. of Physics, Mich. State Univ The goal of our project is to assist a network of educators and scientists in
Version: 11/7/2001 Evaluation: Stage 0 transferring physics from one person to another. We support manuscript
processing and distribution, along with communication and information
Length: 1 hr; 20 pages systems. We also work with employers to identify basic scientific skills
Input Skills: as well as physics topics that are needed in science and technology. A
number of our publications are aimed at assisting users in acquiring such
1. Vocabulary: ampere, current (MISN-0-117). skills.
2. Explain how an electron can gain energy from an electric field
(MISN-0-117). Our publications are designed: (i) to be updated quickly in response to field
tests and new scientific developments; (ii) to be used in both class- room
Output Skills (Knowledge): and professional settings; (iii) to show the prerequisite dependen- cies
K1. Vocabulary: average thermal speed, conductance, conduction elec- existing among the various chunks of physics knowledge and skill,as a
trons, conductivity, conductor, current density, drift velocity, joule guide both to mental organization and to use of the materials; and
heating, lattice, mho, ohm, resistance, resistivity. (iv) to be adapted quickly to specific user needs ranging from single-skill
instruction to complete custom textbooks.
K2. Derive Ohm’s law, starting from the motion of a conduction elec- tron
under the influence of both an electric field and a retarding force New authors, reviewers and field testers are welcome.
proportional to the electron’s velocity.
K3. Give approximate values for the average thermal speed and drift PROJECT STAFF
velocity for a conduction electron.
K4. Explain how energy from an electric field is changed into heat ina Andrew Schnepp Webmaster
resistor. Eugene Kales Graphics
K5. Give two examples of non-ohmic systems. Peter Signell Project Director
Output Skills (Problem Solving):
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
S1. Given a wire or conducting cylinder of known length, diameter, and
resistivity (or conductivity), calculate its resistance (or con-
D. Alan Bromley Yale University
ductance).
E. Leonard Jossem The Ohio State University
S2. Given two of the four quantities associated with ohmic systems A. A. Strassenburg S. U. N. Y., Stony Brook
(current, voltage, resistance and power dissipation), calculate the
other two. Views expressed in a module are those of the module author(s) and are not
necessarily those of other project participants.

Ⓧc 2001, Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET, Physics-Astronomy Bldg.,

Mich. State Univ., E. Lansing, MI 48824; (517) 355-3784. For our liberal use
policies see:
[Link]

3 4
MISN-0-118 1 MISN-0-118 2

CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTANCE

by
Frank Zerilli l
potential
1. Ohm’s Law difference
Figure 2. A cylindrical conductor under a potential
1a. General Statement of Ohm’s Law. In most solid materials difference.
at constant temperatures, an applied electric field causes an electrical
current to flow which is proportional to the magnitude of, and in the
the length of the conductor (see Fig. 2). The potential difference between the
same direction as, the field. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.1
two ends of the conductor is V = El and the magnitude of the current
Metals obey Ohm’s law very accurately for electric fields which are much
density is j = i/A, so Ohm’s law can be written
less than 108 volts/meter in magnitude.
1b. Current Density vs. Electric Field. Ohm’s law may be written V = iR, (2)
in terms of “current density” and electric field strength. Current flow ina
conducting material may be described in terms of current density →j, where R = l/(σA) is a constant called the “resistance.” Whereas con-
which is the current flow per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to ductivity is a characteristic of a given material (like specific gravity is
the direction of charge flow (see Fig. 1). In terms of current density, the characteristic of a material), resistance is a property of a given object,
statement of Ohm’s law is: determined not only by the material but also by the structure into which
→j = σE
→, (1) it is formed (analogous to the mass of an object).
→ is the applied electric field and σ is a constant, characteristic of 1d. Resistivity, Resistance, Conductivity, Conductance. The
where E
reciprocal of conductivity, σ, is called “resistivity,” ρ:
the material, called the “conductivity.” Eq. (1) relates the current density at
a point in the material to the electric field at that point. 1
ρ= . (3)
1c. Current vs. Potential Difference. Ohm’s law may also be ex- σ
pressed in terms of current and potential difference. Consider a cylindrical The reciprocal of resistance, R, is called “conductance,” G:
conducting material of length l and cross-sectional area A (a “wire”) in
→ along
which a steady current i is flowing due to a uniform electric field E 1

G= . (4)
1 After George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist. R

The MKS unit of resistance is the volt/ampere which is given the name
“ohm,” symbolized by Ω. The unit of conductance is the ohm−1 whichis
given the name “mho” (“ohm” spelled backward).
D Show that the units of resistivity are ohm-meters. Help: [S-1]
Table I shows some resistivities of typical metals and insulators.

Figure 1. The definition of current density.

5 6
MISN-0-118 3 MISN-0-118 4

current leads to an increase in the resistance of the filament.

2. Derivation of Ohm’s Law

-1) 2a. Definition of Drift Velocity. The charge carrier drift veloc- ity
in a conducting material is proportional to the applied electric field
strength. We can picture a conducting material as a “lattice” of atoms
within which charge carrying particles (conduction electrons) move with
Figure 3. Current vs. voltage across a thermal distribution of velocities, every so often colliding with defects in
a p-n junction. the lattice. In the absence of an external electric field, the average ther-
mal velocity of the charge carriers is zero since every direction of motion is
equally likely. The average thermal speed (magnitude of the average
Table I. Some Resistivities thermal velocity) is not zero. For the conduction electrons in copper, the
Resistivity average thermal speed is about 1.6 10 × m/s. When an external electric field
6

Material at 20 ◦C is applied, the electrons are accelerated by the field producing an

(ohm-cm) average “drift velocity” in the direction opposite to the field.3 The effect
Aluminum 2.8 × 10−6 of random collisions between the charge carriers and defects in the lattice
Copper 1.7 × 10−6 produces an effective “frictional drag” force which is proportional to the
Silver 1.6 × 10−6 drift velocity. Thus the drift velocity approaches a limiting velocity at
Iron 10 × 10−6 which the frictional drag force balances the force due to the electric field.
Bismuth 120 × 10−6 An analogy useful in understanding why the collisions lead to a limiting
Sulfur 1 × 1017 drift velocity is the case of a marble rolling down a staircase. 4 The gravi-
Maple 3 × 1010 tational field accelerates the marble, but the kinetic energy gained by the
Slate 1 × 108 marble is given up in collisions with the steps (imagine that there is zero
Plate Glass 2 × 1013 rolling friction, but that the collisions are inelastic), so that the marble
rolls down the stairs at approximately constant average speed. The time
1e. Non-Ohmic Systems. Although many solid materials obey it takes to approach the limiting drift velocity is of the order of the mean

Ohm’s law very accurately over a wide range of conditions, there are many time between collisions (about 10−14 s in copper). The expression for the
examples of systems in which Ohm’s Law is not valid. For example, when a frictional drag force is
current flows through an ionized gas the relation between voltage and F→drag = k→vD , (5)
current is highly non-linear, that is, the ratio V /i is not a constant but varies
where k is a constant, and the force due to the electric field is
with the value of i. The same is true for current flowing through

the junction of a p-doped semiconductor and an n-doped semiconductor.2 →,

F→field = eE (6)
Figure 3 shows the non-linear relation of current to voltage in a p-n junc-

tion. Another example is the non-linear relation of current to voltage ina 2 Transistors and diode rectifiers utilize p-n junctions.
radio vacuum tube. Still another example is the tungsten filament in-
candescent lamp. The current which flows through the tungsten filament of
the lamp causes significant temperature changes in the material. Since the
resistivity of the tungsten increases with temperature, an increase in
7 8
MISN-0-118
3Since electrons have a negative charge, they are accelerated in the direction op- 3 MISN-0-118 4
posite to the field. However, the transport of negative charges in one direction is
equivalent to the transport of positive charges in the opposite direction and, by con-
vention, the direction of current flow is the direction in which the equivalent positive
charge is transported, so that the direction of current flow is the same as the field
direction.
4See D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Physics (Wiley and Sons, 1966) chapter 31.

7 8
MISN-0-118 5 MISN-0-118 6

2c. Ohm’s Law. Since current density j is proportional to the drift

velocity vD of the charge carriers [Eq. (8)] and the drift velocity is pro- portional
to the applied electric field [Eq. (7)], we have derived one form of Ohm’s
vd law, j = σE, where σ = ne2 /k.
Figure 4. A cylindrical element of conducting 2d. Validity of Ohm’s Law. It is reasonable to assume that, when a charge
material. carrier undergoes a collision with a lattice defect the velocity of thecharge
carrier is changed in a random manner. Thus any memory of the previous
where e is the charge of the carrier, so by equating the two we find that state of motion of the charge is lost. The average drift velocity of the
carriers in the presence of the external electric field is then, simply, the
the limiting drift velocity is proportional to the electric field:
velocity gained by the acceleration of the electric field in a time τ
e→
→vD = E. (7) equal to the average time between collisions. If m is the mass of the
k charge carriers, then
qτ →
→vD = →aτ = E.
2b. Relating Drift Velocity to Current Density. Current density m

→j is proportional to the charge carrier drift velocity →vD and to the number Thus Ohm’s law is valid as long as the mean time between collisions does
of charge carriers per unit volume n: not depend on E.
→j = n e →vD , (8)
3. Power Dissipation In Current Flow
where e is the charge of the carrier. To derive this relation, consider a
cylindrical element of conducting material of length l and cross-sectional 3a. The General Expression. We wish to derive a general expres- sion
area A (see Fig. 4) containing n charge carriers per unit volume, moving with for the power dissipated when a current flows through a potential
drift velocity →vD to the right. The time it takes one charge to move a difference. Consider a “black box” (an arbitrary system) as shown in Fig.
distance l is: 5 with a current i flowing through it. Suppose the left end of the boxis at
t= l . (9) a potential V and the right end is at zero potential. In a time ∆t, an
vD amount of charge ∆Q = i∆t passes through the box. It goes in with
Thus, in a time t, all the charge Q initially contained in the cylindrical potential energy V ∆Q and comes out with potential energy zero. Since
element will have passed out the right end. The charge Q is the amount of the kinetic energy has not changed, 5 the charge carriers have done work on
charge per unit volume, ne, times the volume of the cylindrical element, something in the box. The power (rate at which work is done) is
Al. Therefore the current is V ∆Q

P = = V i. (10)
i = Q = neAl = nevDA, ∆t

t t 5 The charge carriers come out with the same distribution of velocities they had

when they went in.

and the current density is:
i
j = = nevD .
A

9 10
MISN-0-118 5 MISN-0-118 6
D What is the drift velocity of the conduction electrons in a cop-
per wire of 1 mm diameter carrying a current of 1 ampere? There are
Figure 5. Power dissipation in an arbitrary
8.5 × 1022 conduction electrons/cm3 in copper. Answer: 9.3 × 10−5 m/s.
system.
Help: [S-7]

9 10
MISN-0-118 7 MISN-0-118 8

This is a general result and is merely a statement of conservation of en- Glossary

ergy.6
• average thermal speed: the average speed of randomly moving charge
D Show that power dissipated per unit volume equals Ej where j is the carriers which move, with a thermal distribution of velocities, within a
magnitude of the current density and E is the magnitude of the electric conductor.
field. Help: [S-2]
• conductance: the property of a system that specifies the ease with which
3b. Where the Dissipated Power Goes. What happens to the power charge carriers pass through the system. Technically, conduc- tance is
dissipated depends on what is in the black box. If it contains a solid the mathematical reciprocal of resistance. It is not a char- acteristic
conducting material, the energy gets converted into heat [Link] property of a given material but of a given object since it depends on the
work that the electric field does in accelerating the charge carriersis amount and shape of the conducting material in the object.
transferred to the atomic lattice when the charge carriers collide with the
lattice defects. This increases the thermal energy of the lattice. This type of • conduction electrons: the electrons of a material that are responsi- ble
heating is called “joule heating.” If the box contains a “storage battery” the for current flow; these are the charge carriers. In a conductor these
energy gets converted to chemical energy via electrochemical reactions. On electrons are not associated with a single atom, but with the entire
the other hand, the box might contain a motor which does mechanical conducting material.
work.
• conductivity: a characteristic property of a given material that spec- ifies
3c. If Ohm’s Law Holds. If the box contains a system for which Ohm’s the current flow in the material for a given applied electric field.
law is valid, then Eq. (10) can be written in two alternate formsby using Mathematically, conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. It depends
Ohm’s law (Eq. (2) to eliminate either V or i from Eq. (10): on the material composing the conducting object but is independent of
the size or shape of the object.
P = V i,
• conductor: a material that allows charge carriers to pass through it.
but A material that is a poor conductor is usually called an “insulator.”
V = iR ,
• current density: a vector quantity whose magnitude at a point in space
so is the current per unit area normal to the direction of current flow, and
P = i2 R , (11) whose direction is the direction of current flow.
or
V2

P = . (12) • drift velocity: the average velocity, in the direction of the current,
R of the charge carriers in a conductor subjected to an electric field.
• joule heating: the process whereby heat is produced by the inelastic
collision of conduction electrons with the lattice defects in a conductor.
Acknowledgments The energy transferred to the lattice causes the lattice atoms to vibrate
Preparation of this module was supported in part by the National more violently, raising the thermal energy of the lattice.
Science Foundation, Division of Science Education Development and
Research, through Grant #SED 74-20088 to Michigan State Univer- sity. • lattice: a three-dimensional array of atoms or ions held together by
chemical bonds (e.g. ionic, covalent, or metallic bonds).
6See “Particle Energy in an Electrostatic Field” (MISN-0-117).
• mho: a unit of conductance, equal to an ohm−1 (an inverse ohm). “mho”
is “ohm” spelled backward.

11 12
MISN-0-118 9 MISN-0-118 PS-1

• ohm: a unit of resistance, defined by Ohm’s law as a resistance that

causes a one-ampere current to drop in potential by one volt; denoted by
the symbol Ω. PROBLEM SUPPLEMENT

• resistance: the property of a system that specifies the difficulty with Note: Problems 3 and 4 also occur in this module’s Model Exam.
which the system passes charge carriers. The numerical value of the
resistance R of an object is usually obtained by measuring the current
I produced through the object by a known voltage V placed across the 1. Assuming that there is one conduction electron per atom in copper,
calculate the number of conduction electrons per unit volume for cop-
object: then R = V /I. Resistance is not a characteristic property ofthe
per. The density of copper is 8.94 grams/cm 3 and its atomic mass is
object since it depends on the object’s size and shape. Resistanceis the
reciprocal of conductance. 63.54 amu. Note: 1 amu(atomic mass unit) = 1.657 × 10−27 kg.
2. A rod and a disc pictured below are composed of the same material
• resistivity: a characteristic property of a material that specifies the and are at the same temperature. If the end-to-end resistanceof
material’s current-carrying capabilities, irrespective of the size and
shape of the material. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. the rod is 2.0 10−3×ohm, what is the resistance between opposing
round faces of the disc? The rod is 2.0 m long and
5.0 mm in diameter. The disc is 5.0 cm long and 3.0 cm in radius.

3. A 10.0 ohm resistor produces heat at a rate of 2.5 102 watts.

× What current
is flowing through it? What is the voltage across the resistor? What
current would produce heat at half the present rate?
4. At (2.0 ×101) ◦C, copper has a resistivity of 1.7 ×10−6 ohm-cm. What is
the resistance of a 1.0 meter length of copper wire that has a diameterof
1.0 mm?
5. If a potential difference of 1.2 volts exists between the ends of the wire
in Problem 4, what current is flowing in the wire?
6. How much current flows through the filament of a 36 watt automobile
headlamp that is connected to a 12 volt battery?

7. A current of 0.10 ampere flows through a conductor whose resistance is

47 ohms. What is the power dissipated in the conductor?

13 14
MISN-0-118 PS-2 MISN-0-118 PS-3

8. A potential difference of 15 volts exists across the ends of a conduc- tor

whose resistance is 22 ohms. What is the power dissipated in the Brief Answers:
conductor?
1. 8.53 × 1022 conduction electrons/cm3 Help: [S-3]
2. 3.5 × 10−7 ohm Help: [S-4]
3. 5.0 amperes; 5.0 × 101 volts; for half power dissipation, 3.5 amperes
4. 0.022 ohm Help: [S-5]
5. 5.5 × 101 amperes Help: [S-6]
6. 3.0 amperes
7. 0.47 watt
8. 10.2 watts

15 16
MISN-0-118 AS-1 MISN-0-118 AS-2

S-4
SPECIAL ASSISTANCE SUPPLEMENT

S-1
10− m
resistance = length×resistivity/area [see Eq. (2) of module text] so MKS −2
units of resistivity are: 5 × 10 m
· 2 × 10 ohms

S-5
S-2
(1.7 × 10−6 ohm × 10−2 m) · (1 m)
1 × 10− m

S-6
If the potential difference across the ends of the conductor shown in the
drawing is V , then P = V i. But V = El and i = jA so
1 × 10− m
P = EjAl = Ej× volume, so: power/volume = Ej (1.2 V ) · π

(1.7 × 10−6 ohm × 10−2 m) · (1 m)

S-3

S-7
The answer is the quotient of a numerator and a denominator. The
= 8.53 × 10 atoms
22 numerator is:
grams
and the denominator is the product of these three expressions (with the
then there are 8.5 × 1022 conduction electrons per cm3. value of the electron charge taken from this volume’s Appendix ):

(π)(0.5 mm)2(10−3 m/mm)2

(8.5 × 1022 electrons/cm3)(102 cm/m)3
(1.602 × 10−19 C/electron)

17 18
MISN-0-118 ME-1

This is to certify that Mast. Rushikesh Suresh

Waghmare of First Semester Diploma in Information
Technology has Completed their Micro Project Report
entitled. Under the Guidance of Mast. Sandeep Praghane
for the Academic Year 2022-23 as prescribed in the MSBTE curriculum.

Place: Asangaon Enrollment No: 2209350260

Date: Exam Seat No:

Subject Teacher :- Sandeep Praghane H.O.D Principal

19 20