SECOND SEMESTER A.Y.

2024-2025

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 FELLOWSHIP BAPTIST COLLEGE
Rizal Street, Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental, 6111

College of Engineering and Computer Studies

PRELIM MODULE (2nd Semester A.Y 2024-2025) - For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the
specific gas constant and ideal gas law.
CEPROF324: Hydraulics 𝒑
𝝆=
Prelim Topic: Fluid Mechanics 𝑹𝑻
where: 𝑝 = absolute pressure of gas in Pa
 Properties of Liquid 𝑅 = gas constant Joule/kg − °K
 Pressure
For air:
 Hydrostatic Forces
𝑅 = 287 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 − °𝐾
Learning Objectives: 𝑅 = 1716 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − °𝑅
𝑇 = absolute temperature in °K
 Introduce the concept of fluid mechanics and °𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273
hydraulics.
°𝑅 = °𝐹 + 460
 Discuss the different liquid properties that are
involved in the determination of pressure,
forces, and flow. III. Specific Gravity, 𝒔 (s.g.)
 Memorize formulas and solve problem set - A dimensionless ratio of a substance weight to the
involving Properties of Liquid, Principles of weight of an equal volume of water at
Hydrostatics, and Total Hydrostatics Force. 𝟒°𝑪 (𝟑𝟗. 𝟐°𝑭) standard reference density.
- For liquids and solids, the reference density is
Introduction water at 𝟒°𝑪 (𝟑𝟗. 𝟐°𝑭)
𝜸𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝝆𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing 𝒔= =
𝜸𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝝆𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with
the application and devices in engineering using - In gases, the standard reference is the density of
fluids. air.
𝝆𝒈𝒂𝒔
Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid
𝒔=
𝝆𝒂𝒊𝒓
mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, For water at 4° 𝐶:
usually water or oil. It deals with such problems as 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡3
flow of fluid through pipes or in open channel, the 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠/𝑓𝑡3
design and storage dams, pumps, water turbines, and 𝑠 = 1.0
with other devices for the control or use of liquids, For water at 20°𝐶:
such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flow meters.
𝛾 = 9.79 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
WEEK 1 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚/𝑠 2
= 32.2 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
I. Unit Weight or Specific Weight, 𝜸 (gamma) IV. Specific Volume, 𝑽𝒔
- The weight of a unit volume of a fluid, expressed - The volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid, the
in unit of weight per unit volume such as N/m3 reciprocal of density and can be expressed as the
𝑾 volume that a fluid occupies per unit mass.
𝜸= = 𝝆𝒈
𝑽
𝟏 𝑽
where: 𝑊 = weight of fluid (N) 𝑽𝒔 = =
𝑉 = volume (m3)
𝝆 𝒎
Problem No. 1
II. Mass Density or Density, 𝝆 (rho) A reservoir of glycerin (glyc) has a mass of 1200 kg and
- The mass per unit volume, expressed in kg/m3 a volume of 0.952 m3. Find the glycerin’s weight (𝑊),
𝒎
𝜌= mass density (𝜌), specific weight (𝛾), specific gravity
𝑽
where: 𝑚 = mass of fluid (𝑠. 𝑔. ) and specific volume.
𝑉 = volume
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Solution: - The fractional change in the volume of a fluid per
For Weight (W): unit change in pressure in a constant temperature
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 process.
𝑊 = 1200𝑘𝑔 × 9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 ∆𝑽 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏
𝟏 −𝑽 𝑽𝟏
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵 𝜷 = = =−𝑷
𝑬𝑩 ∆𝑷 𝟐 −𝑷𝟏

For Mass Density (𝜌): where:

𝑚 ∆𝑉 = change in volume
𝜌=
𝑉 𝑉 = original volume
1200 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= ∆𝑃 = change in pressure
0.952 𝑚3
𝑑𝑉/𝑉 = change in volume (usually in percent)
𝝆 = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
For Specific Weight (𝛾):
𝑊
𝛾= Problem No. 2
𝑉
A rigid steel container is partially filled with a liquid at
1200 𝑘𝑔 × 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2 15 atm. The volume of the liquid is 1.23200 L. At a
𝛾=
0.952 𝑚3 pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 1.23100
𝜸 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 L. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity of the
liquid over the given range of pressure if the
temperature after compression is allowed to return to
For Specific Gravity (𝑠. 𝑔.):
𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛 its initial value. What is the coefficient of
𝑠. 𝑔. = compressibility?
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
12.36 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 Solution:
𝑠. 𝑔. =
9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 For Average Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (𝐸𝐵 ):
𝒔. 𝒈. = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝑃𝑖 = 15 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1519.875 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑖 = 1.232 𝐿
𝑃𝑓 = 30 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 3039.75 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑓 = 1.231 𝐿

For Specific Volume (𝑉𝑠 ): 𝑃2 − 𝑃1

𝐸𝐵 = −
1 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1
𝜌
3039.75 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − 1519.875 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1 =−
𝑉𝑠 = 1.231 𝐿 − 1.232 𝐿
1,260.50 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 1.232 𝐿
𝑽𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈 𝑬𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟐 𝑮𝑷𝒂

For Coefficient of Compressibility (𝛽 ):

V. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, 𝑬𝑩 1
𝛽=
- The compressibility of the fluid, it is the ratio of 𝐸𝐵
the change in unit pressure to the corresponding 1
𝛽=
volume change per unit volume. 1.872 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆𝑷 𝑷𝟐 −𝑷𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝑩 = =− ∆𝑽 =− 𝑽𝟐 −𝑽𝟏 in 𝑃𝑎 or 𝜷 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟓
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑽
𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝑽𝟏

𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2

VI. Compressibility or Coefficient of

Compressibility, 𝜷

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 VII. Viscosity, 𝝁- the amount of fluid resistance to Ideal Gas Law (Molar Form)
shearing force. - The pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature T of an
ideal gas are related by a simple formula called the
𝝉 Ideal Gas Law. The simplicity of this relationship is a
𝝁= 𝑼 big reason why we typically treat gases as ideal,
𝒚
unless is a good reason to do otherwise.
lb 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
τ = shear stress in or Pa
ft 2
𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑓𝑡 2 (𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒) or where:
Pa-sec 𝑃 = pressure of the gas (absolute pressure)
y= distance between the plates in ft or m 𝑉 = volume taken up by the gas
U= velocity in ft/s or m/s 𝑇 = temperature of the gas (absolute temperature)
𝑅 = gas constant
𝑛 = number of moles of the gas
VIII. Kinematic Viscosity- ratio of the dynamic
viscosity of the fluid to its density Recall:
𝝁  Moles (n) are a way to describe how many
𝝂=
𝝆 molecules are in a gas.
𝜇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐  1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 - This number is called Avogadro’s Constant 𝑁𝐴
- This number also is a way to convert from
moles to molecules or vice versa.
IX. Surface Tension- the membrane of  𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
“skin” that seems to form on the free
surface of a fluid is due to Ideal Gas Law (Proportional Form)
intermolecular cohesive forces is 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝑽
known as surface tension. = 𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
a. Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid
𝟒𝝈
𝒑= Constant Temperature
𝒅
N 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
σ = surface tension in
m Note: Only applicable to the gas itself
d = diameter of the droplet in m 𝑃 = pressure of the gas (absolute pressure)
p = gage pressure in Pa 𝑉 = volume taken up by the gas where the shape of
b. Capillary Action the
𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 container is crucial
𝒉= For temperature with different scales:
𝜸𝒅
For complete wetting, as with water on clean Unit Freezing Point Boiling Point
glass, the angle theta is zero degree. °C 0° 100°
𝟒𝝈 °F 32° 212°
𝒉=
𝜸𝒅 °K 273° 373°
h = capillary rise or depression in m °R 492° 672°
N
γ = unit weght in 3
m
d = diameter of the tube in m
σ = surface tension in Pa

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Problem No. 3

A sample of Hydrogen gas occupies a volume of 8.56L at a WEEK 2

temperature of zero degree Celsius and a pressure of
PRESSURE
1.5atm. How many moles of hydrogen are present?
Static Pressure – Pascal’s Law
Solution:
- “The external pressure applied on a confined liquid
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 is distributed or transmitted evenly throughout the
liquid in all directions.”
𝑷𝑻
𝒏= =
(𝟏.𝟓𝒂𝒕𝒎)(𝟖.𝟓𝟔𝑳)
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝑭 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑹𝑻 (𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏 𝑳.𝒂𝒕𝒎 )(𝟐𝟕𝟑𝑲) 𝑷 = = 𝜸𝒉
𝑲.𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑨
𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒆
Note: 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Same Liquid with the same Elevation will have the same
Pressure

101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎

At Depth 1 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑑
At Depth 2 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 ≠ 𝑃𝐷

All About Pressure

 Absolute Pressure is referenced to regions such as
outer space, where the pressure is essentially zero
because the region is devoid of gas.
 The pressure in a perfect vacuum is called Absolute
Zero Pressure measured relative to these zero
pressures is termed absolute pressure.
 When pressure is measured relative to the prevailing
local atmospheric pressure, the pressure is called
Gage Pressure.
 When pressure less than atmospheric, the pressure
can be described using vacuum pressure.
 Vacuum Pressure is defined as the difference
between atmospheric pressure and actual pressure.
 Vacuum Pressure is a positive number and equal the
absolute value of gage pressure (which will be
negative).
Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure)
- pressure above and below the atmosphere and can
be measured by pressure gauges or manometers.
U − Tube – small pressure differences
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 Bourdon gage – higher pressure differences Note:
Atmospheric Pressure  When going down, the pressure increases (+) and the
- the pressure at any one point on the earth’s surface pressure decreases (–) when going up.
 When it comes to pressure, only the Vertical Distance
from the weight of air above it.
matter.
Vacuum Pressure Solution:
- a space that has all matter removed from it, where 𝑃𝐴 = 70 𝑘𝑃𝑎
pressure is less than the normal atmospheric
pressure of 760 mmHg 70 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 9.81(0.30)(𝑦) + 9.81(1.60)(0.46𝑚)
Under Normal Conditions at Sea Level: −9.81(0.30)[0.46𝑚 + 𝑦 + 1.20𝑚] = 𝑃𝐵
𝑝atm = 2166 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2 Note: 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 =
70 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 9.81(0.30)(𝑦) + 9.81(1.60)(0.46𝑚)
100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 −9.81(0.30)[0.46𝑚 + 1.20𝑚] − 9.81(0.30)(𝑦) = 𝑃𝐵
= 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
= 29.29 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 70 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 9.81(1.60)(0.46𝑚)
= 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 −9.81(0.30)[0.46𝑚 + 1.20𝑚] = 𝑃𝐵
= 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
= 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑷𝑩 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂
= 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟

Absolute Pressure
Problem No. 5 (February 1964)
- the pressure above absolute zero (vacuum)
An inclined tank contains three different liquids A, B,
𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝒑𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒎 and C with specific gravities of 0.80, 1.00, and 13.6,
Note:
respectively. What will be the pressure on the bottom
of the tank if the liquid surface are the elevations?
 Absolute zero is attained if all air is removed and it is
the lowest possible pressure attainable.
 Absolute pressure can never be negative.
 Smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative of the
ambient atmospheric pressure.

Problem No. 4 (January 8, 1940)

Two pipes, A and B, contain a fluid and are connected
by a differential gage as shown. The substance in the
lower part of the gage has a specific gravity of 1.6 and
the surfaces of separation are 460 mm apart. The
specific gravity of the fluid is 0.330. If the pipe centers Solution:
are 1.20 m apart vertically and the pressure in A is 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 9.81(0.80)(3.05𝑚) + 9.81(1.00)(1.83𝑚)
known to be 70 kN/m2, what is the pressure in B in +9.81(13.6)(1.22𝑚)
kN/m? 𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒. 𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Practice Problems
1. In the figure shown, the areas of the plunger A
and cylinder b are 45.2 cm2 and 4840 cm2,
respectively. A weight 13.6 kg and B weighs
4763 kg. The vessel and the connecting
passages are filled with oil of specific gravity of

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 0.70. What force P is required for the WEEK 3-4
equilibrium? Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

Hydrostatic Force- Hydrostatic force is the force

exerted by the static fluid on any object placed into it.
It depends on the depth of the object from the free
surface. Hydrostatic force for vertical and inclined
surfaces will be different for horizontal surfaces. This
topic comes under the fluid statics part.

Fundamental concepts in fluid mechanics include

calculating the hydrostatic force and the location of
the center of pressure. A location on the submerged
surface where the hydrostatic pressure acts is known
as the center of pressure.
2. If the difference in pressure of pipe A and pipe b is
97.4 kPa, calculate H.
I. Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces
- For horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid,
or plane surface inside a gas chamber, or any
plane surface under the action of uniform
hydrostatic pressure, the total hydrostatic force is
given by
𝑭 = 𝒑𝑨
where: 𝑝 = uniform pressure
𝐴 = area
𝑭 = 𝒑𝒄𝒈 𝑨

3. Determine the gage pressure at point A in the 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

figure.

̅
𝒚

𝑪𝑮
𝑪𝑷

Note:
 Weight (𝑾) acts vertically (downward) at the Center
of Gravity (𝑪𝑮).
 Center of Pressure (𝑪𝑷) is where the Force acts.
 The distance between the (𝑪𝑮) and (𝑪𝑷) is called the
Eccentricity (𝒆).
𝑰𝒈𝒙
𝒆=
𝑨𝒚̅

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 Common Geometric Shapes
Inertia Centroid
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏
a. Rectangle 𝑰𝒈𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 𝟐
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝟏
b. Triangle 𝑰𝒈𝒙 = 𝟑𝟔 𝟑
𝝅𝒓𝟒
c. Circle 𝑰𝒈𝒙 = 𝟒

d. Semicircle 𝑰𝒈𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒓𝟒

Problem No. 1 (February 1956)

A 1m square plane surface is to be place vertically 𝐹 = 𝑝𝑐𝑔 𝐴
below the water surface. The immersion is such that
the two edges of the square are horizontal. If it is 𝐹 = [9.81(0.89)(0.5) + 9.81(1.67)](1)2
desired that the center of the pressure be 50mm from 𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵
the center of gravity of the plane area, how far below
the water should the center of gravity of the 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
immersed surface be? In this position what is the total
0.89
pressure acting upon it? 𝐹 = 9.81 [1.67 + 0.5 ( )] (1)2
1

𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵

Practice Problem for Assessment:

A vertical gate 1.20m wide and 1.85 m high is hinged
at the upper edge and is kept closed by the pressure
For ℎ̅: of water standing 2.50m deep over its top edge.
Since not inclined and perfectly vertical 𝑦̅ = ℎ̅ Determine the minimum force applied normally at the
𝐼𝑔𝑥 𝐼𝑔𝑥 bottom of the gate that would be required to open it.
𝑒= =
𝐴𝑦̅ 𝐴ℎ̅
(1)(1)3
50 × 10−3 = 122
(1) ℎ̅
̅ = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒎
𝒉

For 𝐹:
𝐹 = 𝑝𝑐𝑔 𝐴
𝐹 = 9.81(1.67)(1)2
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝑵

Additional Problem: Jesus answered, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No
Solving for 𝐹 considering Oil at the top of water one comes to the Father except through me. - John 14:6
surface: (see figure)