Production Technology

Metal Cutting Analysis

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Machining operations.
Types of Machining Operations

Cutting Tools

Cutting parameters-
Speed, Feed, Depth
Cutting tool geometry
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• The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and
form the chip. It can be positive or negative. Positive rake angles reduce the
cutting forces, resulting in smaller deflections of the workpiece, tool holder, and
machine. In machining hard work materials, the back rake angle must be small,
even negative for carbide and diamond tools. Generally speaking, the higher the
hardness of the workpiece, the smaller the back rake angle. For high-speed
steels, back rake angle is normally chosen in the positive range, depending on the
type of tool (turning, planing, end milling, face milling, drilling, etc.) and the
work material.

• For carbide tools, inserts for different work materials and tool holders can be
supplied with several standard values of back rake angle: -6° to +6°. The side
rake angle and the back rake angle combine to form the effective rake angle. This
is also called the true rake angle or resultant rake angle of the tool.

• True rake inclination of a cutting tool has a major effect in determining the
amount of chip compression and the shear angle. A small rake angle causes high
compression, tool forces, and friction, resulting in a thick, highly deformed, hot
chip. Increased rake angle reduces the compression, the forces, and the friction,
yielding a thinner, less deformed, and cooler chip. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
take much advantage of the desirable effects of larger positive rake angles, since
they are offset by the reduced strength of the cutting tool, due to the reduced
tool section, and by its greatly reduced capacity to conduct heat away from the
cutting edge.
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 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
1. The Orthogonal cutting model:
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 2. Actual chip formation
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 Four basic types of chips
• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip.
• Continuous chip with built-up edge

• Serrated chips
 Force
Relationships and
the Merchant’s
Equation
 Force
Relationships
and the
Merchant’s
Equation
Force Relationships and the Merchant’s Equation
Lessons Based on the Merchant Equation

• The real value of the Merchant equation is that it defines the

general relationship between rake angle, tool–chip friction,
and shear plane angle.
• The shear plane angle can be increased by (1) increasing the
rake angle and (2) decreasing the friction angle (and
coefficient of friction) between the tool and the chip.
• Rake angle can be increased by proper tool design, and
friction angle can be reduced by using a lubricant cutting
fluid.
• The importance of increasing the shear plane angle can be
seen in Figure. If all other factors remain the same, a higher
shear plane angle results in a smaller shear plane area. Since
the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force
required to form the chip will decrease when the shear plane
area is reduced.
• A greater shear plane angle results in lower cutting energy,
lower power requirements, and lower cutting temperature.
These are good reasons to try to make the shear plane angle
as large as possible during machining.
Approximation of turning by the orthogonal model
 Tool Wear
DEFINITION: Gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operations is known as tool wear.
MODES OF CUTTING TOOL FAILURES
FRACTURE FAILURE:
 This mode of failure occurs due to mechanical breakage due to excessive forces and shocks at the tool
point causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
 Also known as mechanical chipping.
 Such kind of tool failure is random and catastrophic in nature, results in premature loss of tool and
hence is extremely detrimental.
TEMPERATURE FAILURE:
 This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the tool material, causing the material
at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
 This type of failure also occurs rapidly, results in premature loss of tool and is quite detrimental and
unwanted.
Note: Both of the above kinds of tool failure need to be prevented by using suitable tool materials and
geometry depending upon the work material and cutting condition.
GRADUAL WEAR:
 Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting efficiency, an
acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to
a temperature failure.
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest possible use of the tool, option of changing
the tool before the final catastrophic loss of the cutting edge occurs, with the associated economic
advantage of that longer use.
Note: failure by gradual wear cannot be prevented but can be slowed down to enhance the service life of
the tool.
 Tool Wear
Crater wear:
 It consists of a cavity or concave section on
the tool face/rake face formed and grows
from the action of the chip sliding against
the surface.
 High stresses and temperatures
characterize the tool–chip contact interface,
contributing to the wearing action. The crater wear is mainly caused due
 The crater can be measured either by its to
depth or its area.  The presence of friction between the
 Crater wear affects the mechanics of the chip-tool interface,
process increasing the actual rake angle of  The abrasion action of microchips
the cutting tool and consequently, making present at the chip-tool interface.
cutting easier.  The abrasive action of fragments of Built
 At the same time, the crater wear weakens up Edge (BUE) at the chip-tool interface
the tool wedge and increases the possibility and diffusion wear.
for tool breakage.  The diffusion wears, due to the atomic
 This wear predominates at high speed. In attraction between the tool and work the
general, crater wear is of a relatively small atoms of the tool material will get
concern. diffused and deposited over the
workpiece called diffusion wear.
 Tool Wear
Flank wear
 It occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the
machined surface of the workpiece and the tool flank.
 Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear land and is
measured by the width of this wear land, VB.
 Flank wear affects to the great extend the mechanics of cutting.
 An extreme condition of flank wear often appears on the cutting
edge at the location corresponding to the original surface of the
workpart. This is called notch wear. It occurs because the original
work surface is harder and/or more abrasive than the internal
material, which could be caused by work hardening from cold
drawing or previous machining, sand particles in the surface from
casting, or other reasons. As a consequence of the harder
surface, wear is accelerated at this location.
 Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If the
amount of flank wear exceeds some critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6
mm) then the excessive cutting force may cause tool failure.
 This wear predominates at low speed.
The reasons for flank wear are:
 The presence of friction at the tool work interface.
 The abrasive action of microchips or powdered particles present
at the tool work interface and diffusion wear.
 The diffusion wears, due to the atomic attraction between the
tool and work the atoms of the tool material will get diffused and
deposited over the workpiece called as diffusion wear.
 Tool Wear Mechanisms
ABRASION
 This is a mechanical wearing action caused by hard particles in the work material gouging and removing small portions of the
tool.
 This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear and crater wear; it is a significant cause of flank wear.
ADHESION
 When two metals are forced into contact under high pressure and temperature, adhesion or welding occur between them.
 These conditions are present between the chip and the rake face of the tool.
 As the chip flows across the tool, small particles of the tool are broken away from the surface, resulting in attrition of the surface.
DIFFUSION
 This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes place across a close contact boundary between two materials.
 In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the tool–chip boundary, causing the tool surface to become depleted of the atoms
responsible for its hardness.
 As this process continues, the tool surface becomes more susceptible to abrasion and adhesion.
Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear. CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
 The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the tool–chip interface in machining at high speeds can result in chemical reactions,
in particular, oxidation, on the rake face of the tool.
 The oxidized layer, being softer than the parent tool material, is sheared away, exposing new material to
sustain the reaction process.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
 The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause the edge to deform plastically, making it more vulnerable
to abrasion of the tool surface.
 Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.
Most of these tool-wear mechanisms are accelerated at higher cutting speeds and temperatures. Diffusion and chemical reaction
are especially sensitive
. to elevated temperature 28
 Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc. are plotted
against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1,
V2, V3, V4 etc. as shown in Fig. 3.2.4, a smooth
curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to
appear. When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure
taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct
linear relationship appeared as schematically
shown in Fig. 3.2.5.
With the slope, n and intercept, C, Taylor derived
the simple equation as
VTn = C
where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The Figure: Cutting velocity – tool life relationship
values of both ‘n’ and ‘C’ depend mainly upon the
tool-work materials and the cutting environment
(cutting fluid application). The value of C depends
also on the limiting value of VB undertaken (i.e.,
0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.) These constants
are well tabulated and easily available. Note that
the magnitude of C is the cutting speed at T = 1
min.

Figure: Cutting velocity versus tool life on a log-log scale 32

 Taylor’s Tool Life
5
8

Equation
Problem: If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a given machining
condition (feed and depth of cut) under a given environment (cutting fluid application), the tool life
decreases from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase in cutting velocity, V from 60 m/min to 120 m/min., then
at what cutting velocity the life of that tool under the same condition and environment will be 40 min.?
 Modified Taylor’s Tool Life
5
9

Equation
In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, V on
tool life has been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (f) and depth
of cut (d) also play role on tool life to some extent. Taking into account the
effects of all those parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation has been modified
as,

Here-
d is the depth of cut and f is the feed in mm/rev
The exponents x and y must be determined
experimentally for each cutting condition. These
are now also available in machining handbooks.
Here x>y as tool life is affected more by depth
of cut then feed.
 Shaping and Planing
• Shaping and planing are similar operations, both involving the use of a single-point
cutting tool moved linearly relative to the workpart.
• In conventional shaping and planing, a straight, flat surface is created by this action.
• In shaping, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the cutting tool; while in
planing, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the workpart.
 Turning
• Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from the
surface of a rotating workpiece.
• The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation to generate a
cylindrical geometry,
• Single-point tools used in turning and other machining operations. Turning is
traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a lathe, which provides power to
turn the part at a given rotational speed and to feed the tool at a specified rate and
depth of cut.
Lathe Machine
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 Drilling
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 Milling
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 Types of Milling Operations: (1) Peripheral milling and (2) Face milling
Peripheral Milling:

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 Types of Milling Operations
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 Types of Milling Operations: (a) Peripheral milling and (b) Face milling.
(2) Face Milling:
 For helical Teeth cutters- Cutting is
gradual and hence less vibration

For Straight Teeth cutters- Problem of

excessive vibration on Arbour
There are five basic parameters of a grinding wheel: (1) abrasive
material, (2) grain size, (3) bonding material, (4) wheel grade, and (5)
wheel structure. To achieve the desired performance in a given
application, each of the parameters must be carefully selected.
Abrasive Material Different abrasive materials are appropriate for grinding different work materials.
General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include high hardness, wear
resistance, toughness, and friability. Hardness, wear resistance, and toughness are desirable properties
of any cutting-tool material. Friability refers to the capacity of the abrasive material to fracture when
the cutting edge of the grain becomes dull, thereby exposing a new sharp edge.
Grain Size The grain size of the abrasive particle is important in determining surface finish and
material removal rate. Small grit sizes produce better finishes, whereas larger grain sizes permit
larger material removal rates. Thus, a choice must be made between these two objectives when
selecting abrasive grain size. The selection of grit size also depends to some extent on the hardness
of the work material. Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to cut effectively, whereas
softer materials require larger grit sizes.
Bonding Materials The bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and
structural integrity of the grinding wheel. Desirable properties of the bond material include strength,
toughness, hardness, and temperature resistance. The bonding material must be able to withstand the
centrifugal forces and high temperatures experienced by the grinding wheel, resist shattering in shock
loading of the wheel, and hold the abrasive grains rigidly in place to accomplish the cutting action
while allowing those grains that are worn to be dislodged so that new grains can be exposed.
dense structure is one in which Pp is relatively small, and Pg is larger. Generally, open structures
are recommended in situations in which clearance for chips must be provided. Dense
structures are used to obtain better surface finish and dimensional control. Wheel grade
indicates the grinding wheel’s bond strength in retaining the abrasive grits during cutting. This
is largely dependent on the amount of bonding material present in the wheel structure—Pb in
Eq. (25.1). Grade is measured on a scale that ranges between soft and hard. ‘‘Soft’’ wheels
lose grains readily, whereas ‘‘hard’’ wheels retain their abrasive grains. Soft wheels are
generally used for applications requiring low material removal rates and grinding of hard
work materials. Hard wheels are typically used to achieve high stock removal rates and for
grinding of relative soft work materials.
Grinding Wheel Specification The preceding parameters can be concisely designated
in a standard grinding wheel marking system defined by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). This marking system uses numbers and letters to specify
abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure, and bond material.
 Machinability
Machinability is the ease with which a given material may be
worked with a cutting tool. The machinability of a material is
usually defined in terms of four factors:
• Surface finish
• Tool life.
• Force and power required.
• The level of difficulty in chip control.
Thus, good machinability indicates good surface finish and surface
integrity, a long tool life, low force and power requirements and
desired chip control in the cutting zone.