A-Level

Chemistry
Handbook
Contents
Contents..................................................................................................................................... 2
Course details............................................................................................................................ 3
Qualification............................................................................................................................ 3
Specification............................................................................................................................ 3
Entry Requirements................................................................................................................. 3
Calendar.................................................................................................................................. 3
Contact details........................................................................................................................ 3
Organisation............................................................................................................................... 4
Equipment.................................................................................................................................. 4
Assessment................................................................................................................................ 5
External assessments............................................................................................................. 5
Grade boundaries.................................................................................................................... 5
Internal assessments.............................................................................................................. 6
Year 12.................................................................................................................................... 6
Year 13.................................................................................................................................... 6
5 hours in… Chemistry............................................................................................................... 7
Supercurricular........................................................................................................................... 8
Read........................................................................................................................................ 8
Watch...................................................................................................................................... 8
Listen...................................................................................................................................... 8
Compete................................................................................................................................. 8
Online...................................................................................................................................... 8
Write like a Chemist................................................................................................................... 9
Command words..................................................................................................................... 9
Practical Endorsement............................................................................................................. 10
How to write your required practical report.............................................................................. 10
Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC).....................................................................11
Required Practical Activities..................................................................................................... 12
Mathematical Skills.................................................................................................................. 12
Data Sheet............................................................................................................................... 13
Specification............................................................................................................................. 15
Course details
Qualification
AQA A-Level Chemistry

Specification
AS and A-level Chemistry Specification

Entry Requirements
 Grade 4 in GCSE English Language or GCSE English Literature, 5 in GCSE Maths
 If studying Single Sciences: Grade 6s in Chemistry and one other Science
 If studying Trilogy: Grade 66

Calendar
Half-
Year 12 Year 13
term
Teacher 1 Teacher 2 Teacher 1 Teacher 2
Rate equation
Atomic Structure
Structure and Equilibrium constant Carboxylic acids and
1 Amount of
Bonding Kp derivatives
Substance
Equilibria, Le
Redox equilibria and
Chatelier’s Energetics
Acids and bases Electrochemical
2 Principle and Kc Periodicity
Transition metals cells
Redox
Aromatic chemistry
Group 2:
Alkaline Earth Reactions of aqueous Period 3 Oxides
Introduction to
Metals ions in solution Aromatic Chemistry
3 Organic Chemistry
Group 7: Amino Acids, Proteins Amines
Alkanes
Halogens and DNA
Kinetics
Halogenoalkane
4 Alcohols Polymers Organic synthesis
s

5 Alkenes Organic Analysis Chromatography NMR

Optical Isomerism
Thermodynamic
6 Aldehydes and
s
Ketones

Contact details
Head of Science: Andrew Brown abrown01@[Link]
A-Level Chemistry teacher: Dr Jamadar kjamadar01@[Link]
A-Level Chemistry teacher: Mrs Milner cmilner01@[Link]
A-Level Chemistry teacher: Dr Wright gwright01@[Link]
Organisation
You are expected to maintain a well-organised folder, which will be checked by a teacher once
per half-term. You must use file dividers, and should contain the following sections:
1. Course documents
a. Specification
b. Teaching plan
c. Data Sheet
d. Learning outcome checklist
e. Assessment tracking sheet
2. Independent learning
a. 5 hours in… guidance and templates
b. A-Level Chemistry Revision booklet
c. Homework
d. Independent learning
3. Topic notes
a. Physical Chemistry
b. Inorganic Chemistry
c. Physical Chemistry
Notes from each lesson should have a title and date, and placed into your files so that you
have a useful set of notes from which you can revise.

Equipment
You must bring the following to all lessons:
 Black pens, green pen, mini-whiteboard pen, pencil.
 Scientific calculator
 30 cm Ruler
 Textbook (CGP A-Level Year 1 & AS Chemistry; AQA A-Level Chemistry Book 2 – both
available from the LRC)
 Lab book
Assessment
External assessments
A-Level Chemistry is a linear course, and you will sit all external exams at the end of Year 13.
These take the form of three papers, as shown below:
Paper 1 (2 hours – 105 marks)
Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.4, 3.1.6 to 3.1.8 and 3.1.10 to
3.1.12), inorganic
chemistry (section 3.2) and relevant practical skills.
Short and long answer questions. 35% of the A-level.
Paper 2 (2 hours – 105 marks)
Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.2 to 3.1.6 and 3.1.9), organic chemistry
(section 3.3) and
relevant practical skills.
Short and long answer questions. 35% of the A-level.
Paper 3 (2 hours – 90 marks)
Any content and any practical skills.
40 marks on practical techniques and data analysis, 20 marks testing across the specification
and
30 marks on multiple choice questions). 30% of the A-level.
Practical endorsement
The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of the course, and it will
appear on your certificate as a separately reported result. Teachers will assess you against
Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) (see page 9). You will be assessed during a
minimum of 12 practical activities over the two years, and you will need to keep a lab book
record of your practical work.

Grade boundaries
Below is an indication of the highest grade boundaries that have been used in AS and A-Level
Chemistry exams, up to 2023. These are indicative only – actual grade boundaries used for in-
class assessments may vary.

A-Level Chemistry (Year

Grade AS Chemistry (Year 12)
13)
A* 83 %
A 76 % 70 %
B 64 % 58 %
C 54 % 45 %
D 43 % 33 %
E 33 % 22 %
Internal assessments
You will have an end-of-topic assessment at the end of each unit, which will take the form of
past paper questions. Up to 25% of each assessment will comprise of questions from any of
your previous units (cumulative assessment), so it is important that you keep your revision of
all topics up-to-date. The table below shows the main assessment topic and the primary
cumulative assessment topic, however you may be asked questions from any of the previous
topics studied.
You will have one set of mock exams in Year 12, and two sets of mock exams in Year 13. These
mocks will cover all topics that have been covered up to that point in time.

Year 12
Hal Main assessment topic Spec Cumulative assessment topic Spec
f- . .
ter
m
1 Atomic Structure 3.1.1
1 Amount of Substance 3.1.2 Atomic Structure 3.1.1
1 Structure and Bonding 3.1.3
2 Equilibria, Le Chatelier’s Principle 3.1.6 3.1.2
Amount of Substance
and Kc
2 3.1.7 Equilibria, Le Chatelier’s Principle 3.1.6
Redox
and Kc
2 Energetics 3.1.4 Structure and Bonding 3.1.3
2 Periodicity 3.2.1 Energetics 3.1.4
3 Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals 3.2.2 Redox 3.1.7
3 Group 7: Halogens 3.2.3 Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals 3.2.2
3 Kinetics 3.1.5 Group 7: Halogens 3.2.3
3 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 3.3.1 Periodicity 3.2.1
3 Alkanes 3.3.2 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 3.3.1
4 Halogenoalkanes 3.3.3 Group 7: Halogens 3.2.3
4 Alcohols 3.3.5 Alkanes 3.3.2
5 Alkenes 3.3.4 Halogenoalkanes 3.3.3
5 Organic Analysis 3.3.6 Alcohols 3.3.5

Year 13
Hal Main assessment topic Spec Cumulative assessment topic Spec
f- . .
ter
m
6 Thermodynamics 3.1.8 Alkenes 3.3.4
6 Optical Isomerism 3.3.7 Organic Analysis 3.3.6
6 Aldehydes and Ketones 3.3.8 Optical Isomerism 3.3.7
1 Rate equation 3.1.9 Thermodynamics 3.1.8
1 Equilibrium constant Kp 3.1.1 Rate equation 3.1.9
0
1 Carboxylic acids and derivatives 3.3.9 Aldehydes and Ketones 3.3.8
2 3.1.1 Equilibrium constant Kp 3.1.1
Acids and bases
2 0
2 3.2.5 3.1.1
Transition metals Acids and bases
2
2 Redox equilibria and 3.1.1 Carboxylic acids and derivatives 3.3.9
Electrochemical cells 1
2 Aromatic chemistry 3.3.1 Redox equilibria and 3.1.1
0 Electrochemical cells 1
3 Reactions of aqueous ions in 3.2.6 Transition metals 3.2.5
 solution
3 3.3.1 Reactions of aqueous ions in 3.2.6
Amino Acids, Proteins and DNA
3 solution
3 3.2.4 Aromatic chemistry 3.3.1
Period 3 Oxides
0
3 3.3.1 3.2.4
Amines Period 3 Oxides
1
4 3.3.1 3.3.1
Polymers Amino Acids, Proteins and DNA
2 3
4 3.3.1 3.3.1
Organic Synthesis Amines
4 1
5 3.3.1 3.3.1
Chromatography Polymers
6 2
5 3.3.1 3.3.1
NMR Organic Synthesis
5 4
5 hours in… Chemistry
Research shows that the most successful students (i.e. those that make the most progress
and get the highest grades) are doing between 20 and 25 hours of independent study per
week by the end of Year 13. That may seem a lot, but it’s something that you would build up
to over the course of your A-Levels. In Year 12, we’re talking something more like 15 hours per
week. This equates to roughly 5 hours of independent study per A-Level per subject.
Independent study can be divided into three types – Consolidation, Reactive and Proactive.
Consolidation
The evening following a Chemistry lesson, you should spend 12-15 minutes (24-30 minutes
for a double) rereading your notes, writing a summary section at the bottom of your notes and
making relevant flashcards e.g. for equations, definitions, facts you need to recall etc.
Reactive
This is your ’homework’. Each of your chemistry teachers should give you at least 1 hours’
worth of homework each week. If they don’t – ask them for some! If you find this takes more
than 1 hour, that’s fine, you can take this from the proactive phase (not from the
consolidation phase though). Equally, if you find you finish your reactive work quickly, spend
more time on your proactive work.
Proactive
This is the section that will broaden and deepen your overall understanding of the subject you
are studying. It will not necessarily involve work that has been set by your teacher, but
instead it is about you doing the extra practice questions, reading articles, watching videos,
TED talks etc. This might contain some of the following:
 Complete a set of practice past paper questions (1 hour)
 Watch videos and complete exercises on UpLearn (60 mins)
 Use websites to complete and add to class notes (30 minutes)
 Use the specification checklist to evaluate your understanding (10 mins)
 Answer questions in your Required Practical booklet (30 mins)
 Practice exam questions from your Chemistry textbook or workbook (30 mins)
 “Read, Cover, Write and Check” sections of Knowledge organisers (30 mins)
 Complete a section of questions on Isaac Chemistry (30 minutes)
 Chemistry review articles from LRC (20 mins)
 Try a Chemistry Olympiad question, and analyse mark scheme (20 mins)
 Attempt some interesting questions on the Cambridge Chemistry Challenge (20 mins)
 Watch some videos and complete some quizzes on Seneca (30 mins)
Useful links
 365 [Link]
SitePages/[Link]
 AQA Past papers [Link]
 Chemrevise [Link]
 A-Level Chemistry [Link]
 Isaac Chemistry [Link]
 TED Talks [Link]
%5D=Science
 Chemistry Olympiad
[Link]
 Cambridge Chemistry Challenge [Link]
 Chemix: [Link]
  Seneca [Link]
 UpLearn [Link]

Super-curricular
Read
 The Disappearing Spoon and Other Extraordinary True Tales from the Periodic Table –
Sam Kean
 Chemistry for Breakfast: The Amazing Science of Everyday Life – Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim
 Periodic Tales: The Curious Lives of the Elements – Hugh Aldersey-Williams
 The Periodic Table – Primo Levi
 Grunt: The curious science of humans at war – Mary Roach

Watch
 Chemistry: A Volatile History BBC Four - Chemistry: A Volatile History - Episode guide
 Periodic Table of the Elements The Periodic Table of Videos - University of Nottingham
([Link])
 TED Talks: Ideas about Chemistry ([Link])

Listen
 Chemistry for your life - Chemistry For Your Life ([Link])
 Chemistry in its elements - Periodic Table: Podcast ([Link])

Compete
 UK Chemistry Olympiad (Jan Year 13) UK Chemistry Olympiad | RSC Education
 Cambridge Chemistry Challenge Lower Sixth (June Year 12) Cambridge Chemistry
Challenge
 School’s Analyst (June Year 12) Schools' Analyst | RSC Education

Online
 Royal Society of Chemistry: Support for students | RSC Education
 MaChemGuy: [Link]
 Chemguide: [Link]
 New Scientist: [Link]
 Compound Chem: Compound Interest – Explorations of everyday chemical compounds
 Unifrog: Chemistry : Subjects library
Write like a Chemist
It is important that you can explain yourself clearly in your written work. Writing like a
Chemist will ensure you are able to get your points across in an accurate and concise manner.
 Follow what the command word tells you.
 When answering levelled response questions, you can write in bullet points, which are
especially useful when describing a practical method.
 Concise and to the point.
 Sequence in a logical order.
 Use specific and scientific terminology (do not use ‘amount’, ‘it’ or ‘change’).
Use following words instead: in place of ‘amount’, use ‘mass’ for a solid, and ‘volume’ for a
liquid or gas. Instead of a quantity ‘changing’, use ‘increases’ or ‘decreases’ – be specific!

Command words
Analyse Interpret data to arrive at a conclusion.
Calculate Work out the value of something.
Comment Present an informed opinion.
Compare Identify similarities and/or differences.
Complete Finish a task by adding to given information.
Deduce Draw conclusions from information provided.
Define Specify meaning.
Describe Set out characteristics.
Design Set out how something will be done.
Determine Use given data or information to obtain an answer.
Draw Produce a diagram.
Estimate Assign an approximate value.
Evaluate Judge from available evidence.
Explain Set out purposes or reasons.
Give Produce an answer from recall or from given information.
Identify Name or otherwise characterise.
Justify Support a case with evidence.
Label Provide appropriate names on a diagram.
List List a number of features or points without further elaboration.
Name Identify using a recognised technical term.
Outline Set out main characteristics.
Predict Give a plausible outcome.
Show Provide structured evidence to reach a conclusion.
Sketch Draw approximately.
State Express in clear terms.
Suggest Present a possible case/solution.
Practical Endorsement

How to write your required practical report

Introduction

Here you outline the overall aim of the experiment. What are you trying to find out and how are
you going to do it?

Equipment

This can be a bulleted list, but you must include masses, volumes and concentrations of all
substances, as appropriate. You should also justify your use of each piece of equipment.

Method

If given one, you can use the method provided to you by your teacher. If not, ensure your method
is written with the appropriate amount of detail, which would allow another person to complete the
practical fully e.g. instead of add hydrochloric acid to the flask, say use a measuring cylinder to
measure 5cm3 0.1M HCl and add to a conical flask.

Variables

Identity the variables you will control during the experiment, along with the dependent and
independent variables, where appropriate.

Risk assessment

This can be written up as a table and should include Hazards, Risks and Precautions.

Amendments to written procedures

Indicate here whether or you made any changes to the method that was given to you. Explain why
these changes were necessary.

Safety issues

Make a statement here indicating whether or not there were any safety issues during the practical.
If there were, state what happened and what you did/what adjustments you made to the practical.

Results

These should be in table form where appropriate. The table should be drawn using a ruler, heading
should have units, it should be neat and all numbers written to an appropriate level of precision,
with a consistent number of decimal places. Repeats must be included in the table. Anomalies
must be identified and justified, and you must explain how you dealt with the anomaly.

Graphs should be large, ensuring more than half of an A4 page is used; have a title; have
appropriate scales on labelled axis with units; have neatly and accurately plotted points; and have
a line of best fit where appropriate.

Calculations

Calculations should be written very clearly, showing all steps. It should be evident to an observer
exactly what you are doing during the calculation. Where appropriate, annotate this section to
make each part clear. It should not be simply a series of equations with numbers only. All working
must be shown. Units must be clear throughout.

Conclusions

This section indicates the overall results of the practical. If you were asked any questions in the
practical worksheet, they should be answered here.
References

All references should be written according to the Harvard referencing system.

Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC)
Competency Practical mastery

(a) Correctly follows written instructions to

1. Follows written procedures carry out experimental techniques or
procedures.

(a) Correctly uses appropriate

instrumentation, apparatus and materials
(including ICT) to carry out investigative
activities, experimental techniques and
procedures with minimal assistance or
prompting.

(b) Carries out techniques or procedures

methodically, in sequence and in
2. Applies investigative approaches and
combination, identifying practical issues and
methods when using instruments and
making adjustments where necessary.
equipment
(c) Identifies and controls significant
quantitative variables where applicable, and
plans approaches to take account of
variables that cannot readily be controlled.

(d) Selects appropriate equipment and

measurement strategies in order to ensure
suitably accurate results.

(a) Identifies hazards and assesses risks

associated with those hazards, making
safety adjustments as necessary, when
carrying out experimental techniques and
3. Safely uses a range of practical equipment
procedures in the lab or field.
and materials
(b) Uses appropriate safety equipment and
approaches to minimise risks with minimal
prompting.

(a) Makes accurate observations relevant to

the experimental or investigative procedure.

4. Makes and records observations (b) Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient
data for experimental and investigative
procedures and records this methodically
using appropriate units and conventions.

(a) Uses appropriate software and/or tools to

process data, carry out research and report
findings.
5. Researches, references and reports
(b) Cites sources of information
demonstrating that research has taken
place, supporting planning and conclusions.
Required Practical Activities
1. Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a simple acid–base titration.
2. Measurement of an enthalpy change.
3. Investigation of how the rate of a reaction changes with temperature.
4. Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify: a) cations – Group 2, NH 4+; b) anions –
Group 7 (halide ions), OH–, CO32–, SO42–.
5. Distillation of a product from a reaction.
6. Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and carboxylic acid.
7. Measuring the rate of reaction: a) by an initial rate method; b) by a continuous
monitoring method.
8. Measuring the EMF of an electrochemical cell.
9. Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid reacts with a strong base and when a
strong acid reacts with a weak base.
[Link] of: a) a pure organic solid and test of its purity; b) a pure organic liquid.
[Link] out simple test-tube reactions to identify transition metal ions in aqueous
solution.
[Link] of species by thin-layer chromatography.

Mathematical Skills
20% of marks across your exam papers will assess mathematical skills including the following:
 Use of ratios, fractions and percentages
 Calculating averages and weighted averages (usually mean)
 Expressing answers with the correct precision (decimal places or significant figures)
 Using calculators to find and use power, exponential and logarithmic functions
 Rearranging equations
 Converting between units
 Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities
 Use of standard form
 Appreciate angles and symmetry in 2D and 3D shapes
 Plotting and interpreting graphs
 Calculating the gradient of a curve
 Translating graphical data into equations
 Calculating uncertainty
Data Sheet
Specification

Sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.7 of the Physical chemistry content, sections 3.2.1 to 3.2.3 of the
Inorganic chemistry content and sections 3.3.1 to 3.3.6 of the Organic chemistry content are
designed to be covered in the first year of the A-level and are also the AS subject content.
Each section begins with an overview, which puts the topic into a broader chemical context
and encourages understanding of the place of each topic within the subject. The overviews
are intended to encourage an overarching approach to both the teaching and learning of topic
areas. As such, they will not be directly assessed.
These specifications are presented in a two-column format. The left-hand column contains the
specification content that all students must cover, and that can be assessed in the written
papers. The right-hand column exemplifies the opportunities for skills to be developed
throughout the course. As such, knowledge of individual experiments on the right-hand side is
not assumed knowledge for the assessment.
The codes in the right-hand column refer to the skills in the relevant appendices. MS refers to
the Mathematical Skills, AT refers to the Apparatus and Techniques and PS refers to the
Practical Skills.

3.1 Physical chemistry

3.1.1 Atomic structure
The chemical properties of elements depend on their atomic structure and in particular on the
arrangement of electrons around the nucleus. The arrangement of electrons in orbitals is
linked to the way in which elements are organised in the Periodic Table. Chemists can
measure the mass of atoms and molecules to a high degree of accuracy in a mass
spectrometer. The principles of operation of a modern mass spectrometer are studied.

[Link] Fundamental particles

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Appreciate that knowledge and understanding

of atomic structure has evolved over time.
Protons, neutrons and electrons: relative
charge and relative mass.
An atom consists of a nucleus containing
protons and neutrons surrounded by
electrons.
[Link] Mass number and isotopes
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mass number (A) and atomic (proton) number MS 1.1

(Z). Students report calculations to
Students should be able to: an appropriate number of
significant figures, given raw
• determine the number of fundamental
data quoted to varying
particles in atoms and ions using mass numbers of significant figures.
number, atomic number and charge
• explain the existence of isotopes. MS 1.2

The principles of a simple time of flight (TOF) Students calculate weighted

mass spectrometer, limited to ionisation, means, eg calculation of an
acceleration to give all ions constant kinetic atomic mass based on
energy, ion drift, ion detection, data analysis. supplied isotopic abundances.

The mass spectrometer gives accurate MS 3.1

information about Students interpret and
relative isotopic mass and also about the analyse spectra.
relative abundance of isotopes.
Mass spectrometry can be used to identify
elements.
Mass spectrometry can be used to determine
relative molecular mass.
Students should be able to:
• interpret simple mass spectra of
elements
• calculate relative atomic mass from
isotopic abundance, limited to
mononuclear ions.
[Link] Electron configuration
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electron configurations of atoms and ions up

to Z = 36 in terms of shells and sub-shells
(orbitals) s, p and d.
Ionisation energies.
Students should be able to:
• define first ionisation energy
• write equations for first and successive
ionisation energies
• explain how first and successive
ionisation energies in Period 3 (Na–Ar)
and in Group 2 (Be–Ba) give evidence for
electron configuration in sub-shells and in
shells.
3.1.2 Amount of substance
When chemists measure out an amount of a substance, they use an amount in moles. The
mole is a useful quantity because one mole of a substance always contains the same number
of entities of the substance. An amount in moles can be measured out by mass in grams, by
volume in dm3 of a solution of known concentration and by volume in dm 3 of a gas.

[Link] Relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Relative atomic mass and relative molecular

mass in terms of 12C.
The term relative formula mass will be used
for ionic compounds.
Students should be able to:
• define relative atomic mass (Ar)
• define relative molecular mass (Mr).
[Link] The mole and the Avogadro constant
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The Avogadro constant as the number of MS 0.1

particles in a mole.
Students carry out
The mole as applied to electrons, atoms, calculations using numbers in
molecules, ions, formulas and equations. standard and ordinary form,
eg using the Avogadro
The concentration of a substance in solution,
constant.
measured in mol dm–3.
MS 0.4
Students should be able to carry out
calculations: Students carry out
calculations using the
• using the Avogadro constant Avogadro constant.
• using mass of substance, Mr, and amount
MS 1.1
in moles
• using concentration, volume and amount Students report calculations to
of substance in a solution. an appropriate number of
significant figures, given raw
Students will not be expected to recall the data quoted to varying
value of the Avogadro constant. numbers of significant figures.
Students understand that
calculated results can only be
reported to the limits of the
least accurate measurement.
[Link] The ideal gas equation
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The ideal gas equation pV = nRT with the AT a, b and k

variables in SI units.
PS 3.2
Students should be able to:
Students could be asked to
•use the equation in calculations. find the Mr of a volatile liquid.
Students will not be expected to recall the MS 0.0
value of the gas constant, R.
Students understand that the
correct units need to be in pV
= nRT.
MS 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
Students carry out
calculations with the ideal gas
equation, including
rearranging the ideal gas
equation to find unknown
quantities.
[Link] Empirical and molecular formula
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Empirical formula is the simplest whole AT a and k

number ratio of atoms of each element in a
PS 2.3 and 3.3
compound.
Students could be asked to
Molecular formula is the actual number of
find the empirical formula of a
atoms of each element in a compound.
metal oxide.
The relationship between empirical formula
and molecular formula.
Students should be able to:
• calculate empirical formula from data
giving composition by mass or
percentage by mass
• calculate molecular formula from the
empirical formula and relative molecular
mass.
[Link] Balanced equations and associated calculations
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Equations (full and ionic). AT a, d, e, f and k
Percentage atom economy is: PS 4.1
molecular mass of desired product Students could be asked to
× find:
100
sum of molecular masses of all reactants • the concentration of
ethanoic acid in vinegar
Economic, ethical and environmental
• the mass of calcium
advantages for society and for industry of
developing chemical processes with a high carbonate in an
atom economy. indigestion tablet
• the Mr of MHCO3
Students should be able to:
• the Mr of succinic acid
• write balanced equations for reactions
• the mass of aspirin in an
studied
aspirin tablet
• balance equations for unfamiliar
• the yield for the
reactions when reactants and products conversion of magnesium
are specified. to magnesium oxide
Students should be able to use balanced • the Mr of a hydrated salt
equations to calculate: (eg magnesium sulfate)
• masses by heating to constant
mass.
• volumes of gases
• percentage yields AT a and k
• percentage atom economies Students could be asked to
• concentrations and volumes for reactions find the percentage
in solutions. conversion of a Group 2
carbonate to its oxide by heat.
AT d, e, f and k
Students could be asked to
determine the number of
moles of water of
crystallisation in a hydrated
salt by titration.
MS 0.2
Students construct and/or
balance equations using
ratios.
Students calculate percentage
yields and atom economies of
reactions.
MS 1.2 and 1.3
Students select appropriate
titration data (ie identify
 outliers) in order to calculate
mean titres.
Students determine
uncertainty when two burette
readings are used to calculate
a titre value.

Content Opportunities for skills

development
Required practical 1
Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a
simple acid–base titration.

3.1.3 Bonding
The physical and chemical properties of compounds depend on the ways in which the
compounds are held together by chemical bonds and by intermolecular forces. Theories of
bonding explain how atoms or ions are held together in these structures. Materials scientists
use knowledge of structure and bonding to engineer new materials with desirable properties.
These new materials may offer new applications in a range of different modern technologies.

[Link] Ionic bonding

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction

between oppositely charged ions in a lattice.
The formulas of compound ions, eg sulfate,
hydroxide, nitrate, carbonate and ammonium.
Students should be able to:
• predict the charge on a simple ion using
the position of the element in the Periodic
Table
• construct formulas for ionic compounds.
[Link] Nature of covalent and dative covalent bonds
Content Opportunities for skills
development

A single covalent bond contains a shared pair

of electrons.
Multiple bonds contain multiple pairs of
electrons.
A co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond contains
a shared pair of electrons with both electrons
supplied by one atom.
Students should be able to represent:
• a covalent bond using a line
• a co-ordinate bond using an arrow.

1.3.3 Metallic bonding

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Metallic bonding involves attraction between

delocalised electrons and positive ions
arranged in a lattice.
[Link] Bonding and physical properties
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The four types of crystal structure: AT a, b, h and k

• ionic PS 1.1
• metallic Students could be asked to
• macromolecular (giant covalent) find the type of structure of
• molecular. unknowns by experiment (eg
to test solubility, conductivity
The structures of the following crystals as
and ease of melting).
examples of these four types of crystal
structure:
• diamond
• graphite
• ice
• iodine
• magnesium
• sodium chloride.
Students should be able to:
• relate the melting point and conductivity
of materials to the type of structure and
the bonding present
• explain the energy changes associated
with changes of state
• draw diagrams to represent these
structures involving specified numbers of
particles.
[Link] Shapes of simple molecules and ions

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Bonding pairs and lone (non-bonding) pairs of MS 0.3 and 4.1

electrons as charge clouds that repel each
Students could be given
other.
familiar and unfamiliar
Pairs of electrons in the outer shell of atoms examples of species and
arrange themselves as far apart as possible to asked to deduce the shape
minimise repulsion. according
to valence shell electron pair
Lone pair–lone pair repulsion is greater than
repulsion (VSEPR) principles.
lone pair– bond pair repulsion, which is
greater than bond pair–bond pair repulsion.
The effect of electron pair repulsion on bond
angles.
Students should be able to:
• explain the shapes of, and bond angles
in, simple molecules and ions with up to
six electron pairs (including lone pairs of
electrons) surrounding the central atom.
[Link] Bond polarity
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electronegativity as the power of an atom to

attract the pair of electrons in a covalent
bond.
The electron distribution in a covalent bond
between elements with different
electronegativities will be unsymmetrical. This
produces a polar covalent bond, and may
cause a molecule to have a permanent dipole.
Students should be able to:
• use partial charges to show that a bond
is polar
• explain why some molecules with polar
bonds do not have a permanent dipole.
[Link] Forces between molecules
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Forces between molecules: AT d and k

• permanent dipole–dipole forces PS 1.2
• induced dipole–dipole (van der Waals, Students could try to deflect
dispersion, London) forces jets of various liquids from
• hydrogen bonding. burettes to investigate the
The melting and boiling points of molecular presence of different types
substances are influenced by the strength of and relative size of
these intermolecular forces. intermolecular forces.

The importance of hydrogen bonding in the

low density of ice and the anomalous boiling
points of compounds.
Students should be able to:
• explain the existence of these forces
between familiar and unfamiliar
molecules
• explain how melting and boiling points
are influenced by these intermolecular
forces.

3.1.4 Energetics
The enthalpy change in a chemical reaction can be measured accurately. It is important to
know this value for chemical reactions that are used as a source of heat energy in
applications such as domestic boilers and internal combustion engines.

[Link] Enthalpy change

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions can be endothermic or exothermic.

Enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat energy
change measured under conditions of
constant pressure.
Standard enthalpy changes refer to standard
conditions, ie 100 kPa and a stated
temperature (eg ∆H298Ɵ).
Students should be able to:
• define standard enthalpy of combustion
(∆cHƟ)
• define standard enthalpy of formation
(∆fHƟ).
[Link] Calorimetry

Content Opportunities for skills

development

MS 0.0 and 1.1

The heat change, q, in a reaction is given by
the equation q = mc∆T Students understand that the
correct units need to be used
where m is the mass of the substance that has in q = mc∆T
a temperature change ∆T and a specific heat
Students report calculations to
capacity c. Students should be able to: an appropriate number of
• use this equation to calculate the molar significant figures, given raw
enthalpy change for a reaction data quoted to varying
numbers of significant figures.
• use this equation in related calculations.
Students understand that
Students will not be expected to recall the
calculated results can only be
value of the specific heat capacity, c, of a
reported to the limits of the
substance.
least accurate measurement.

Required practical 2 AT a and k

Measurement of an enthalpy change. PS 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 4.1
Students could be asked to
find ∆H for a reaction by
calorimetry.
Examples of reactions could
include:
• dissolution of potassium
chloride
• dissolution of sodium
carbonate
• neutralising NaOH with
HCl
• displacement reaction
between CuSO4 + Zn
• combustion of alcohols.
[Link] Applications of Hess’s law

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Hess’s law. MS 2.4

Students should be able to: Students carry out Hess's law
calculations.
• use Hess’s law to perform calculations,
including calculation of enthalpy changes AT a and k
for reactions from enthalpies of PS 2.4, 3.2 and 4.1
combustion or from enthalpies of
formation. Students could be asked to
find ∆H for a reaction using
Hess’s law and calorimetry,
then present data in
appropriate ways. Examples
of reactions could include:
• thermal decomposition of
NaHCO3
• hydration of MgSO4
• hydration of CuSO4

[Link] Bond enthalpies

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mean bond enthalpy. MS 1.2

Students should be able to: Students understand that
bond enthalpies are mean
• define the term mean bond enthalpy
values across a range of
• use mean bond enthalpies to calculate an
compounds containing that
approximate value of ∆H for reactions in bond.
the gaseous phase
• explain why values from mean bond
enthalpy calculations differ from those
determined using Hess’s law.
3.1.5 Kinetics
The study of kinetics enables chemists to determine how a change in conditions affects the
speed of a chemical reaction. Whilst the reactivity of chemicals is a significant factor in how
fast chemical reactions proceed, there are variables that can be manipulated in order to
speed them up or slow them down.

[Link] Collision theory

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions can only occur when collisions take

place between particles having sufficient
energy.
This energy is called the activation energy.
Students should be able to:
• define the term activation energy
• explain why most collisions do not lead to
a reaction.
[Link] Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular

energies in gases.
Students should be able to:
• draw and interpret distribution curves for
different temperatures.
[Link] Effect of temperature on reaction rate
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Meaning of the term rate of reaction. AT a, b, k and l
The qualitative effect of temperature changes PS 2.4 and 3.1
on the rate of reaction.
Students could investigate the
Students should be able to: effect of temperature on the
rate of reaction of sodium
• use the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
thiosulfate and hydrochloric
to explain why a small temperature
acid by an initial rate method.
increase can lead to a large increase in
rate. Research opportunity
Students could investigate
how knowledge and
understanding of the factors
that affect the rate of
chemical reaction have
changed methods of storage
 and cooking of food.
Required practical 3
Investigation of how the rate of a reaction
changes with temperature.
[Link] Effect of concentration and pressure
Content Opportunities for skills
development
The qualitative effect of changes in AT a, e, k and i
concentration on collision frequency.
Students could investigate the
The qualitative effect of a change in the effect of changing the
pressure of a gas on collision frequency. concentration of acid on the
Students should be able to: rate of a reaction of calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric
• explain how a change in concentration or acid by a continuous
a change in pressure influences the rate monitoring method.
of a reaction.
[Link] Catalysts
Content Opportunities for skills
development

A catalyst is a substance that increases the

rate of a chemical reaction without being
changed in chemical composition or amount.
Catalysts work by providing an alternative
reaction route of lower activation energy.
Students should be able to:
• use a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution to
help explain how a catalyst increases the
rate of a reaction involving a gas.
3.1.6 Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier’s principle and Kc
In contrast with kinetics, which is a study of how quickly reactions occur, a study of equilibria
indicates how far reactions will go. Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict the effects
of changes in temperature, pressure and concentration on the yield of a reversible reaction.
This has important consequences for many industrial processes. The further study of the
equilibrium constant, Kc, considers how the mathematical expression for the equilibrium
constant enables us to calculate how an equilibrium yield will be influenced by the
concentration of reactants and products.

[Link] Chemical equilibria and Le Chatelier's principle

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Many chemical reactions are reversible. PS 1.1

In a reversible reaction at equilibrium: Students could carry out test-
tube equilibrium shifts to show
• forward and reverse reactions proceed at
the effect of concentration
equal rates
and temperature (eg
• the concentrations of reactants and
Cu(H2O)62+ with concentrated
products remain constant HCl).
Le Chatelier’s principle.
Le Chatelier's principle can be used to predict
the effects of changes in temperature,
pressure and concentration on the position of
equilibrium in homogeneous reactions.
A catalyst does not affect the position of
equilibrium.
Students should be able to:
• use Le Chatelier’s principle to predict
qualitatively the effect of changes in
temperature, pressure and concentration
on the position of equilibrium
• explain why, for a reversible reaction
used in an industrial process, a
compromise temperature and pressure
may be used.
[Link] Equilibrium constant Kc for homogeneous systems
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The equilibrium constant Kc is deduced from MS 0.3

the equation for a reversible reaction. Students estimate the effect
The concentration, in mol dm , of a species X of changing experimental
–3

involved in the expression for Kc is parameters on a measurable

represented by [X] value, eg how the value of Kc
would change with
The value of the equilibrium constant is not temperature, given different
affected either by changes in concentration or specified conditions.
addition of a catalyst.
MS 1.1
Students should be able to:
Students report calculations to
• construct an expression for Kc for a an appropriate number of
homogeneous system in equilibrium significant figures, given raw
• calculate a value for Kc from the data quoted to varying
equilibrium concentrations for a numbers of significant figures.
homogeneous system at constant Students understand that
temperature calculated results can only be
• perform calculations involving Kc reported to the limits of the
• predict the qualitative effects of changes
least accurate measurement.
of temperature on the value of Kc MS 2.2 and 2.3
Students calculate the
concentration of a reagent at
equilibrium.
Students calculate the value
of an equilibrium constant Kc
PS 2.3
Students could determine the
equilibrium constant, Kc, for
the reaction of ethanol with
ethanoic acid in the presence
of a strong acid catalyst to
ethyl ethanoate.
3.1.7 Oxidation, reduction and redox equations
Redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent.
The change in the oxidation state of an element in a compound or ion is used to identify the
element that has been oxidised or reduced in a given reaction. Separate half-equations are
written for the oxidation or reduction processes. These half-equations can then be combined
to give an overall equation for any redox reaction.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Oxidation is the process of electron loss and

oxidising agents are electron acceptors.
Reduction is the process of electron gain and
reducing agents are electron donors.
The rules for assigning oxidation states.
Students should be able to:
• work out the oxidation state of an
element in a compound or ion from the
formula
• write half-equations identifying the
oxidation and reduction processes in
redox reactions
• combine half-equations to give an overall
redox equation.
3.1.8 Thermodynamics (A-level only)
The further study of thermodynamics builds on the Energetics section and is important in
understanding the stability of compounds and why chemical reactions occur. Enthalpy change
is linked with entropy change enabling the free-energy change to be calculated.

[Link] Born–Haber cycles (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Lattice enthalpy can be defined as either

enthalpy of lattice dissociation or enthalpy of
lattice formation.
Born–Haber cycles are used to calculate lattice
enthalpies using the following data:
• enthalpy of formation
• ionisation energy
• enthalpy of atomisation
• bond enthalpy
• electron affinity.
Students should be able to:
• define each of the above terms and
lattice enthalpy
• construct Born–Haber cycles to calculate
lattice enthalpies using these enthalpy
changes
• construct Born–Haber cycles to calculate
one of the other enthalpy changes
• compare lattice enthalpies from Born–
Haber cycles with those from calculations
based on a perfect ionic model to provide
evidence for covalent character in ionic
compounds.
Cycles are used to calculate enthalpies of
solution for ionic compounds from lattice
enthalpies and enthalpies of hydration.
Students should be able to:
• define the term enthalpy of hydration
• perform calculations of an enthalpy
change using these cycles.
[Link] Gibbs free-energy change, ∆G, and entropy change, ∆S (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

∆H, whilst important, is not sufficient to AT a, b and k

explain feasible change.
PS 3.2
The concept of increasing disorder (entropy
Students could be asked to
change, ∆S). find ∆S for vaporization of
∆S accounts for the above deficiency, water using a kettle.
illustrated by physical changes and chemical MS 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
changes.
Students rearrange the
The balance between entropy and enthalpy equation ∆G = ∆H – T∆S to
determines the feasibility of a reaction given find unknown values.
by the relationship:
MS 3.3
∆G = ∆H – T∆S (derivation not required).
Students determine ∆S and
For a reaction to be feasible, the value of ∆G ∆H from a graph of ∆G versus
must be zero or negative.
T.
Students should be able to:
• calculate entropy changes from absolute
entropy values
• use the relationship
∆G = ∆H – T∆S to determine how ∆G
varies with temperature
• use the relationship ∆G = ∆H – T∆S to
determine the temperature at which a
reaction becomes feasible.
3.1.9 Rate equations (A-level only)
In rate equations, the mathematical relationship between rate of reaction and concentration
gives information about the mechanism of a reaction that may occur in several steps.

[Link] Rate equations (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The rate of a chemical reaction is related to MS 0.0 and 2.4

the concentration of reactants by a rate Students use given rate data
equation of the form: Rate = k[A] [B] m n and deduce a rate equation,
then use some of the data to
where m and n are the orders of reaction with calculate the rate constant
respect to reactants A and B and k is the rate including units. Rate
constant. equations could be given and
The orders m and n are restricted to the students asked to calculate
values 0, 1, and 2. rate constant or rate.
The rate constant k varies with temperature MS 3.3 and 3.4
as shown by the equation: k = Ae–Ea/RT Students use a graph of
concentration–time and
where A is a constant, known as the Arrhenius calculate the rate constant of
constant, Ea is the activation energy and T is a zero-order reaction by
the temperature in K. determination of the gradient.
Students should be able to:
• define the terms order of reaction and
rate constant
• perform calculations using the rate
equation
• explain the qualitative effect of changes
in temperature on the rate constant k
• perform calculations using the equation k
= Ae–Ea/RT
• understand that the equation k = Ae–Ea/RT
can be rearranged into the form ln k = –
Ea /RT + ln A and know how to use this
rearranged equation with experimental
data to plot a straight line graph with
slope –Ea/R
These equations and the gas constant, R, will
be given when required.
[Link] Determination of rate equation (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
The rate equation is an experimentally AT a, b, k and l
determined relationship.
PS 2.4 and 3.1
The orders with respect to reactants can
Students could determine the
provide information about the mechanism of a
order of reaction for a reactant
reaction.
in the iodine clock reaction.
Students should be able to:
MS 3.1
• use concentration–time graphs to deduce Students could be given data
the rate of a reaction to plot and interpret in terms
• use initial concentration–time data to of order with respect to a
deduce the initial rate of a reaction reactant. Alternatively,
• use rate–concentration data or graphs to students could just be given
deduce the order (0, 1 or 2) with respect appropriate graphs and asked
to a reactant to derive order(s).
• derive the rate equation for a reaction MS 3.3 and 3.4
from the orders with respect to each of
Students calculate the rate
the reactants
constant of a zero-order
• use the orders with respect to reactants
reaction by determining the
to provide information about the rate gradient of a concentration–
determining/limiting step of a reaction. time graph.
MS 3.5
Students plot concentration–
time graphs from collected or
supplied data and draw an
appropriate best-fit curve.
Students draw tangents to
such curves to deduce rates at
different times.
Required practical 7
Measuring the rate of reaction:
• by an initial rate method
• by a continuous monitoring method.
3.1.10 Equilibrium constant Kp for homogeneous systems (A-level
only)
The further study of equilibria considers how the mathematical expression for the equilibrium
constant Kp enables us to calculate how an equilibrium yield will be influenced by the partial
pressures of reactants and products. This has important consequences for many industrial
processes.

Content Opportunities for skills

development
The equilibrium constant Kp is deduced from MS 1.1
the equation for a reversible reaction Students report calculations
occurring in the gas phase. to an appropriate number of
Kp is the equilibrium constant calculated from significant figures, given raw
partial pressures for a system at constant data quoted to varying
temperature. numbers of significant
figures.
Students should be able to:
Students understand that
• derive partial pressure from mole fraction calculated results can only be
and total pressure reported to the limits of the
• construct an expression for Kp for a least accurate measurement.
homogeneous system in equilibrium MS 2.2 and 2.3
• perform calculations involving Kp
Students calculate the partial
• predict the qualitative effects of changes pressures of reactants and
in temperature and pressure on the products at equilibrium.
position of equilibrium
Students calculate the value
• predict the qualitative effects of changes
of an equilibrium constant Kp
in temperature on the value of Kp
• understand that, whilst a catalyst can
affect the rate of attainment of an
equilibrium, it does not affect the value of
the equilibrium constant.
3.1.11 Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level
only)
Redox reactions take place in electrochemical cells where electrons are transferred from the
reducing agent to the oxidising agent indirectly via an external circuit. A potential difference is
created that can drive an electric current to do work. Electrochemical cells have very
important commercial applications as a portable supply of electricity to power electronic
devices such as mobile phones, tablets and laptops. On a larger scale, they can provide
energy to power a vehicle.

[Link] Electrode potentials and cells (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

IUPAC convention for writing half-equations for AT j and k

electrode reactions.
PS 1.1
The conventional representation of cells.
Students could make simple
Cells are used to measure electrode potentials cells and use them to measure
by reference to the standard hydrogen unknown electrode potentials.
electrode.
AT a, b, j and k
The importance of the conditions when
PS 2.1 and 2.4
measuring the electrode potential, E (Nernst
equation not required). Students could be asked to
plan and carry out an
Standard electrode potential, EƟ, refers to experiment to investigate the
conditions of 298 K, 100 kPa and 1.00 mol effect of changing conditions,
dm−3 solution of ions. such as concentration or
temperature, in a voltaic cell
Standard electrode potentials can be listed as
such as Zn|Zn2+||Cu2+|
an electrochemical series.
Cu
Students should be able to:
AT j and k
• use EƟ values to predict the direction of
PS 2.2
simple redox reactions
• calculate the EMF of a cell Students could use EƟ values
• write and apply the conventional to predict the direction of
representation of a cell. simple redox reactions, then
test these predictions by
simple test-tube reactions.

Required practical 8
Measuring the EMF of an electrochemical cell.
[Link] Commercial applications of electrochemical cells (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Electrochemical cells can be used as a Research opportunity
commercial source of electrical energy.
Students could investigate
The simplified electrode reactions in a lithium how knowledge and
cell: understanding of
electrochemical cells has
Positive electrode: Li+ + CoO2 + e– → Li+
evolved from the first voltaic
[CoO2]–
battery.
Negative electrode: Li → Li+ + e–
Cells can be non-rechargeable (irreversible),
rechargeable or fuel cells.
Fuel cells are used to generate an electric
current and do not need to be electrically
recharged.
The electrode reactions in an alkaline
hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell.
The benefits and risks to society associated
with using these cells.
Students should be able to:
• use given electrode data to deduce the
reactions occurring in non-rechargeable
and rechargeable cells
• deduce the EMF of a cell
• explain how the electrode reactions can
be used to generate an electric current.
3.1.12 Acids and bases (A-level only)
Acids and bases are important in domestic, environmental and industrial contexts. Acidity in
aqueous solutions is caused by hydrogen ions and a logarithmic scale, pH, has been devised
to measure acidity. Buffer solutions, which can be made from partially neutralised weak acids,
resist changes in pH and find many important industrial and biological applications.

[Link] Brønsted–Lowry acid–base equilibria in aqueous solution (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

An acid is a proton donor.

A base is a proton acceptor.
Acid–base equilibria involve the transfer of
protons.
[Link] Definition and determination of pH (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The concentration of hydrogen ions in MS 0.4

aqueous solution covers a very wide range. Students carry out pH
Therefore, a logarithmic scale, the pH scale, calculations.
is used as a measure of hydrogen ion
MS 2.5
concentration. pH = –log10[H+]
Students could be given
Students should be able to: concentration values and
• convert concentration of hydrogen ions asked to calculate pH or vice
into pH and vice versa versa.
• calculate the pH of a solution of a strong
acid from its concentration.
[Link] The ionic product of water, Kw (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Water is slightly dissociated. MS 0.1

Kw is derived from the equilibrium constant for Students use an appropriate
this dissociation. number of decimal places in
pH calculations.
Kw = [H+][OH–]
Students understand standard
The value of Kw varies with temperature. form when applied to areas
Students should be able to: such as (but not limited to) Kw

• use Kw to calculate the pH of a strong MS 2.2

base from its concentration. Students use Kw = [H+][OH–]
to find the pH of strong bases.
[Link] Weak acids and bases Ka for weak acids (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Weak acids and weak bases dissociate only MS 0.0

slightly in aqueous solution.
Students carry out pKa
Ka is the dissociation constant for a calculations and give
appropriate units.
weak acid. pKa = –log10 Ka
MS 0.1
Students should be able to:
Students understand standard
• construct an expression for Ka form when applied to areas
• perform calculations relating the pH of a such as (but not limited to) Ka
weak acid to the concentration of the AT a, c, d, e, f and k
acid and the dissociation constant, Ka
PS 2.3
• convert Ka into pKa and vice versa.
Students could calculate Ka of
a weak acid by measuring the
pH at half neutralisation.
[Link] pH curves, titrations and indicators (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Titrations of acids with bases. MS 3.2
Students should be able to: AT a, c, d and k
• perform calculations for these titrations PS 3.2 and 4.1
based on experimental results. Students could plot pH curves
Typical pH curves for acid–base titrations in all to show how pH changes
combinations of weak and strong monoprotic during reactions.
acids and bases.
Students should be able to:
• sketch and explain the shapes of typical
pH curves
• use pH curves to select an appropriate
indicator.
Required practical 9
Investigate how pH changes when a weak
acid reacts with a strong base and when a
strong acid reacts with a weak base.
[Link] Buffer action (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

A buffer solution maintains an approximately AT a, c, e and k

constant pH, despite dilution or addition of PS 1.1
small amounts of acid or base.
Students could be asked to
Acidic buffer solutions contain a weak acid
and the salt of that weak acid. prepare and test a buffer
solution with a specific pH
Basic buffer solutions contain a weak base
value.
and the salt of that weak base.
MS 0.4
Applications of buffer solutions.
Students make appropriate
Students should be able to:
mathematical approximations
• explain qualitatively the action of acidic in buffer calculations.
and basic buffers
• calculate the pH of acidic buffer solutions.
3.2 Inorganic chemistry
3.2.1 Periodicity
The Periodic Table provides chemists with a structured organisation of the known chemical
elements from which they can make sense of their physical and chemical properties. The
historical development of the Periodic Table and models of atomic structure provide good
examples of how scientific ideas and explanations develop over time.

[Link] Classification
Content Opportunities for skills
development

An element is classified as s, p, d or f block

according to its position in the Periodic Table,
which is determined by its proton number.
[Link] Physical properties of Period 3 elements
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The trends in atomic radius, first ionisation

energy and melting point of the elements Na–
Ar
The reasons for these trends in terms of the
structure of and bonding in the elements.
Students should be able to:
• explain the trends in atomic radius and
first ionisation energy
• explain the melting point of the elements
in terms of their structure and bonding.
3.2.2 Group 2, the alkaline earth metals
The elements in Group 2 are called the alkaline earth metals. The trends in the solubilities of
the hydroxides and the sulfates of these elements are linked to their use. Barium sulfate,
magnesium hydroxide and magnesium sulfate have applications in medicines whilst calcium
hydroxide is used in agriculture to change soil pH, which is essential for good crop production
and maintaining the food supply.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

The trends in atomic radius, first ionisation AT c and k

energy and melting point of the elements PS 2.2
Mg–Ba Students should be able to: Students could test the
• explain the trends in atomic radius and reactions of Mg–Ba with water
first ionisation energy and Mg with steam and record
• explain the melting point of the elements their results.
in terms of their structure and bonding. AT d and k
The reactions of the elements Mg–Ba with PS 2.2
water.
Students could test the
The use of magnesium in the extraction of solubility of Group 2
titanium from TiCl4 hydroxides by mixing
solutions of soluble Group 2
The relative solubilities of the hydroxides of salts with sodium hydroxide
the elements Mg–Ba in water. and record their results.
Mg(OH)2 is sparingly soluble. Students could test the
The use of Mg(OH)2 in medicine and of solubility of Group 2 sulfates
Ca(OH)2 in agriculture. by mixing solutions of soluble
Group 2 salts with sulfuric
The use of CaO or CaCO3 to remove SO2 from acid and record their results.
flue gases.
Students could test for sulfate
The relative solubilities of the sulfates of the ions using acidified barium
elements Mg–Ba in water. chloride and record their
BaSO4 is insoluble. results.
Research opportunity
The use of acidified BaCl2 solution to test for
sulfate ions. Students could investigate the
use of BaSO4 in medicine.
The use of BaSO4 in medicine.
Students should be able to:
• explain why BaCl2 solution is used to test
for sulfate ions and why it is acidified.
3.2.3 Group 7(17), the halogens
The halogens in Group 7 are very reactive non-metals. Trends in their physical properties are
examined and explained. Fluorine is too dangerous to be used in a school laboratory but the
reactions of chlorine are studied. Challenges in studying the properties of elements in this
group include explaining the trends in ability of the halogens to behave as oxidising agents
and the halide ions to behave as reducing agents.

[Link] Trends in properties

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The trends in electronegativity and boiling AT d and k

point of the halogens.
PS 2.2
Students should be able to:
Students could carry out test-
• explain the trend in electronegativity tube reactions of solutions of
• explain the trend in the boiling point of the halogens
the elements in terms of their structure (Cl2, Br2, I2) with solutions
and bonding. containing their halide ions
(eg KCl, KBr, KI).
The trend in oxidising ability of the halogens
down the group, including displacement Students could record
reactions of halide ions in aqueous solution. observations from reactions of
NaCl, NaBr and NaI with
The trend in reducing ability of the halide concentrated sulfuric acid.
ions, including the reactions of solid sodium
halides with concentrated sulfuric acid. Students could carry out tests
for halide ions using acidified
The use of acidified silver nitrate solution to
silver nitrate, including the
identify and distinguish between halide ions.
use of ammonia to distinguish
The trend in solubility of the silver halides in the silver halides formed.
ammonia.
Students should be able to explain why:
• silver nitrate solution is used to identify
halide ions
• the silver nitrate solution is acidified
• ammonia solution is added.
[Link] Uses of chlorine and chlorate(I)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
The reaction of chlorine with water to form Research opportunity
chloride ions and chlorate(I) ions.
Students could investigate the
The reaction of chlorine with water to form treatment of drinking water
chloride ions and oxygen. with chlorine.
Appreciate that society assesses the Students could investigate the
advantages and disadvantages when deciding addition of sodium fluoride to
if chemicals should be added to water water supplies.
supplies.
The use of chlorine in water treatment.
Appreciate that the benefits to health of water
treatment by chlorine outweigh its toxic
effects.
The reaction of chlorine with cold, dilute,
aqueous NaOH and uses of the solution
formed.
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Required practical 4
Carry out simple test-tube reactions to
identify:
• cations – Group 2, NH4+
• anions – Group 7 (halide ions), OH–, CO32–,
SO42–
3.2.4 Properties of Period 3 elements and their oxides (A-level
only)
The reactions of the Period 3 elements with oxygen are considered. The pH of the solutions
formed when the oxides react with water illustrates further trends in properties across this
period. Explanations of these reactions offer opportunities to develop an in-depth
understanding of how and why these reactions occur.

Content Opportunities for skills development

The reactions of Na and Mg with water. AT a, c and k
The trends in the reactions of the elements PS 2.2
Na, Mg, Al, Si, Students could carry out
P and S with oxygen, limited to the formation reactions of elements with
of Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3 oxygen and test the pH of the
The trend in the melting point of the highest resulting oxides.
oxides of the elements Na–S
The reactions of the oxides of the elements
Na–S with water, limited to Na2O, MgO, Al2O3,
SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3, and the pH of the
solutions formed.
The structures of the acids and the anions
formed when P4O10, SO2 and SO3 react with
water.
Students should be able to:
• explain the trend in the melting point of
the oxides of the elements Na–S in terms
of their structure and bonding
• explain the trends in the reactions of the
oxides with water in terms of the type of
bonding present in each oxide
• write equations for the reactions that
occur between the oxides of the elements
Na–S and given acids and bases.
3.2.5 Transition metals (A-level only)
The 3d block contains 10 elements, all of which are metals. Unlike the metals in Groups 1 and
2, the transition metals Ti to Cu form coloured compounds and compounds where the
transition metal exists in different oxidation states. Some of these metals are familiar as
catalysts. The properties of these elements are studied in this section with opportunities for a
wide range of practical investigations.

[Link] General properties of transition metals (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal characteristics of elements

Ti–Cu arise from an incomplete d sub-level in
atoms or ions.
The characteristic properties include:
• complex formation
• formation of coloured ions • variable
oxidation state
• catalytic activity.
A ligand is a molecule or ion that forms a co-
ordinate bond with a transition metal by
donating a pair of electrons.
A complex is a central metal atom or ion
surrounded by ligands.
Co-ordination number is number of co-
ordinate bonds to the central metal atom or
ion.
[Link] Substitution reactions (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

H2O, NH3 and Cl− can act as monodentate AT d and k

ligands.
PS 1.2
The ligands NH3 and H2O are similar in size Students could carry out test-
and are uncharged. tube reactions of complexes
Exchange of the ligands NH3 and H2O occurs with monodentate, bidentate
and multidentate ligands to
without change of co-ordination number (eg
compare ease of substitution.
Co2+ and Cu2+).
AT d and k
Substitution may be incomplete (eg the
formation of [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+). PS 2.2
Students could carry out test-
The Cl− ligand is larger than the uncharged
tube reactions of solutions of
ligands NH3 and H2O metal aqua ions with
Exchange of the ligand H2O by Cl– can involve ammonia or concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
a change of co-ordination number (eg Co2+,
Cu2+ and Fe3+).

Ligands can be bidentate (eg H2NCH2CH2NH2

and C2O42–).
Ligands can be multidentate (eg EDTA4–).
Haem is an iron(II) complex with a
multidentate ligand.
Oxygen forms a co-ordinate bond to Fe(II) in
haemoglobin, enabling oxygen to be
transported in the blood.
Carbon monoxide is toxic because it replaces
oxygen coordinately bonded to Fe(II) in
haemoglobin.
Bidentate and multidentate ligands replace
monodentate ligands from complexes. This is
called the chelate effect.
Students should be able to:
• explain the chelate effect, in terms of the
balance between the entropy and
enthalpy change in these reactions.
[Link] Shapes of complex ions (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal ions commonly form MS 4.1 and 4.2

octahedral complexes with small ligands (eg Students understand and draw
H2O and NH3). the shape of complex ions.
Octahedral complexes can display cis–trans MS 4.3
isomerism (a special case of E–Z isomerism)
with monodentate ligands and optical Students understand the
isomerism with bidentate ligands. origin of cis– trans and optical
isomerism.
Transition metal ions commonly form
tetrahedral complexes with larger ligands (eg Students draw cis–trans and
Cl–). optical isomers.
Students describe the types of
Square planar complexes are also formed and
stereoisomerism shown by
can display cis–trans isomerism.
molecules/ complexes.
Cisplatin is the cis isomer.
Ag+ forms the linear complex [Ag(NH3)2]+ as
used in Tollens’ reagent.
[Link] Formation of coloured ions (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal ions can be identified by their PS 3.1 and 3.2

colour. Students could determine the
Colour arises when some of the wavelengths concentration of a solution of
of visible light are absorbed and the copper(II) ions by colorimetry.
remaining wavelengths of light are MS 3.1 and 3.2
transmitted or reflected.
Students determine the
d electrons move from the ground state to an
concentration
excited state when light is absorbed.
of a solution from a graph of
The energy difference between the ground absorption versus
state and the excited state of the d electrons concentration.
is given by:
AT a, e and k
∆E = hν = hc/λ
Students could determine the
Changes in oxidation state, co-ordination concentration of a coloured
number and ligand alter ∆E and this leads to a complex ion by colorimetry.
change in colour.
The absorption of visible light is used in
spectroscopy.
A simple colorimeter can be used to
determine the concentration of coloured ions
in solution.
[Link] Variable oxidation states (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition elements show variable oxidation AT d and k

states.
PS 1.2
Vanadium species in oxidation states IV, III Students could reduce
and II are formed by the reduction of vanadate(V) with zinc in acidic
vanadate(V) ions by zinc in acidic solution. solution.
The redox potential for a transition metal ion AT b, d and k
changing from a higher to a lower oxidation
state is influenced by pH and by the ligand. PS 4.1

The reduction of [Ag(NH3)2]+ (Tollens’ reagent) Students could carry out test-
to metallic silver is used to distinguish tube reactions of Tollens'
reagent to distinguish
between aldehydes and ketones.
aldehydes and ketones.
The redox titrations of Fe and C2O4 with
2+ 2–
AT a, d, e and k
MnO4 Students should be able to:
–
PS 2.3, 3.2 and 3.3
• perform calculations for these titrations Students could carry out
and similar redox reactions. redox titrations.
Examples include, finding:
• the mass of iron in an
iron tablet
• the percentage of iron in
steel
• the Mr of hydrated
ammonium iron(II) sulfate
• the Mr of ethanedioic acid
• the concentration of H2O2
in hair bleach.
[Link] Catalysts (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metals and their compounds can AT d and k

act as heterogeneous and homogeneous
PS 4.1
catalysts.
Students could investigate
A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different
Mn2+ as the autocatalyst in
phase from the reactants and the reaction
the reaction between
occurs at active sites on the surface.
ethanedioic acid and acidified
The use of a support medium to maximise the potassium manganate(VII).
surface area of a heterogeneous catalyst and
minimise the cost.
V2O5 acts as a heterogeneous catalyst in the
Contact process.
Fe is used as a heterogeneous catalyst in the
Haber process.
Heterogeneous catalysts can become
poisoned by impurities that block the active
sites and consequently have reduced
efficiency; this has a cost implication.
A homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase
as the reactants.
When catalysts and reactants are in the same
phase, the reaction proceeds through an
intermediate species.
Students should be able to:
• explain the importance of variable
oxidation states in catalysis
• explain, with the aid of equations, how
V2O5 acts as a catalyst in the Contact
process
• explain, with the aid of equations, how
Fe2+ ions catalyse the reaction between I−
and S2O82–
• explain, with the aid of equations, how
Mn2+ ions autocatalyse the reaction
between C2O42– and
MnO4–
3.2.6 Reactions of ions in aqueous solution (A-level only)
The reactions of transition metal ions in aqueous solution provide a practical opportunity for
students to show and to understand how transition metal ions can be identified by test-tube
reactions in the laboratory.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

In aqueous solution, the following metal-aqua AT d and K

ions are formed:
PS 1.2
[M(H2O)6] , limited to M = Fe and Cu
2+
Students could carry out test-
[M(H2O)6]3+, limited to M = Al and Fe tube reactions of metal-aqua
ions with NaOH, NH3 and
The acidity of [M(H2O)6]3+ is greater than that Na2CO3
of [M(H2O)6]2+ AT d and k
Some metal hydroxides show amphoteric PS 2.2
character by dissolving in both acids and
Students could carry out test-
bases (eg hydroxides of Al3+).
tube reactions to identify the
Students should be able to: positive and negative ions in
this specification.
• explain, in terms of the charge/size ratio
of the metal ion, why the acidity of PS 1.1
[M(H2O)6]3+ is greater than that of Students could identify
[M(H2O)6]2+ unknown substances using
reagents.
• describe and explain the simple test-tube
reactions of: M2+(aq) ions, limited to M =
Fe and Cu, and of M3+(aq) ions, limited to
M = Al and Fe, with the bases OH–, NH3
and CO32–

Required practical 11
Carry out simple test-tube reactions to
identify transition metal ions in aqueous
solution.
3.3 Organic chemistry
3.3.1 Introduction to organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of the millions of covalent compounds of the element carbon.
These structurally diverse compounds vary from naturally occurring petroleum fuels to DNA
and the molecules in living systems. Organic compounds also demonstrate human ingenuity
in the vast range of synthetic materials created by chemists. Many of these compounds are
used as drugs, medicines and plastics.
Organic compounds are named using the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) system and the structure or formula of molecules can be represented in various
different ways. Organic mechanisms are studied, which enable reactions to be explained.
In the search for sustainable chemistry, for safer agrochemicals and for new materials to
match the desire for new technology, Chemistry plays the dominant role.

[Link] Nomenclature
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Organic compounds can be represented by:

• empirical formula
• molecular formula
• general formula
• structural formula
• displayed formula
• skeletal formula.
The characteristics of a homologous series, a
series of compounds containing the same
functional group.
IUPAC rules for nomenclature.
Students should be able to:
• draw structural, displayed and skeletal
formulas for given organic compounds
• apply IUPAC rules for nomenclature to
name organic compounds limited to
chains and rings with up to six carbon
atoms each
• apply IUPAC rules for nomenclature to
draw the structure of an organic
compound from the IUPAC name limited
to chains and rings with up to six carbon
atoms each.
[Link] Reaction mechanisms
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions of organic compounds can be

explained using mechanisms.
Free-radical mechanisms:
• the unpaired electron in a radical is
represented by a dot
• the use of curly arrows is not required for
radical mechanisms.
Students should be able to:
• write balanced equations for the steps in
a free radical mechanism.

Other mechanisms:
• the formation of a covalent bond is shown
by a curly arrow that starts from a lone
electron pair or from another covalent
bond
• the breaking of a covalent bond is shown
by a curly arrow starting from the bond.
Students should be able to:
• outline mechanisms by drawing the
structures of the species involved and
curly arrows to represent the movement
of electron pairs.

.3.1.3 Isomerism
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Structural isomerism. MS 4.2

Stereoisomerism. Students could be given the
structure of one isomer and
E–Z isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism
asked to draw
and occurs as a result of restricted rotation
further isomers. Various
about the planar carbon– carbon double bond.
representations could be used
Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP) priority rules. to give the opportunity to
Students should be able to: identify those that are
isomeric.
• define the term structural isomer
MS 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3
• draw the structures of chain, position and
functional group isomers Students understand the
• define the term stereoisomer origin of E–Z isomerism.
• draw the structural formulas of E and Z Students draw different forms
 isomers of isomers.
• apply the CIP priority rules to E and Z
isomers.

3.3.2 Alkanes
Alkanes are the main constituent of crude oil, which is an important raw material for the
chemical industry. Alkanes are also used as fuels and the environmental consequences of this
use are considered in this section.

[Link] Fractional distillation of crude oil

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. AT a, d and k

Petroleum is a mixture consisting mainly of PS 1.2
alkane hydrocarbons that can be separated Fractional distillation of a
by fractional distillation. crude oil substitute.
[Link] Modification of alkanes by cracking
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Cracking involves breaking C–C bonds in

alkanes.
Thermal cracking takes place at high pressure
and high temperature and produces a high
percentage of alkenes (mechanism not
required).
Catalytic cracking takes place at a slight
pressure, high temperature and in the
presence of a zeolite catalyst and is used
mainly to produce motor fuels and aromatic
hydrocarbons (mechanism not required).
Students should be able to:
• explain the economic reasons for cracking
alkanes.
[Link] Combustion of alkanes
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkanes are used as fuels.

Combustion of alkanes and other organic
compounds can be complete or incomplete.
The internal combustion engine produces a
number of pollutants including NOx, CO,
carbon and unburned hydrocarbons.
These gaseous pollutants from internal
combustion engines can be removed using
catalytic converters.
Combustion of hydrocarbons containing sulfur
leads to sulfur dioxide that causes air
pollution.
Students should be able to:
• explain why sulfur dioxide can be
removed from flue gases using calcium oxide
or calcium carbonate.

[Link] Chlorination of alkanes

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The reaction of methane with chlorine.

Students should be able to:
• explain this reaction as a free-radical
substitution mechanism involving
initiation, propagation and termination
steps.
3.3.3 Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes are much more reactive than alkanes. They have many uses, including as
refrigerants, as solvents and in pharmaceuticals. The use of some halogenoalkanes has been
restricted due to the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the atmosphere.

[Link] Nucleophilic substitution

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Halogenoalkanes contain polar bonds. AT a, b and k

Halogenoalkanes undergo substitution PS 4.1
reactions with the nucleophiles OH–, CN– and Students could follow
NH3 Students should be able to: instructions when carrying out
test-tube hydrolysis of
• outline the nucleophilic substitution halogenoalkanes to show their
mechanisms of these reactions relative rates of reaction.
• explain why the carbon–halogen bond AT d, g and k
enthalpy influences the rate of reaction.
Students could prepare a
chloroalkane, purifying the
product using a separating
funnel and distillation.
[Link] Elimination
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The concurrent substitution and elimination

reactions of a halogenoalkane (eg 2-
bromopropane with potassium hydroxide).
Students should be able to:
• explain the role of the reagent as both
nucleophile and base
• outline the mechanisms of these
reactions.
[Link] Ozone depletion
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Ozone, formed naturally in the upper Research opportunity

atmosphere, is beneficial because it absorbs
Students could investigate the
ultraviolet radiation.
role of chemists in the
Chlorine atoms are formed in the upper introduction of legislation to
atmosphere when ban the use of CFCs and in
ultraviolet radiation causes C–Cl bonds in finding replacements.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to break.
Chlorine atoms catalyse the decomposition of
ozone and contribute to the hole in the ozone
layer.
Appreciate that results of research by different
groups in the scientific community provided
evidence for legislation to ban the use of CFCs
as solvents and refrigerants. Chemists have
now developed alternative chlorine-free
compounds.
Students should be able to:
• use equations, such as the following, to
explain how chlorine atoms catalyse
decomposition of ozone:
Cl• + O3 → ClO• + O2 and ClO• + O3 → 2O2 +
Cl•

3.3.4 Alkenes
In alkenes, the high electron density of the carbon–carbon double bond leads to attack on
these molecules by electrophiles. This section also covers the mechanism of addition to the
double bond and introduces addition polymers, which are commercially important and have
many uses in modern society.

[Link] Structure, bonding and reactivity

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Bonding in alkenes involves a double covalent
bond, a centre of high electron density.
[Link] Addition reactions of alkenes
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with AT d and k
HBr,
PS 4.1
H2SO4 and Br2
Students could test organic
The use of bromine to test for unsaturation. compounds for unsaturation
The formation of major and minor products in using bromine water and
addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes. record their observations.
Students should be able to:
• outline the mechanisms for these
reactions
• explain the formation of major and minor
products by reference to the relative
stabilities of primary, secondary and
tertiary carbocation intermediates.
[Link] Addition polymers
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Addition polymers are formed from alkenes AT k
and substituted alkenes.
PS 1.2
The repeating unit of addition polymers.
Making poly(phenylethene)
IUPAC rules for naming addition polymers. from phenylethene.
Addition polymers are unreactive.
Appreciate that knowledge and understanding
of the production and properties of polymers
has developed over time.
Typical uses of poly(chloroethene), commonly
known as PVC, and how its properties can be
modified using a plasticiser.
Students should be able to:
• draw the repeating unit from a monomer
structure
• draw the repeating unit from a section of
the polymer chain
• draw the structure of the monomer from
a section of the polymer
• explain why addition polymers are
unreactive
• explain the nature of intermolecular
forces between molecules of polyalkenes.
3.3.5 Alcohols
Alcohols have many scientific, medicinal and industrial uses. Ethanol is one such alcohol and
it is produced using different methods, which are considered in this section. Ethanol can be
used as a biofuel.

[Link] Alcohol production

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Alcohols are produced industrially by AT a, d and k
hydration of alkenes in the presence of an
PS 1.2
acid catalyst.
Students could produce
Ethanol is produced industrially by
ethanol by fermentation,
fermentation of glucose. The conditions for
followed by purification by
this process.
fractional distillation.
Ethanol produced industrially by fermentation
is separated by fractional distillation and can
then be used as a biofuel.
Students should be able to:
• explain the meaning of the term biofuel
• justify the conditions used in the
production of ethanol by fermentation of
glucose
• write equations to support the statement
that ethanol produced by fermentation is
a carbon neutral fuel and give reasons
why this statement is not valid
• outline the mechanism for the formation
of an alcohol by the reaction of an alkene
with steam in the presence of an acid
catalyst
• discuss the environmental (including
ethical) issues linked to decision making
about biofuel use.
[Link] Oxidation of alcohols
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary AT b, d and k
and tertiary. Students could carry out the
Primary alcohols can be oxidised to aldehydes preparation of an aldehyde by
which can be further oxidised to carboxylic the oxidation of a primary
acids. alcohol.
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to Students could carry out the
ketones. preparation of a carboxylic
acid by the oxidation of a
Tertiary alcohols are not easily oxidised.
primary alcohol.
Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) is a
suitable oxidising agent.
Students should be able to:
• write equations for these oxidation
reactions
(equations showing [O] as oxidant are
acceptable)
• explain how the method used to oxidise a
primary alcohol determines whether an
aldehyde or carboxylic acid is obtained
• use chemical tests to distinguish between
aldehydes and ketones including
Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent.

[Link] Elimination
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkenes can be formed from alcohols by acid- AT b, d, g and k

catalysed elimination reactions.
PS 4.1
Alkenes produced by this method can be used
Students could carry out the
to produce addition polymers without using
preparation of cyclohexene
monomers derived from crude oil.
from cyclohexanol, including
Students should be able to: purification using a separating
• outline the mechanism for the funnel and by distillation.
elimination of water from alcohols.

Required practical 5
Distillation of a product from a reaction.
3.3.6 Organic analysis
Our understanding of organic molecules, their structure and the way they react, has been
enhanced by organic analysis. This section considers some of the analytical techniques used
by chemists, including test-tube reactions and spectroscopic techniques.

[Link] Identification of functional groups by test-tube reactions

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The reactions of functional groups listed in the AT b, d and k

specification.
PS 2.2, 2.3 and 4.1
Students should be able to:
Students could carry out test-
• identify the functional groups using tube reactions in the
reactions in the specification. specification to distinguish
alcohols, aldehydes, alkenes
and carboxylic acids.

Required practical 6
Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and
carboxylic acid.
[Link] Mass spectrometry
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mass spectrometry can be used to determine

the molecular formula of a compound.
Students should be able to:
• use precise atomic masses and the
precise molecular mass to determine the
molecular formula of a compound.
[Link] Infrared spectroscopy
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Bonds in a molecule absorb infrared radiation Students should be able to

at characteristic wavenumbers. use data in the Chemistry
‘Fingerprinting’ allows identification of a Data Sheet or Booklet to
molecule by comparison of spectra. suggest possible structures for
molecules.
Students should be able to:
• use infrared spectra and the Chemistry
Data Sheet or Booklet to identify
particular bonds, and therefore functional
groups, and also to identify impurities.
The link between absorption of infrared
radiation by bonds in CO2, methane and water
vapour and global warming.
3.3.7 Optical isomerism (A-level only)
Compounds that contain an asymmetric carbon atom form stereoisomers that differ in their
effect on plane polarised light. This type of isomerism is called optical isomerism.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Optical isomerism is a form of MS 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3

stereoisomerism and occurs as a result of
Students could be asked to
chirality in molecules, limited to molecules
recognise the presence of a
with a single chiral centre.
chiral centre in a given
An asymmetric carbon atom is chiral and structure in 2D or 3D forms.
gives rise to optical isomers (enantiomers), They could also be asked to
which exist as non superimposable mirror draw the 3D representation of
images and differ in their effect on plane chiral centres in various
polarised light. species.
A mixture of equal amounts of enantiomers is Students understand the
called a racemic mixture (racemate). origin of optical isomerism.
Students should be able to: AT a and k
• draw the structural formulas and PS 1.2
displayed formulas of enantiomers Passing polarised light
• understand how racemic mixtures through a solution of sucrose.
(racemates) are formed and why they are
optically inactive.
3.3.8 Aldehydes and ketones (A-level only)
Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives all contain the carbonyl group
which is attacked by nucleophiles. This section includes the addition reactions of aldehydes
and ketones.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Aldehydes are readily oxidised to carboxylic AT b, d and k

acids.
PS 2.2
Chemical tests to distinguish between Students could carry out test-
aldehydes and ketones including Fehling’s
tube reactions of Tollens’
solution and Tollens’ reagent.
reagent and Fehling’s solution
Aldehydes can be reduced to primary to distinguish aldehydes and
alcohols, and ketones to secondary alcohols, ketones.
using NaBH4 in aqueous solution. These
reduction reactions are examples of
nucleophilic addition.
The nucleophilic addition reactions of
carbonyl compounds with KCN, followed by
dilute acid, to produce hydroxynitriles.
Aldehydes and unsymmetrical ketones form
mixtures of enantiomers when they react with
KCN followed by dilute acid.
The hazards of using KCN.
Students should be able to:
• write overall equations for reduction
reactions using [H] as the reductant
• outline the nucleophilic addition
mechanism for reduction reactions with
NaBH4 (the nucleophile should be shown
as H–)
• write overall equations for the formation
of hydroxynitriles using HCN
• outline the nucleophilic addition
mechanism for the reaction with KCN
followed by dilute acid
• explain why nucleophilic addition
reactions of KCN, followed by dilute acid,
can produce a mixture of enantiomers.
3.3.9 Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A-level only)
Carboxylic acids are weak acids but strong enough to liberate carbon dioxide from
carbonates. Esters occur naturally in vegetable oils and animal fats. Important products
obtained from esters include biodiesel, soap and glycerol.

[Link] Carboxylic acids and esters (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of: AT b, d, g and k

• carboxylic acids PS 4.1
• esters. Students could make esters
Carboxylic acids are weak acids but will by reacting alcohols with
carboxylic acids, purifying the
liberate CO2 from carbonates.
product using a separating
Carboxylic acids and alcohols react, in the funnel and by distillation.
presence of an acid catalyst, to give esters.
AT b, d, g, h and k
Common uses of esters (eg in solvents,
Students could identify an
plasticisers, perfumes and food flavourings).
ester by measuring its boiling
Vegetable oils and animal fats are esters of point, followed by hydrolysis
propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol). to form the carboxylic acid,
Esters can be hydrolysed in acid or alkaline which is purified by
conditions to form alcohols and carboxylic recrystallisation, and
acids or salts of carboxylic acids. determine its melting point.

Vegetable oils and animal fats can be AT b, c, d and k

hydrolysed in alkaline conditions to give soap Students could make soap.
(salts of long-chain carboxylic acids) and
AT b and k
glycerol.
Students could make
Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long-
biodiesel.
chain carboxylic acids.
Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable
oils with methanol in the presence of a
catalyst.
[Link] Acylation (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of: AT d and k

• acid anhydrides PS 2.2
• acyl chlorides Students could record
• amides. observations from reaction of
ethanoyl chloride and
The nucleophilic addition–elimination
ethanoic anhydride with
reactions of water, alcohols, ammonia and
water, ethanol, ammonia and
primary amines with acyl chlorides and acid
phenylamine.
anhydrides.
AT b, d, g and h
The industrial advantages of ethanoic
anhydride over ethanoyl chloride in the PS 2.1, 2.3 and 4.1
manufacture of the drug aspirin. Students could carry out the
Students should be able to outline the preparation of aspirin,
mechanism of nucleophilic addition– purification by
elimination reactions of acyl chlorides with recrystallisation and
water, alcohols, ammonia and primary determination of its melting
amines. point.
Students could carry out the
purification of impure benzoic
acid and determination of its
melting point.

Required practical 10
Preparation of:
• a pure organic solid and test of its purity
• a pure organic liquid.
3.3.10 Aromatic chemistry (A-level only)
Aromatic chemistry takes benzene as an example of this type of molecule and looks at the
structure of the benzene ring and its substitution reactions.

[Link] Bonding (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The nature of the bonding in a benzene ring,

limited to planar structure and bond length
intermediate between single and double.
Delocalisation of p electrons makes benzene
more stable than the theoretical molecule
cyclohexa-1,3,5-triene.
Students should be able to:
• use thermochemical evidence from
enthalpies of hydrogenation to account for
this extra stability
• explain why substitution reactions occur in
preference to addition reactions.
[Link] Electrophilic substitution (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electrophilic attack on benzene rings results AT b, d, g and h

in substitution, limited to monosubstitutions.
PS 2.1, 2.3 and 4.1
Nitration is an important step in synthesis,
Students could carry out the
including the manufacture of explosives and
preparation of methyl 3-
formation of amines.
nitrobenzoate by nitration of
Friedel–Crafts acylation reactions are also methyl benzoate, purification
important steps in synthesis. by recrystallisation and
Students should be able to outline the determination of melting
electrophilic substitution mechanisms of: point.

• nitration, including the generation of the

nitronium ion
• acylation using AlCl3 as a catalyst.
3.3.11 Amines (A-level only)
Amines are compounds based on ammonia where hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
alkyl or aryl groups. This section includes their reactions as nucleophiles.

[Link] Preparation (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Primary aliphatic amines can be prepared by

the reaction of ammonia with
halogenoalkanes and by the reduction of
nitriles.
Aromatic amines, prepared by the reduction
of nitro compounds, are used in the
manufacture of dyes.
[Link] Base properties (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amines are weak bases.

The difference in base strength between
ammonia, primary aliphatic and primary
aromatic amines.
Students should be able to:
• explain the difference in base strength in
terms of the availability of the lone pair
of electrons on the N atom.
[Link] Nucleophilic properties (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amines are nucleophiles.

The nucleophilic substitution reactions of
ammonia and amines with halogenoalkanes to
form primary, secondary, tertiary amines and
quaternary ammonium salts.
The use of quaternary ammonium salts as
cationic surfactants.
The nucleophilic addition–elimination
reactions of ammonia and primary amines
with acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides.
Students should be able to outline the
mechanisms of:
• these nucleophilic substitution reactions
• the nucleophilic addition–elimination
 reactions of ammonia and primary
amines with acyl chlorides.

3.3.12 Polymers (A-level only)

The study of polymers is extended to include condensation polymers. The ways in which
condensation polymers are formed are studied, together with their properties and typical
uses. Problems associated with the reuse or disposal of both addition and condensation
polymers are considered.

[Link] Condensation polymers (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Condensation polymers are formed by AT k

reactions between:
PS 1.2
• dicarboxylic acids and diols • Making nylon 6,6
dicarboxylic acids and diamines
• amino acids.
The repeating units in polyesters (eg Terylene)
and polyamides (eg nylon 6,6 and Kevlar) and
the linkages between these repeating units.
Typical uses of these polymers.
Students should be able to:
• draw the repeating unit from monomer
structure(s)
• draw the repeating unit from a section of
the polymer chain
• draw the structure(s) of the monomer(s)
from a section of the polymer
• explain the nature of the intermolecular
forces between molecules of
condensation polymers.
[Link] Biodegradability and disposal of polymers (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Polyalkenes are chemically inert and non- Research opportunity
biodegradable. Students could research
Polyesters and polyamides can be broken problems associated with the
down by hydrolysis and are biodegradable. disposal of different polymers.
The advantages and disadvantages of
different methods of disposal of polymers,
including recycling.
Students should be able to:
• explain why polyesters and polyamides
can be hydrolysed but polyalkenes
cannot.

3.3.13 Amino acids, proteins and DNA (A-level only)

Amino acids, proteins and DNA are the molecules of life. In this section, the structure and
bonding in these molecules and the way they interact is studied. Drug action is also
considered.

[Link] Amino acids (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amino acids have both acidic and basic

properties, including the formation of
zwitterions.
Students should be able to draw the structures
of amino acids as zwitterions and the ions
formed from amino acids:
• in acid solution
• in alkaline solution.
[Link] Proteins (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Proteins are sequences of amino acids joined

by peptide links.
The importance of hydrogen bonding and
sulfur–sulfur bonds in proteins.
The primary, secondary (α-helix and β–
pleated sheets) and tertiary structure of
proteins.
Hydrolysis of the peptide link produces the
constituent amino acids.
Amino acids can be separated and identified
by thin-layer chromatography.
Amino acids can be located on a
chromatogram using developing agents such
as ninhydrin or ultraviolet light and identified
by their Rf values.
Students should be able to:
• draw the structure of a peptide formed
from up to three amino acids
• draw the structure of the amino acids
formed by hydrolysis of a peptide
• identify primary, secondary and tertiary
structures in diagrams
• explain how these structures are
maintained by hydrogen bonding and S–S
bonds
• calculate Rf values from a chromatogram.

[Link] Enzymes (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Enzymes are proteins.

The action of enzymes as catalysts, including
the concept of a stereospecific active site that
binds to a substrate molecule.
The principle of a drug acting as an enzyme
inhibitor by blocking the active site.
Computers can be used to help design such
drugs.
Students should be able to:
 • explain why a stereospecific active site
can only bond to one enantiomeric form
of a substrate or drug.

[Link] DNA (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of the phosphate ion, 2-

deoxyribose (a pentose sugar) and the four
bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine
are given in the Chemistry Data Booklet.
A nucleotide is made up from a phosphate ion
bonded to 2-deoxyribose which is in turn
bonded to one of the four bases adenine,
cytosine, guanine and thymine.
A single strand of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
is a polymer of nucleotides linked by covalent
bonds between the phosphate group of one
nucleotide and the 2deoxyribose of another
nucleotide. This results in a sugarphosphate-
sugar-phosphate polymer chain with bases
attached to the sugars in the chain.
DNA exists as two complementary strands
arranged in the form of a double helix.
Students should be able to:
• explain how hydrogen bonding between
base pairs leads to the two complementary
strands of DNA.
[Link] Action of anticancer drugs (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The Pt(II) complex cisplatin is used as an

anticancer drug.
Cisplatin prevents DNA replication in cancer
cells by a ligand replacement reaction with
DNA in which a bond is formed between
platinum and a nitrogen atom on guanine.
Appreciate that society needs to assess the
balance between the benefits and the adverse
effects of drugs, such as the anticancer drug
cisplatin.
Students should be able to:
• explain why cisplatin prevents DNA
replication
• explain why such drugs can have adverse
effects.

3.3.14 Organic synthesis (A-level only)

The formation of new organic compounds by multi-step syntheses using reactions included in
the specification is covered in this section.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

The synthesis of an organic compound can

involve several steps.
Students should be able to:
• explain why chemists aim to design
processes that do not require a solvent
and that use nonhazardous starting
materials
• explain why chemists aim to design
production methods with fewer steps that
have a high percentage atom economy
• use reactions in this specification to
devise a synthesis, with up to four steps,
for an organic compound.
3.3.15 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (A-level only)
Chemists use a variety of techniques to deduce the structure of compounds. In this section,
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is added to mass spectrometry and infrared
spectroscopy as an analytical technique. The emphasis is on the use of analytical data to
solve problems rather than on spectroscopic theory.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Appreciation that scientists have developed a Students should be able to

range of analytical techniques which together use data in the Chemistry
enable the structures of new compounds to be Data Booklet to suggest
confirmed. possible structures for
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) gives molecules.
information about the position of 13C or 1H
atoms in a molecule.
13
C NMR gives simpler spectra than 1H NMR.
The use of the δ scale for recording chemical
shift.
Chemical shift depends on the molecular
environment.
Integrated spectra indicate the relative
numbers of 1H atoms in different
environments.
1
H NMR spectra are obtained using samples
dissolved in deuterated solvents or CCl4
The use of tetramethylsilane (TMS) as a
standard.
Students should be able to:
• explain why TMS is a suitable substance
to use as a standard
• use 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra and
chemical shift data from the Chemistry
Data Booklet to suggest possible
structures or part structures for
molecules
• use integration data from 1H NMR spectra
to determine the relative numbers of
equivalent protons in the molecule
• use the n+1 rule to deduce the spin–spin
splitting patterns of adjacent, non-
equivalent protons, limited to doublet,
triplet and quartet formation in aliphatic
compounds.
3.3.16 Chromatography (A-level only)
Chromatography provides an important method of separating and identifying components in a
mixture. Different types of chromatography are used depending on the composition of
mixture to be separated.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Chromatography can be used to separate and AT a, i and k

identify the components in a mixture.
PS 1.2, 3.2 and 4.1
Types of chromatography include:
Students could use thin-layer
• thin-layer chromatography (TLC) – a plate chromatography to identify
is coated with a solid and a solvent analgesics.
moves up the plate Students could use thin-layer
• column chromatography (CC) – a column chromatography to identify
is packed with a solid and a solvent transition metal ions in a
moves down the column solution.
• gas chromatography (GC) – a column is
packed with a solid or with a solid coated
by a liquid, and a gas is passed through
the column under pressure at high
temperature.
Separation depends on the balance between
solubility in the moving phase and retention
by the stationary phase.
Retention times and Rf values are used to
identify different substances.
The use of mass spectrometry to analyse the
components separated by GC.
Students should be able to:
• calculate Rf values from a chromatogram
• compare retention times and Rf values
with standards to identify different
substances.

Required practical 12
Separation of species by thin-layer
chromatography.