Stones
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Stone monuments – World
Gobekli Tepe, Turkey
10000 – 9000 BC
Macchu Picchu, Peru
1400-1500 AD
Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt
2560 BC
Ggantija, Malta
3600 BC
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Stone monuments – India
(Konark Temple, Odhisa- 13th Century)
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Stone monuments – India
Amarnath Temple, Kashmir- 300 BC
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Stone monuments – India
Masroor Rock Cut Temple, Himachal Pradesh (8th Century)
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Stone monuments – India
Aihole, Karnataka (5th Century)
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Stone monuments – India
Akkana Madanna cave temple, Andra Pradesh, 17th Century
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Stone monuments – India
Mamallpuram, Tamil Nadu (700-742 AD)
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Stone monuments – India
Ajanta (100 BC) Kailasa, Ellora (5-7 century AD)
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Why stones are used in construction?
• Availability (Natural – Not manufactured)
• At places easily available over clay bricks (hilly regions)
• Strength
• Durable – Stands for more than 1000 of years
• Shape and Size – Can be made into any shape and size
• Relatively Economic
• Sustainable
• Not affected by flooding (like submerged bricks usually breakdown)
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Stones – Classification
• Composed of minerals (either a single mineral, or a mixture of minerals).
• A mineral is naturally occurring, inorganic, has an order internal arrangement of
atoms, and has a definite composition (or range of compositions). For example,
Quartz, Halite, Gypsum, Opal, Feldspar, Biotite (mica), Hornblende, Kaolinite,
Calcite, Dolomite etc.
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Stones – Classification
Rocks are classified based on three major factors as follows :
• Geological classification
• Physical classification
• Chemical classification
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Geological Classification
Based on their geological formation and they are :
• Sedimentary rocks
• Igneous rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
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Sedimentary rocks
• formed by the deposition of sediments obtained by the weathering of
pre-existing rocks and these sediments are transported by various
agents such as water, wind, frost, gravity, etc. These transported
sediments form layered structures and give rise to the sedimentary
deposits.
• Followed by intense pressure turns sediments into rock
• Examples: Sandstone, limestone, lignite, etc.
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Sedimentary Rock - Limestone
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Igneous rocks
• solidification of magma below the earth’s surface
• When the magma is unable to erupt through the earth surface during its upward journey, it is held up
below the earth’s surface and unable to descend. This magma cools down gradually and solidifies into
igneous rocks.
• The structure of igneous rocks varies according to the depth at which magma solidified.
• magma hardens at a significant depth from the earth surface- possess coarsely grained crystalline
structure -Plutonic rocks. Ex: Granite
• magma hardens at shallow depth from the earth’s surface, the finely grained crystalline structure of rock
will be obtained. These rocks are called as hypabyssal rocks. Ex: Dolerite
• solidification of the rock occurs near to the earth surface, then the rocks obtained are known as volcanic
rocks. These rocks possess extremely fine-grained structure. Ex: Basalt
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Igneous Rock - Granite
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Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are formed by the metamorphism process.
Metamorphism is the process of changing the characteristics of the
pre-existing rocks under the influence of heat and pressure. The pre-
existing rocks may be of the sedimentary or igneous type of rocks.
• Examples: Slate, Gneiss, Schist, marble, soapstone etc.
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Metamorphic Rock - Gneiss
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Physical classification
Rocks are classified physically into three types as follows :
• Stratified rocks
• Unstratified rocks
• Foliated rocks
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Stratified rocks
• Stratified rocks consist of different layers in its structure and these
layers are separated by planes of stratification.
• These planes are also called cleavage planes or bedding planes.
• These rocks can easily split up along these bedding planes.
• Most of the sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone,
shale, etc. are the best examples of stratified rocks.
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Unstratified rocks
• The structure of unstratified rocks is crystalline or compact granular.
• They possess a similar kind of structure throughout their whole body.
• Most of the igneous rocks and some sedimentary rocks come under
unstratified rocks.
• Granite, marble, trap are few examples of Unstratified rocks
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Foliated rocks
• Foliated rocks possess a layered or banded structure which is
obtained by exposure of pressure and heat.
• Unlike the stratified rocks, these rocks can split up in a certain
direction only.
• Most of the metamorphic rocks formed by metamorphism come
under foliated rocks.
• Some examples are gneiss, schist, slate etc.
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Chemical classification
Rocks are classified into three types based on their chemical
composition and they are as follows :
• Argillaceous rocks
• Calcareous rocks
• Siliceous rocks
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Argillaceous rocks
• The word Argil means clay.
• Hence, the rocks in which clay content is predominant are called
argillaceous rocks.
• These rocks are soft in nature and with the presence of water they
can be crumbled easily.
• In the dry state, these rocks can be crushed easily because of their
brittleness.
• Shale, slate, laterite, etc. are some of the argillaceous rocks.
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Argillaceous Rock - Laterite
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Calcareous rocks
• The rocks in which calcium carbonate is the major ingredient are
known as calcareous rocks.
• These are generally hard but their durability is dependent on
surrounding constituents which may react with calcium and affect the
durability of rock.
• Marble, limestone, dolomite, etc. are some of the calcium
predominant rocks.
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Calcareous Rock - Dolomite
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Siliceous rocks
• The rocks which contain silica in predominant amount are called as
siliceous rocks.
• Presence of a large amount of free silica makes them harder and
durable.
• It also provides strong resistance to weathering.
• Granite, chert, quartzite, etc. are examples of siliceous rocks.
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Siliceous Rock - Quartzite
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Stones – some more info
• 95% of the outer 10 miles of the earth’s crust is composed of igneous
and metamorphic rocks
• 75% of the rocks exposed on the surface of the earth are sedimentary
• Stones used for Construction – hard, durable, free from weathered
materials, cracks and defects
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Quarrying of Stones
• Quarry: Places exposed to air like a stone outcrop, from which we can extract the building stones
• From solid rock formation and not from boulders
Methods:
• With hand tools
• Digging: This is applicable for soft stones occurring in small blocks, Instruments like Pick Axes, Shovels, and
Chisel are used in this method.
• Heating: If the rocks occur in layers and if the surface is heated by fire, differential expansion separates the
upper layer from the lower layer.
• Wedging: If the rocks contain cracks and fissures, steel wedges are driven absent, the cracks and the pieces are
separated. If natural cracks are absent holes of about 10 cm diameter and manageable depths (20 to 25 cm) are
first made along a line at 10 to 15 cm distances either by hand tools or pneumatic drills.
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Quarrying of Stones
• By use of Channelling Machines
The process consists of the following steps:
• channels are cut around the stone block which is to be removed from the rock mass.
• horizontal holes are drilled beneath the block.
• wedges are driven into holes and the block is broken loose from its bed.
• By Blasting with explosives
• Boring (Machine Drilling)
• Charging (Gun Powder, Gun cotton, Dynamites)
• Tamping(Damp Clay Tamping, Needle)
• Firing (Match, Electric spark, Detonators)
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Stones - Applications
• Columns, Beams, Floors slabs, Roofs, Lintels, Shelves
• Masonry (Walls, Foundation)
• Pavements (Walkways, Driveways)
• Manufacture of Cement and Lime
• Aggregates in concrete
• Ornamental work (External façade)
• Base material for water and sewage filters 37
Stones – Criteria for selection
• Type of application Properties Cost
• Appearance, Colour, Texture (IS 1123:1998)
• Strength
Compressive (IS 1121 – Part 1:1998)
Transverse (IS 1121 – Part 2:1998)
Tension (IS 1121 – Part 3:1998)
Shear (IS 1121 – Part 4:1998)
• Durability (IS 1125:1998, IS 1126:1998)
• Water absorption, Specific gravity, Porosity (IS 1122:1998, 1124:1998)
• Impact resistance (IS 5640:1970)
• Toughness (IS 5218:1969)
• Resistance to Wear/Abrasion (IS 1706:1998)
• Acid resistance (IS 4122:1967)
• Water permeability (IS 4121:1967, IS 4348:1998)
• Easiness of dressing (1129:1972)
• Seasoning
• Hardness (Dorry`s test)
• Fire resistance
• Freezing and Thawing Test
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Deterioration & Preservation
• Fatigue - wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, temperature
• Deleterious substances (Chlorides, sulphates) - Seashores, Industrial areas,
contaminated soils, water & air
• Vegetation growth
• Chemicals from Mortar
• Abrasion – Waterfalls, rainfall (with harmful agents – acid rain), Wind
• Using one of the following preservatives as coating
• Linseed Oil (may change color of stone)
• Solution of Alum and Soap (40:60) along with water
• Solution of barium hydroxide: if decay is due to CaSO4, then effective
• Paraffin (may change color of stone)
• Paints
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Stone façade
• Other names used to describe Stone façade
• Thin Stone Veneer
• Natural Stone Veneer
• Real Stone Veneer
• Stone Cladding
• Stone Covering
• Stone Dado
• Stone Facing
• Stone Fascia SP 7 (2005)
• Stone Layer
• Stone Lining
• Stone Overlay
• Stone Overlayer
• Stone Paneling
• Stone Panels
• Stone Sheathing
• Stone Sheeting
• Stone Siding
• Stone Stratum
• Stone Veneer
• Stone Wainscot
• Stone Wrap
• Stone Wrapping
• Thinstone
[Link]
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Random Rubble masonry
[Link] 41
Compressive strength (IS 1121 (Part 1)
• Shape – Cubes or Cylinders, Diameter or lateral dimension > 50 mm
• Aspect ratio ≥ 1, Load bearing surfaces – Parallel (nearest 0.2 mm)
• Testing Conditions (3 samples for each condition)
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water maintained at 20 to 30°C
for 72 h before testing and shall be tested.
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and shall be dried in
an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator to room temperature (20 to 30°C).
• Loading rate - 140 kg/ cm2 per minute
• Record Maximum load at failure
• Compressive strength (Average of 3 specimens) = Load (N or kg)/ Area (mm2 or cm2)
• Ratio of height to diameter ratio differs from unity by 25 % or more, then
• Cc =Cp/(0.778 + 0.222 ( b ÷ h ))
• Cc = compressive strength of standard test piece, Cp = compressive strength of the specimen
having a height greater than the diameter or lateral dimension, b = diameter or lateral 42
dimension, and h = height.
Transverse Strength (IS 1211 Part 2)
• Specimen dimension – 200 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm
• Testing Conditions
• Saturated Condition : The test pieces shall be immersed in water maintained at 20
to 30°C for 72 h before testing and shall be tested
• Dry Condition : The test pieces shall also be tested in a dry condition and shall be
dried in an oven at 105 ± 5°C for 24 h and cooled in a desiccator to room
temperature (20 to 30°C).
• Loading rate - 200 kg per minute
• Record Maximum load (W) at failure
• Transverse strength (Average of 3 specimens) = 3WL/bd2
• L = Span (150 mm), b = d =50 mm
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Durability (IS 1126)
• Dimension – 50 mm φ × 50 mm height
• Dry the specimen for 24 hours and weighed (W1)
• Suspended in Saturated solution of Sodium sulphate decahydrate – 16 to 18
hours at 20-30 ˚C
• Air dry for 30 minutes and oven dry (105 ± 5˚C) for 4 hours
• Cooled to room temperature
• Repeat step 1 to 3 for 30 cycles
• Thorough washing to free from sodium sulphates solution
• Weigh the specimen (W2)
• Results (3 specimens) – [(W1 - W2)/ W1] × 100
• Check for development of cracks or spalling
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[Link]
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