Chapter 1: Linear Equations in Linear Algebra

Math 18, Winter 2025

Lecture A00 (Anzaldo)

1
Section 1.1 - Systems of Linear Equations

What is a linear equation?

Example. Linear equations: Example. Not linear equations:

Definition. A linear equation is an equation of the form

a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n = b

where a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b are constants and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are variables.

Example. Solve and graph each system of linear equations.

1. x−y =3 2. x− y = 3 3. x−y =3
x+y =3 −2x + 2y = −6 x−y =2

2
Section 1.1 - Systems of Linear Equations

In general:
Definition. A system of linear equations or a linear system is a collection of linear equa-
tions:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm

ˆ A solution of the system is an ordered list (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) such that if we substitute s1

for x1 , s2 for x2 , . . . , sn for xn , then every equation is true.

ˆ The solution set of the system is the set of all solutions of the system.

ˆ Two systems are equivalent if they have the same solution set.

How many solutions can a linear system have?

Solutions of Linear System

Existence question for a linear system: Do solutions exist?

Definition. A linear system is consistent if it has at least one solution. Otherwise, the system
is inconsistent .

Example. Which of the systems from the previous example are consistent? Inconsistent?

Uniqueness question for a linear system: If a linear system has a solution, is it the only solution?

Theorem. Any linear system has exactly one solution, infinitely many solutions, or no solu-
tions.

How do we solve linear systems, especially when there are many equations or variables?

3
Section 1.1 - Systems of Linear Equations

Matrix Notation
Definition. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. An m × n matrix is a matrix with
m rows and n columns.  
1 2
Example. What is the size of this matrix? 3 4
5 6

Definition. For the linear system

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm

,
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 ··· a2n 
ˆ The coefficient matrix is  .. .. .
 
..
 . . . 
am1 am2 ··· amn
 
a11 a12 ··· a1n b1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n b2 
ˆ The augmented matrix is  .. .. .
 
.. ..
 . . . . 
am1 am2 ··· amn bm

Example. Find the coefficient matrix and augmented matrix of

x − y + 2z = 5
4y − z = −1
−7x + y = 0

4
Section 1.1 - Systems of Linear Equations

Solving Linear Systems

The following operations on equations do not change the solutions of the linear system:

ˆ Add a multiple of one equation to another equation.

ˆ Interchange two equations.

ˆ Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.

We’ll use these same operations on the augmented matrix of the system instead. We call these
elementary row operations :

ˆ Add a multiple of one row to another row.

ˆ Interchange two rows.

ˆ Multiply all entries in a row by a nonzero constant.

Example. Solve

x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 4
2x1 − 8x2 + 8x3 = −2
−6x1 + 3x2 − 15x3 = 9

5
Section 1.1 - Systems of Linear Equations

Definition. Two matrices are row equivalent if one matrix can be obtained from the other
matrix using only elementary row operations.

Example. Solve

x1 − 3x2 = 5
−2x1 + 6x2 = −11

Example. The augmented matrix for a system of linear equations is given below. For which
values of h is the system consistent?
 
20 24 h
−5 −6 −5

6
Section 1.2 - Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

In the previous section, we applied elementary row operations to the augmented matrix of a linear
system in order to solve it. We essentially tried to transform our matrix into one of the following
forms:

Definition. A matrix is in echelon form or row echelon form (ref) if

1. All nonzero rows are above any rows consisting of all zeros.

2. Each leading entry of a nonzero row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of any
nonzero row above it.

3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.

A matrix is in reduced echelon form or reduced row echelon form (rref) if it is in row
echelon form and
4. The leading entry of each nonzero row is 1.

5. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.

Example. Is the matrix in ref, rref, or neither?

       
1 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 3 −1
2. 3.
1. 3 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 3 0 4. 0 1 2 1 
0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0

We can use elementary row operations to find a row echelon or reduced row echelon form of a
matrix. The reduced row echelon form of a matrix is unique, but the row echelon form is not.

Theorem. A matrix is row equivalent to exactly one matrix in reduced row echelon form.

Row Reduction
Row reduction or Gaussian elimination is the process of transforming a matrix into row echelon
form using elementary row operations.

Definition. Let A be a matrix and B be its reduced row echelon form. For any leading 1 in
B, its corresponding location in A is a pivot position and the column where it is located is a
pivot column . A pivot is a nonzero entry in a pivot position that is used to create zeros.

7
Section 1.2 - Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

Example. Row reduce A to a row echelon form, and then to reduced row echelon form.
 
0 0 0 0 0
2 0 4 −4 2
A= .
2 −3 5 1 0
1 0 1 2 3

Step 1. Find the leftmost

nonzero column. This is
a pivot column.

Step 2. Choose a nonzero entry

in this column to be a
pivot (ideally ±1). Inter-
change rows so that the
pivot is at the top.

Step 3. Use the pivot to create

zeros below it.

Step 4. Ignore the row with the

pivot and any rows above
it. Repeat Steps 1
through 3.

Step 5. To transform this matrix

into reduced row echelon
form, starting with the
rightmost pivot, create
zeros above it. Repeat
with the remaining piv-
ots, working from right
to left. Finally, rescale
the rows so that all the
pivots are 1.

Describing an Infinite Solution Set

Example. Solve the system

x− y = 3
−2x + 2y = −6

8
Section 1.2 - Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

Definition. Take any linear system and its augmented matrix. Variables corresponding to pivot
columns are the basic variables . Otherwise, they are free variables .

Example. Find the general solution of the linear system in x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 whose augmented matrix
is  
−1 −4 1 −12 4
.
1 4 1 −2 2

Example. The augmented matrix of a linear system reduces to the given matrix. How many
solutions does the system have?
     
1 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 −8
0 1 0 0  2. 0 0
 1 0 −1 3. 0 1 6 
1. 0 0 1 −9

0 0 0 1 4 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

9
Section 1.2 - Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

Notation: “iff” means “if and only if”

Theorem. (Existence and Uniqueness)

ˆ A linear system is consistent iff the rightmost column of the augmented matrix is not
a pivot column, i.e. any row echelon form of the matrix has no row of the form
0 0 · · · 0 b where b is a nonzero number.

ˆ If a linear system is consistent, then either

– It has a unique solution. (There is no free variable.)

– It has infinite many solutions. (There is a free variable.)

10
Section 1.3 - Vector Equations

Example. Recall the set of all real numbers, the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, and
the set of all ordered triples of real numbers:

ˆ R ˆ R2 ˆ R3

Definition. Rn is the set of all n-tuples of real numbers:

Rn = {(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) | ui is a real number for i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.

We call elements in Rn vectors . We can also express a vector in Rn as

 
u1
 u2   
A column vector:  ..  A row vector: u1 u2 · · · un
 
.
un

ˆ The ith component of the vector (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) is ui .

ˆ The zero vector is the vector whose components are all equal to 0, i.e. (0, 0, . . . , 0). It
is denoted by ⃗0.

ˆ Two vectors ⃗u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ), ⃗v = (v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ) in Rn are equal if ui = vi for all

i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Notation: “x ∈ A” means “x is an element of A”

Operations on Rn
We’ll define 
two operations
  on Rn : addition and scalar multiplication.
u1 v1
 u2   v2 
Let ⃗u =  ..  , ⃗v =  ..  ∈ Rn and c be a scalar. Then
   
. .
un vn

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Section 1.3 - Vector Equations

     
u1 v1 u1 + v1
 u2   v2   u2 + v2 
ˆ Addition: ⃗u + ⃗v =  ..  +  ..  =  .. 
     
. .  . 
un vn un + vn
   
u1 cu1
 u2   cu2 
ˆ Scalar Multiplication: c⃗u = c  ..  =  .. 
   
.  . 
un cun
These operations give us a third operation: subtraction.
 
u1 − v1
 u2 − v2 
ˆ Subtraction: ⃗u − ⃗v = ⃗u + (−⃗v ) =  .. 
 
 . 
un − vn

Example. Let ⃗u = (1, 2, 3, 4), ⃗v = (−1, 0, 2, −3). Find 3⃗u − ⃗v .

Geometric Descriptions of Rn
We can visualize a vector ⃗u in R, R2 , or R3 as an arrow starting at the origin and ending at the
point whose coordinates are the components of ⃗u.
Example. Let ⃗u = (2, 1), ⃗v = (1, 3). Sketch the following vectors: ⃗0, ⃗u, ⃗v , 2⃗u, −⃗v , ⃗u + ⃗v .
y
4

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

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Section 1.3 - Vector Equations

Parallelogram Rule Triangle Rule

⃗u + ⃗v
⃗u + ⃗v
⃗v

⃗v
⃗u ⃗u

Properties of Rn
⃗ ∈ Rn and c, d be scalars. Then
Let ⃗u, ⃗v , w

1. ⃗u + ⃗v = ⃗v + ⃗u 5. c(⃗u + ⃗v ) = c⃗u + c⃗v

2. (⃗u + ⃗v ) + w
⃗ = ⃗u + (⃗v + w)
⃗ 6. (c + d)⃗u = c⃗u + d⃗u

3. ⃗u + ⃗0 = ⃗u = ⃗0 + ⃗u 7. c(d⃗u) = (cd)⃗u

4. ⃗u + (−⃗u) = ⃗0 = −⃗u + ⃗u 8. 1⃗u = ⃗u

Linear Combinations
Definition. ⃗y ∈ Rn is a linear combination of ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp ∈ Rn if there exist scalars
c1 , c2 , . . . , cp such that
⃗y = c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cp⃗vp .
This is an example of a vector equation .

Example. Find some linear combinations of ⃗v1 = (2, 1) and ⃗v2 = (1, 3) by assigning specific
weights c1 , c2 to ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 .

Example. Show that any vector (a, b) ∈ R2 is a linear combination of the vectors (1, 0) and
(0, 1).

Example. Show that ⃗0 ∈ Rn is a linear combination of any vectors ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp ∈ Rn .

13
Section 1.3 - Vector Equations


    
−1 2 1
Example. Is ⃗y = −10 a linear combination of ⃗v1 = −1 and ⃗v2 = −4?
    
6 0 2

Notice that if ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp , ⃗y ∈ Rn , then the following have the same solution set:

ˆ The vector equation c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cp⃗vp = ⃗y .

ˆ The linear system with augmented matrix ⃗v1 ⃗v2 · · · ⃗vp ⃗y .

 

In other words, y is a linear combination of ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp iff the linear system above is consistent.

14
Section 1.3 - Vector Equations

Span
Definition. The span of ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp ∈ Rn is the set of all linear combinations of ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp .
That is,
Span{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } = {c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cp⃗vp | ci ∈ R for i = 1, 2, . . . , p}.
We say that this set is spanned by or generated by ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp .

   
 2 1 
Example. Find some vectors in Span −1 , −4 .
0 2
 

Example. Why is ⃗0 in Span{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } for any vectors ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp ∈ Rn ?

Example. Describe the vectors that live in each of the following sets:
1. Span{⃗0} 2. Span{(1, 2)} 3. Span{(1, 0), (0, 1)}

In R3 ,
ˆ Span{⃗v } is a line through ⃗v and the origin if ⃗v ̸= ⃗0. We say that the line is spanned by ⃗v .
ˆ Span{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 } is a plane through ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , and the origin if neither ⃗v1 nor ⃗v2 is a scalar multiple
of the other. We say that the plane is spanned by ⃗v1 and ⃗v2 .

15
Section 1.4 - The Matrix Equation A⃗x = ⃗b

Definition. Let A be an m × n matrix and ⃗a1 , ⃗a2 , . . . , ⃗an be its columns. Let ⃗x ∈ Rn . Then the
product of A and ⃗x is
 
x1
 x2 

 
A⃗x = ⃗a1 ⃗a2 · · · ⃗an  ..  = x1⃗a1 + x2⃗a2 + · · · + xn⃗an .
.
xn


5 2  
 0 −2 1
Example. Compute the product 
−1 0  3 .


7 1

Properties of the Matrix-Vector Product A⃗x

Let A be an m × n matrix, ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ Rn , and c be a scalar. Then

ˆ A(⃗u + ⃗v ) = A⃗u + A⃗v

ˆ A(c⃗u) = c(A⃗u)

Here is another way to compute A⃗x:

Row-Vector Rule for A⃗x

    
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn
 a21 a22 · · · a2n   x2   a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn
    
A⃗x =  .. ..   ..  = 
 
.. .. 
 . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 · · · amn xn am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn

16
Section 1.4 - The Matrix Equation A⃗x = ⃗b


5 2  
 0 −2 1
Example. Compute the product 
−1 0  3 again, but use the row-vector rule.


7 1

Expressing Linear Systems as Vector Equations and Matrix Equations

Example. Express the linear system

4x1 − x2 = 5
−x1 + 3x2 + x3 = −1
2x1 + x2 − 7x3 = 8

1. As a vector equation, x1⃗a1 + x2⃗a2 + · · · + xn⃗an = ⃗b.

2. In the form A⃗x = ⃗b, which we call a matrix equation .

17
Section 1.4 - The Matrix Equation A⃗x = ⃗b

 
b1
 b2 
· · · ⃗an and ⃗b =  .. . Then the following have the same
 
Take an m × n matrix A = ⃗a1 ⃗a2
 
 . 
bm
solution set:

ˆ The linear system with coefficient matrix A and constant terms b1 , b2 , . . . , bm .

ˆ The vector equation x1⃗a1 + x2⃗a2 + · · · + xn⃗an = ⃗b.

ˆ The matrix equation A⃗x = ⃗b.

This gives us the following result:

Theorem. The equation A⃗x = ⃗b has a solution iff ⃗b is a linear combination of the columns
of A (i.e. ⃗b is in the span of the columns of A).

 
−1 3 −4
Example. Let A =  2 4 1 . For which ⃗b ∈ R3 does A⃗x = ⃗b have a solution?
−4 2 −9

18
Section 1.4 - The Matrix Equation A⃗x = ⃗b

Theorem. Let A be an m × n matrix. Then the following statements are equivalent:

ˆ For any ⃗b ∈ Rm , A⃗x = ⃗b has a solution.

ˆ Every ⃗b ∈ Rm is a linear combination of the columns of A.

ˆ The columns of A span Rm (i.e. Span{⃗a1 , ⃗a2 , . . . , ⃗an } = Rm ).

ˆ A has a pivot position in every row.

   
1 2 3 4 1 0 −1 −2
Example. The reduced row echelon form of A = is . Notice that
5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3
A has a pivot position in every row. What else must be true based on the previous theorem?

Definition. An identity matrix In (or just I) is an n × n matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal
and 0’s everywhere else.

Example. Write out each of the identity matrices.

1. I1 2. I2 3. I3 4. I4

Example. Let ⃗x ∈ Rn . Simplify the product In⃗x.

19
Section 1.5 - Solutions Sets of Linear Systems

Definition. A linear system is homogeneous if all constant terms are zero. As a matrix
equation, it is of the form A⃗x = ⃗0.

Example. Every homogeneous system consistent. Why?

Definition. The trivial solution of A⃗x = ⃗0 is ⃗x = ⃗0. A nontrivial solution of A⃗x = ⃗0 is

any solution of A⃗x = ⃗0 that is not equal to ⃗0.

Theorem. A⃗x = ⃗0 has a nontrivial solution iff the system has at least one free variable.

Example. Solve each linear system.

1. x − 2y + 3z − 4w = 1
−x + 2y − 2z =2
x − 2y + 2z = −2

20
Section 1.5 - Solutions Sets of Linear Systems

2. x − 2y + 3z − 4w = 0
−x + 2y − 2z =0
x − 2y + 2z =0

Theorem. Suppose that A⃗x = ⃗b is consistent and let p⃗ be a solution. Then the solution set
of A⃗x = ⃗b is equal to
{⃗p + ⃗vh | ⃗vh is a solution of A⃗x = ⃗0}.

21
Section 1.7 - Linear Independence

Consider the following subsets of R2 :

         
1 0 1 0 3
ˆ , ˆ , ,
0 1 0 1 4
   
1 0 This is not the case here because there is
Notice that neither nor is a linear
0 1 a vector which is a linear combination of
combination of the other. the other.

Definition. {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } ⊂ Rn is linearly independent if x1⃗v1 + x2⃗v2 + · · · + xp⃗vp =

⃗0 has only the trivial solution (i.e. x1 , x2 , . . . , xp must all be zero). Otherwise, the set is
linearly dependent ; in this case, a linear dependence relation is an equation c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 +
· · · + cp⃗vp = ⃗0 where c1 , c2 , . . . , cp are not all zero (i.e. at least one of the ci ’s is nonzero).

Example. Determine whether {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , ⃗v3 } is linearly independent or linearly dependent.
     
1 1 1
1. ⃗v1 = 0 , ⃗v2 = 1 , ⃗v3 = 1
    
0 0 1

22
Section 1.7 - Linear Independence

     
1 3 5
2. ⃗v1 = , ⃗v2 = , ⃗v3 =
2 4 6

Example. Find a linear dependence relation amongst ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , ⃗v3 in the example above.

Linear Independence for a Set with Exactly One Vector

Theorem. {⃗v } is linearly independent iff ⃗v ̸= ⃗0.

Linear Independence for a Set with Exactly Two Vectors

Theorem. {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 } is linearly dependent iff at least one vector is a scalar multiple of the
other.

23
Section 1.7 - Linear Independence

Linear Independence for a Set with Two or More Vectors

Theorem. (Characterization of linearly dependent sets) Let S = {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } where
p ≥ 2. Then S is linearly dependent iff at least one vector in S is a linear combination of
the other vectors in S.

More Linear Independence Facts

Theorem. If S = {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } ⊆ Rn and p > n, then S is linearly dependent.

Theorem. If S = {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp } contains ⃗0, then S is linearly dependent.

Theorem. The columns of a matrix A are linearly independent iff A⃗x = ⃗0 has only the
trivial solution.

Example. Determine whether the set S is linearly independent or lineary dependent.

1. S = {(1, 2), (−3, −6)}

2. S = {(1, 2, 3)}

     
 1 4 0 
3. S = 2 , 5 , 0
3 6 0
 

       
 1 4 7 10 
4. S = 2 , 5 , 8 , 11
     
3 6 9 12
 

24
Section 1.8 - Introduction to Linear Transformations

Definition. A transformation or function or mapping from Rn to Rm is a rule that assigns

to each ⃗x ∈ Rn exactly one vector T (⃗x) ∈ Rm . Here, the domain of T is the first set, Rn , and
the codomain of T is the second set, Rm .

ˆ If ⃗x ∈ Rn , then T (⃗x) is the image of ⃗x under T .

ˆ The range of T is the set of all images of elements in the domain, that is,

Range of T = {T (⃗x) | ⃗x ∈ Rn }
= {⃗b ∈ Rm | T (⃗x) = ⃗b for some ⃗x ∈ Rn }.

Notation: “T : Rn → Rm ” means T is a function from Rn to Rm . “⃗x 7→ ⃗y ” means that the map

sends ⃗x to ⃗y .

Example. Take the transformation T : R → R where T (x) = x2 . Find

(a) The domain of T .

(b) The codomain of T .

(c) The range of T .

(d) The image of −1 under T .

Definition. A matrix transformation is a map T : Rn → Rm such that ⃗x 7→ A⃗x for some

m × n matrix A.

3 2
Example.
  Take the matrix transformation T : R → R defined by T (⃗x) = A⃗x where A =
1 0 2
. Find
0 1 3
 
1
(a) T  2
3

25
Section 1.8 - Introduction to Linear Transformations

 
x1
(b) T  x2 
x3

(c) All ⃗x ∈ R3 whose image under T is ⃗0.

(d) The range of T .

Theorem. Let A be an m × n matrix and T : Rn → Rm be the matrix transformation given

by T (⃗x) = A⃗x. Then the range of T is equal to the span of the columns of A.

26
Section 1.8 - Introduction to Linear Transformations

Definition. A transformation T : V → W is linear if

ˆ T (⃗u + ⃗v ) = T (⃗u) + T (⃗v ) for all ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V .

ˆ T (c⃗u) = cT (⃗u) for any ⃗u ∈ V and any scalar c.

Example. Is T : R → R where T (x) = x2 a linear transformation?

Example. Let A be an m × n matrix and T : Rn → Rm be the matrix transformation given by

T (⃗x) = A⃗x. Show that T is linear. In other words, show that any matrix transformation is linear.

 
−2
2 3
Example. Let T : R → R be a linear transformation such that T (⃗u) = 7  and

  −1
1
T (⃗v ) = −4 where ⃗u, ⃗v are some vectors in R2 . Find T (⃗u + 2⃗v ).

0

Theorem. For any linear transformation T : V → W ,

ˆ T (⃗0) = ⃗0.

ˆ T (c1⃗v1 +c2⃗v2 +· · ·+cp⃗vp ) = c1 T (⃗v1 )+c2 T (⃗v2 )+· · ·+cp T (⃗vp ) for any ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . . , ⃗vp ∈ V
and any scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp .

27
Section 1.9 - The Matrix of a Linear Transformation

Notation: In Rn , ⃗ej is the vector whose jth entry is 1 with 0s everywhere else:
     
1 0 0
0 1  .. 
    .
⃗e1 = 0 , ⃗e2 = 0 , . . . , ⃗en = 0
     
 ..   ..   
. . 0
0 0 1

Theorem. Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then there exists a unique matrix

A such that T (⃗x) = A⃗x for any ⃗x ∈ Rn . In fact, A, called the standard matrix for T , is
the m × n matrix whose jth column is T (⃗ej ):
 
A = T (⃗e1 ) T (⃗e2 ) · · · T (⃗en ) .

 
  x1 + x2
x1
Example. Find the standard matrix for T : R2 → R3 if T =  2x2 .
x2
0

Some Geometric Linear Transformations from R2 to R2

ˆ Reflection about the x-axis
y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

28
Section 1.9 - The Matrix of a Linear Transformation

ˆ Reflection about the y-axis

y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

ˆ Reflection about the line y = x

y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

ˆ Projection onto the x-axis

y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

ˆ Vertical expansion by a factor of 2

y
3

x
−1 1 2 3
−1

29
Section 1.9 - The Matrix of a Linear Transformation

ˆ Rotation counterclockwise by θ
y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

See the book for more examples!

Definition. T : Rn → Rm is onto if every ⃗b ∈ Rm is the image of at least one ⃗x ∈ Rn .

T : Rn → Rm is one-to-one if each ⃗b ∈ Rm is the image of at most one ⃗x ∈ Rn .

Example. Let T : R2 → R2 where T (x, y) = (x, 0). Does T map R2 onto R2 ? Is T one-to-one?

30
Section 1.9 - The Matrix of a Linear Transformation

Theorem. Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one iff T (⃗x) = ⃗0

has only the trivial solution.

Theorem. Let T : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation with standard matrix A. Then

ˆ T maps Rn onto Rm iff the columns of A span Rm .

ˆ T is one-to-one iff the columns of A are linearly independent.

Example. Let R3 → R2 be defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 +x2 +x3 , x2 +x3 ) for (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 .
This is a linear transformation. Is T one-to-one? Is T onto?

31