(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 :(a)load
load line graph of the above network (b) intersection of the load line with the
characteristics plot
Example on load line analysis:
analysis
1.3 Clipping (limiting) circuit:
Clipping circuits are used to transmit a part of arbitrary waveform which lies above or below the
reference level. Clipping circuits are also referred to as voltage (or current) limiters, amplitude
selectors and voltage slicers. The clipper circuits are of the following types.
• Series positive clipper
• Series negative clipper
• Shunt or parallel clipper
• Shunt or parallel positive negative
• Clipper Dual (combination)Diode clipper
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load, while the
parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load. The type of clipper combines a
parallel negative clipper with negative bias (D1 and B2) and a parallel positive bias (D1 and B1).
Hence the combination of a biased positive clipper and a biased negative clipper is called
combination or dual diode clipper.
Example of series clipper:
Series positive clipper Series negative clipper
Series-positive clipper with bias Series-negative clipper with bias
Example of parallel clipper:
Parallel positive clipper Parallel negative clipper
Parallel-positive clipper with bias(in negative bias condition v Parallel-negative clipper with bias
should be in reverse bias condition)
Example of parallel clipper:
DUAL (COMBINATION) DIODE CLIPPER
1.4 Comparator:
A comparator is a device which is used to sense when an arbitrary varying signal reaches some
threshold or reference level. Comparators find application in many electronics systems: for
example, they may be used to sense when a linear ramp reaches some defined voltage level, or to
indicate whether or not a pulse has amplitude greater than a particular value.
The non-linear circuits to perform the operation of clipping may also be used to perform the
operation of comparison. The basic difference between the two is that in comparator there is no
interest in reproducing any part of the signal waveform and desired portion of the input signal is
reproduced in the output port of a clipping circuit without any change in desired wave shape.
The input signal to a comparator circuit is a ramp voltage linearly increases with time. The input
waveform v (t) = t for ramp type waveform
Circuit working:
• At time < ! ,the diode circuit is reverse biased as long as " < . Hence the output
voltage is equal to from 0 instant to break point ! .
• From the time t= ! , the diode is forward biased and act as a closed switched and the
output follow the input i.e. #$% = " .
• Hence the output signal having amplitude greater than reference signal will appear at the
output terminal and all other signal are blocked by the reversed biased diode circuit till
the reference voltage is sensed.
• Due to the above feature, the diode is used as a comparator circuit to mark the instant at
which " reaches .
Sampling gate:
Sampling gate is a switching circuit which is employed to sample the amplitude of dc signal or
low frequency signal. Sampling gate is constructed by using diodes, BJTs and FETs. A very
simple diode circuit which is sampling a voltage signal is given in below figure.
Where ' =source signal which is going to be sampled.
" =pulse control input is applied through !.
# =output signal
and ( are the source and load resistance respectively.
When control voltage is zero or negative, the diodes )! and )* are reversed biased so
+ ≃[Link] control voltage is zero, the diode voltage is positive, both the diodes are forward
biased. So
- = ' .' '
If.' << ', - ≃ '.
And = - /
≃ ' /
# = − 1
≃ ' /
− 1
≃ ' where /
= 1
.
From the above analysis, we observed that the source signal is passed to the output signal when
the control signal is positive. The diode sampling gate has error due to differences in voltage
drops across the each diode and due to the leakage current in diode. It is applicable only where
large signal amplitude is involved and where accuracy is not important.
Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.
I. Half Wave Rectifier:
The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine
wave of the AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is
called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC power
supply as shown below.
II. Full Wave Rectifier:
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle.
A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into
two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This configuration results in
each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the
transformer centre point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the
half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown below.
a) Centre trap diode rectifier:
• The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a
single load resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply
