1

Male, Female Reproductive Systems

Ava Chiao
Douglas Wilkin, Ph.D.
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.

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male-female-reproductive-systems/

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 AU T HO R S
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as
Ava Chiao
other interactive content, visit www.ck12.org
Douglas Wilkin,
Ph.D.
CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission
Jean Brainard, Ph.D.
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Printed: January 22, 2022 (PST)

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MAIN CONTENT
1 Male Reproductive Organs
1.1 Male Reproductive Organs 7
1.2 References 11
2 Male Reproductive Development
2.1 Male Reproductive Development 13
2.2 References 17
3 Sperm
3.1 Sperm 19
3.2 References 24
4 Female Reproductive Organs
4.1 Female Reproductive Organs 26
4.2 References 31
5 Female Reproductive Development
5.1 Female Reproductive Development 33
5.2 References 37
6 Egg Cells
6.1 Egg Cells 39
6.2 References 45
7 Menstrual Cycle
7.1 Menstrual Cycle 47
7.2 References 51
8 Fertilization
8.1 Fertilization 53
8.2 References 57
9 Embryo Growth
9.1 Embryo Growth 59
9.2 References 64
10 Prenatal Development
10.1 Prenatal Development 66
10.2 References 71
11 The Placenta
11.1 The Placenta 73
11.2 References 76
12 Pregnancy
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 12.1 Pregnancy 78
12.2 References 81
13 Birth to Adulthood
13.1 Birth to Adulthood 83
13.2 References 87

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CHAPTER
1
Male Reproductive Organs
Chapter Outline

1.1 Male Reproductive Organs

1.2 References

6
1.1. Male Reproductive Organs www. c k 12 .org

1.0 Male Reproductive Organs

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

Would you believe the male reproductive structures are over 100 feet long?

The male reproductive system has two goals: to produce and deliver sperm and to secrete
testosterone. Might seem simple. But there are a number of complicated processes and
structures - including over 100 feet of tubules - that go into these simple goals.

Male Reproductive Structures

The reproductive system in both males and females consists of structures that produce
reproductive cells, or gametes, and secrete sex hormones. A gamete is a haploid cell that
combines with another haploid gamete during fertilization. Sex hormones are chemical
messengers that control sexual development and reproduction. The male reproductive
system consists of structures that produce male gametes called sperm and secrete the male
sex hormone testosterone.

The main structures of the male reproductive system are shown in Figure below. Locate
them in the figure as you read about them below. You can also watch an animation about
male reproductive structures at this link:
http://www.medindia.net/animation/male_reproductive_system.asp.

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[Figure 2]

Male Reproductive Structures. Organs of the male reproductive system include the penis,
testes, and epididymis. Several ducts and glands are also part of the system. Do you know
the reproductive functions of any of these structures?

Penis
The penis is an external genital organ with a long shaft and enlarged tip called the glans
penis. The shaft of the penis contains erectile tissues that can fill with blood and cause an
erection. When this occurs, the penis gets bigger and stiffer. The urethra passes through
the penis. Sperm pass out of the body through the urethra. (During urination, the urethra
carries urine from the bladder.)

Testes
The two testes (singular, testis) are located below the penis. They hang between the thighs
in a sac of skin called the scrotum. Each testis contains more than 30 meters (90 feet) of
tiny, tightly packed tubules called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are the functional
units of the testes. They produce sperm and secrete testosterone.

Epididymis
The seminiferous tubules within each testis join to form the epididymis. The epididymis
(plural, epididymes) is a coiled tube about 6 meters (20 feet) long lying atop the testis inside
the scrotum. The functions of the epididymis are to mature and store sperm until they leave
the body.

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Ducts and Glands

In addition to these organs, the male reproductive system consists of a series of ducts and
glands. Ducts include the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts. They transport sperm from
the epididymes to the urethra in the penis. Glands include the seminal vesicles and
prostate gland. They secrete substances that become part of semen.

Semen
Semen is the fluid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. In addition to
sperm, it contains secretions from the glands. The secretions control pH and provide sperm
with nutrients for energy.

Summary
The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce sperm and secrete
testosterone.

Male reproductive structures include the penis, testes, and epididymes.

Practice I
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Reproductive

Anatomy

1. What is the role of the reproductive system?

2. Why are the testes outside the body?

3. Describe the route of sperm through the reproductive system.

4. What comprises semen?

5. Describe the role of the prostate gland.

Practice II
Quiz on Male Reproductive Organs at http://www.neok12.com/quiz/REPSYS01.

Review

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1. What are the two major roles of the male reproductive system?

2. Name two male reproductive organs and identify their functions.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

epididymis male reproductive organ on top of the testes where sperm

mature.

penis male reproductive organ containing the urethra, through which

semen and urine pass out of the body.

prostate gland male reproductive organ that secretes a fluid to help form
semen.

reproductive system system of organs that controls reproduction, produces gametes,

and secretes sex hormones.

scrotum sac that hangs down outside the body and contains the
epididymis and testes.

semen fluid containing sperm and gland secretions that nourish sperm
and carry them through the urethra and out of the body.

seminal vesicles Gland that secretes substances that become part of semen.

seminiferous tubules The functional units of the testes.

testis one of two male reproductive organs that produces sperm and
secretes testosterone.

testosterone male sex hormone secreted by the testes that causes most of
the changes of puberty and is needed by an adult male for the
production of sperm.

vas deferens tube-like male reproductive organ that carries sperm from the
epididymis to the urethra.

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1.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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CHAPTER
2
Male Reproductive
Development
Chapter Outline

2.1 Male Reproductive Development

2.2 References

12
2.1. Male Reproductive Development www. c k 12 .org

2.0 Male Reproductive Development

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

What's changes happen during puberty?

A lot changes during this time. A boy has to start shaving, his voice deepens, he gets taller,
as well as a few other changes.

Sexual Development in Males

The only obvious difference between boys and girls at birth is their reproductive organs.
However, even the reproductive organs start out the same in both sexes.

Development Before Birth

In the first several weeks after fertilization, males and females are essentially the same
except for their chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), and males have an
X and a Y chromosome (XY). Then, during the second month after fertilization, genes on the
Y chromosome of males cause the secretion of testosterone. Testosterone stimulates the

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reproductive organs to develop into male organs. (Without testosterone, the reproductive
organs always develop into female organs.) Although boys have male reproductive organs at
birth, the organs are immature and not yet able to produce sperm or secrete testosterone.

Puberty and Its Changes

The reproductive organs grow very slowly during childhood and do not mature until puberty.
Puberty is the period during which humans become sexually mature. In the U.S., boys
generally begin puberty at about age 12 and complete it at about age 18. What causes
puberty to begin? The hypothalamus in the brain “tells” the pituitary gland to secrete
hormones that target the testes. The main pituitary hormone involved is luteinizing
hormone (LH). It stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone. Testosterone, in turn,
promotes protein synthesis and growth. It brings about most of the physical changes of
puberty, some of which are shown in Figure below. You can watch an animation of these
and other changes that occur in boys during puberty at this link:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/.

[Figure 2]

Some of the changes that occur in boys during puberty are shown in this figure. Pubic hair
grows, and the penis and testes both become larger.

Adolescent Growth Spurt

Another obvious change that occurs during puberty is rapid growth. This is called the
adolescent growth spurt. In boys, it is controlled by testosterone. The rate of growth usually
starts to increase relatively early in puberty. At its peak rate, growth in height is about 10
centimeters (almost 4 inches) per year in the average male. Growth generally remains rapid
for several years. Growth and development of muscles occur toward the end of the growth
spurt in height. Muscles may continue to develop and gain strength after growth in height is
finished.

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Summary
The male reproductive system forms before birth but does not become capable of
reproduction until it matures during puberty.
Puberty lasts from about ages 12 to 18 years and is controlled by hormones.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

Interactive Body at
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/.

1. What triggers puberty in boys?

2. How does a boy's face change during puberty?

3. How does a boy's voice change during puberty?

4. What happens to the hand during puberty?

5. Describe the changes in the male genitals during puberty.

Review
1. List three physical changes that occur in males during puberty.

2. Sexual dimorphism refers to differences between males and females of the same species.
Applying what you read in this lesson, describe how human sexual dimorphism changes
from fertilization to adulthood.

3. Explain how and why boys change so much during puberty.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

adolescent growth spurt period of rapid growth that occurs during puberty.

puberty period during which humans become sexually mature.

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testosterone male sex hormone secreted by the testes that causes most of
the changes of puberty and is needed by an adult male for the
production of sperm.

X chromosome One of two sex chromosomes; males have one X chromosome,

females have two X chromosomes.

Y chromosome One of two sex chromosomes; only males have a Y

chromosome.

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2.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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CHAPTER
3
Sperm
Chapter Outline

3.1 Sperm

3.2 References

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3.1. Sperm www. c k 12 .org

3.0 Sperm
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

How many sperm does to take to fertilize an egg?

85 million sperm per day are produced...per testicle. That's 170,000,000 every day. This
means that a single male may produce more than a quadrillion (1,000,000,000,000) sperm
cells in his lifetime! But it only takes one to fertilize an egg.

Production and Delivery of Sperm

A sexually mature male produces an astounding number of sperm—typically, hundreds of
millions each day! Sperm production usually continues uninterrupted until death, although
the number and quality of sperm decline during later adulthood.

Spermatogenesis
The process of producing mature sperm is called spermatogenesis. Sperm are produced in
the seminiferous tubules of the testes and become mature in the epididymis. The entire
process takes about 9 to 10 weeks. You can watch an animation of spermatogenesis at this
link: http://wps.aw.com/bc_martini_eap_4/40/10469/2680298.cw/content/index.html. If you
look inside the seminiferous tubule shown in Figure below, you can see cells in various
stages of spermatogenesis. The tubule is lined with spermatogonia, which are diploid,

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sperm-producing cells. Surrounding the spermatogonia are other cells. Some of these other
cells secrete substances to nourish sperm, and some secrete testosterone, which is needed
for sperm production.

[Figure 2]

Seminiferous Tubule. This photograph shows an enlarged cross section of a seminiferous

tubule.

Spermatogonia lining the seminiferous tubule undergo mitosis to form primary

spermatocytes, which are also diploid. The primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic
division to form secondary spermatocytes, which are haploid. Spermatocytes make up the
next layer of cells inside the seminiferous tubule. Finally, the secondary spermatocytes
complete meiosis to form spermatids. Spermatids make up a third layer of cells in the
tubule.

Sperm Maturation
After spermatids form, they move into the epididymis to mature into sperm, like the one
shown in Figure below. The spermatids grow a tail and lose excess cytoplasm from the
head. When a sperm is mature, the tail can rotate like a propeller, so the sperm can propel
itself forward. Mitochondria in the connecting piece produce the energy needed for
movement. The head of the mature sperm consists mainly of the nucleus, which carries
copies of the father’s chromosomes. The part of the head called the acrosome produces
enzymes that help the head penetrate an egg.

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[Figure 3]

Mature Sperm Cell. A mature sperm cell has several structures that help it reach and
penetrate an egg. These structures include the tail, mitochondria, and acrosome. How does
each structure contribute to the sperm’s function?

Ejaculation
Sperm are released from the body during ejaculation. Ejaculation occurs when muscle
contractions propel sperm from the epididymes. The sperm are forced through the ducts
and out of the body through the urethra. As sperm travel through the ducts, they mix with
fluids from the glands to form semen. Hundreds of millions of sperm are released with each
ejaculation.

Summary
Sperm are produced in the testes in the process of spermatogenesis.
Sperm mature in the epididymes before being ejaculated from the body through the
penis.

Practice
Use these resources to answer the questions that follow.

Spermatogenesis at http://www.dnatube.com/video/460/Spermatogenesis.

1. What is spermatogenesis? Describe this process.

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Sex and Intimacy: Sperm Facts at http://health.discovery.com/videos/sex-and-intimacy-

sperm-facts.html.

1. List five facts about sperm.

Review
1. Outline the process of spermatogenesis. What cells are involved in the process?

2. Where do sperm mature and how do they leave the body?

3. If a man did not have functioning epididymes, predict how his sperm would be affected.
How would this influence his ability to reproduce?

4. How does each sperm structure contribute to the sperm’s function?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

acrosome part of the head of sperm that produces enzymes that help the
head penetrate an egg.

ejaculation muscle contractions that propel sperm from the epididymis and
out through the urethra in males.

epididymis male reproductive organ on top of the testes where sperm

mature.

primary spermatocytes Diploid cells in the sperm maturation process; formed when
spermatogonia lining the seminiferous tubule undergo mitosis.

secondary spermatocytes Haploid cells in the sperm maturation process; formed when
primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division.

seminiferous tubules The functional units of the testes.

spermatids Haploid cells in the sperm maturation process; formed when

secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division.

spermatogonia Diploid, sperm-producing cells located in the seminiferous

tubules.

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3.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

24
CHAPTER
4
Female Reproductive
Organs
Chapter Outline

4.1 Female Reproductive Organs

4.2 References

25
4.1. Female Reproductive Organs www. c k 12 .org

4.0 Female Reproductive Organs

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

Think producing millions of sperm each day is complicated?

If producing millions of sperm each day, as in the male reproductive system, is complicated,
that is nothing compared to what must occur in the female reproductive system. This system
is controlled by an intricate dance of hormones, cycles, and events.

Female Reproductive Structures

The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce female gametes called
eggs and secrete the female sex hormone estrogen. The female reproductive system has
several other functions as well:

1. It receives sperm during sexual intercourse.

2. It supports the development of a fetus.
3. It delivers a baby during birth.
4. It breast-feeds a baby after birth.

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The main structures of the female reproductive system are shown in Figure below. Most of
the structures are inside the pelvic region of the body. Locate the structures in the figure as
you read about them below. To watch an animation of the female reproductive system, go
to this link: http://www.medindia.net/animation/female_reproductive_system.asp.

[Figure 2]

Female Reproductive Structures. Organs of the female reproductive system include the
vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes.

External Structures
The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva. They
include the labia (singular, labium), which are the “lips” of the vulva. The labia protect the
vagina and urethra, both of which have openings in the vulva.

Vagina
The vagina is a tube-like structure about 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) long. It begins at the
vulva and extends upward to the uterus. It has muscular walls lined with mucous
membranes. The vagina has two major reproductive functions. It receives sperm during
sexual intercourse, and it provides a passageway for a baby to leave the mother’s body
during birth.

Uterus

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The uterus is a muscular organ shaped like an upside-down pear. It has a thick lining of
tissues called the endometrium. The lower, narrower end of the uterus is known as the
cervix. The uterus is where a fetus grows and develops until birth. During pregnancy, the
uterus can expand greatly to make room for the baby as it grows. During birth, contractions
of the muscular walls of the uterus push the baby through the cervix and out of the body.

Ovaries
The two ovaries are small, egg-shaped organs that lie on either side of the uterus. They
produce eggs and secrete estrogen. Each egg is located inside a structure called a follicle.
Cells in the follicle protect the egg and help it mature.

Fallopian Tubes
Extending from the upper corners of the uterus are the two fallopian tubes. Each tube
reaches (but is not attached to) one of the ovaries. The ovary end of the tube has a fringelike
structure that moves in waves. The motion sweeps eggs from the ovary into the tube.

Breasts
The breasts are not directly involved in reproduction, but they nourish a baby after birth.
Each breast contains mammary glands, which secrete milk. The milk drains into ducts
leading to the nipple. A suckling baby squeezes the milk out of the ducts and through the
nipple.

Summary
The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce eggs and secrete
female sex hormones. They also provide a site for fertilization and enable the
development and birth of a fetus.
Female reproductive structures include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes.

Practice I
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Reproductive

Anatomy

1. Define the vagina, uterus and cervix.

2. Describe the ovary and ovulation.

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Practice II
Quiz on Female reproductive Organs at http://www.neok12.com/quiz/REPSYS02.

Review
1. List three general functions of the female reproductive system.

2. Describe the uterus, and state its role in reproduction.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

breast organ that contains mammary glands, which secrete milk.

cervix lower, narrower end of the uterus where the baby is pushed
through and out of the body during birth.

endometrium tissues lining the uterus; shed from the body during
menstruation.

estrogen female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries.

fallopian tube one of two female reproductive organs that carry eggs from the
ovary to the uterus and provide the site where fertilization
usually takes place.

follicle structure in the ovary where eggs mature.

labium lip of the vulva; protects the vagina and urethra, both of which
have openings in the vulva.

mammary gland gland in female mammals that produces milk for offspring.

ovary one of two female reproductive organs that produces eggs and
secretes the hormone estrogen.

uterus female reproductive organ where an embryo or fetus grows and

develops until birth.

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vulva external female reproductive structures, including the labia and

vaginal opening.

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4.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

31
CHAPTER
5
Female Reproductive
Development
Chapter Outline

5.1 Female Reproductive Development

5.2 References

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5.0 Female Reproductive Development

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

What changes happen during puberty?

A lot changes during this time. Girls may become interested in many new things, including
the art of makeup.

Sexual Development in Females

Female reproductive organs form before birth. However, as in males, the organs do not
mature until puberty.

Development Before Birth

Unlike males, females are not influenced by the male sex hormone testosterone during
embryonic development. This is because they lack a Y chromosome. As a result, females do
not develop male reproductive organs. By the third month of fetal development, most of the
internal female organs have formed. Immature eggs also form in the ovary before birth.
Whereas a mature male produces sperm throughout his life, a female produces all the eggs
she will ever make before birth.

Changes of Puberty

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Like baby boys, baby girls are born with all their reproductive organs present but immature
and unable to function. Female reproductive organs also grow very little until puberty. Girls
begin puberty a year or two earlier than boys, at an average age of 10 years. Girls also
complete puberty sooner than boys, in about 4 years instead of 6. Puberty in girls starts
when the hypothalamus “tells” the pituitary gland to secrete hormones that target the
ovaries. Two pituitary hormones are involved: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones stimulate the ovary to produce estrogen.
Estrogen, in turn, promotes growth and other physical changes of puberty. It stimulates
growth and development of the internal reproductive organs, breasts, and pubic hair (see
Figure below). You can watch an animation of these and other changes that girls experience
during puberty at this link:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/.

[Figure 2]

Changes in Females During Puberty. Two obvious changes of puberty in girls are growth
and development of the breasts and pubic hair. The stages begin around age 10 and are
completed by about age 14.

Adolescent Growth Spurt

Like boys, girls also go through an adolescent growth spurt. However, girls typically start
their growth spurt a year or two earlier than boys (and therefore a couple of centimeters
shorter, on average). Girls also have a shorter growth spurt. For example, they typically reach
their adult height by about age 15. In addition, girls generally do not grow as fast as boys do
during the growth spurt, even at their peak rate of growth. As a result, females are about 10
centimeters (about 4 inches) shorter, on average, than males by the time they reach their
final height.

Menarche
One of the most significant changes in females during puberty is menarche. Menarche is
the beginning of menstruation, or monthly periods. In U.S. girls, the average age of
menarche is 12.5 years, although there is a lot of variation in this age. The variation may be

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due to a combination of genetic factors and environmental factors, such as diet.

Summary
Female reproductive organs form before birth. However, they do not mature until
puberty.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

Interactive Body at
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/.

1. What triggers puberty in girls?

2. How does a girl's face change during puberty?

3. Describe changes in the breasts during puberty.

4. Describe changes to the hips and thighs during puberty.

Review
1. State two ways that puberty differs in girls and boys.

2. Define menstruation. What is the first menstrual period called?

3. Males and females are quite similar in height when they begin the adolescent growth
spurt. Why are females about 10 centimeters shorter than males by adulthood?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

adolescent growth spurt period of rapid growth that occurs during puberty.

estrogen female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries.

menarche beginning of menstruation; first monthly period in females.

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menstruation passage of blood from the uterus during a menstrual cycle;

commonly called menstrual period.

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5.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

37
CHAPTER
6
Egg Cells
Chapter Outline

6.1 Egg Cells

6.2 References

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6.0 Egg Cells

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

What's amazing about these cells?

Many things. A human egg cell. Just add sperm and you have the necessary ingredients for
a new baby. What's amazing about these cells is that they are all produced before the girl is
even born. Before the girl is even born, plans for the next generation have begun. And that
is the start of an amazing process.

Egg Production
At birth, a female’s ovaries contain all the eggs she will ever produce. However, the eggs do
not start to mature until she enters puberty. After menarche, one egg typically matures each
month until a woman reaches middle adulthood.

Oogenesis
The process of producing eggs in the ovary is called oogenesis. Eggs, like sperm, are
haploid cells, and their production occurs in several steps that involve different types of
cells, as shown in Figure below. You can follow the process of oogenesis in the figure as
you read about it below.

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[Figure 2]

Oogenesis. Oogenesis begins before birth but is not finished until after puberty. A mature
egg forms only if a secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm.

Oogenesis begins long before birth when an oogonium with the diploid number of
chromosomes undergoes mitosis. It produces a diploid daughter cell called a primary
oocyte. The primary oocyte, in turn, starts to go through the first cell division of meiosis
(meiosis I). However, it does not complete meiosis until much later. The primary oocyte
remains in a resting state, nestled in a tiny, immature follicle until puberty.

Maturation of a Follicle
Beginning in puberty, each month one of the follicles and its primary oocyte starts to mature
(also see Figure below). The primary oocyte resumes meiosis and divides to form a
secondary oocyte and a smaller cell, called a polar body. Both the secondary oocyte and
polar body are haploid cells. The secondary oocyte has most of the cytoplasm from the
original cell and is much larger than the polar body.

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[Figure 3]

Maturation of a Follicle and Ovulation. A follicle matures and its primary oocyte (follicle)
resumes meiosis to form a secondary oocyte in the secondary follicle. The follicle ruptures
and the oocyte leaves the ovary during ovulation. What happens to the ruptured follicle
then?

Ovulation and Fertilization

After 12–14 days, when the follicle is mature, it bursts open, releasing the secondary oocyte
from the ovary. This event is called ovulation (see Figure above). The follicle, now called a
corpus luteum, starts to degenerate, or break down. After the secondary oocyte leaves the
ovary, it is swept into the nearby fallopian tube by the waving, fringelike end (see Figure
below).

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[Figure 4]

Egg Entering Fallopian Tube. After ovulation, the fringelike end of the fallopian tube sweeps
the oocyte inside of the tube, where it begins its journey to the uterus.

If the secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm as it is passing through the fallopian tube, it
completes meiosis and forms a mature egg and another polar body. (The polar bodies break
down and disappear.) If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it passes into the uterus as an
immature egg and soon disintegrates. You can watch an animation of all these events and
the hormones that control them at the link below. http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-
200017.htm

Summary
Immature eggs form in the ovaries before birth.
Each month, starting in puberty, one egg matures and is released from the ovary.

Release of an egg is called ovulation.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

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The Female Reproductive System at

http://www.drstandley.com/bodysystems_femalerepro.shtml.

1. What is a "true egg"?

2. How many eggs does a woman actually have?

3. What is ovulation?
4. Where does the fertilized egg go?

Review
1. Describe ovulation.

2. Create a flow chart showing the steps in which an oogonium develops into a mature egg.

3. Predict how blockage of both fallopian tubes would affect a woman’s ability to reproduce
naturally. Explain your answer.

4. Compare and contrast what happens in the menstrual cycle when the egg is fertilized
with what happens when the egg is not fertilized.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

corpus luteum remains of the follicle after ovulation.

follicle structure in the ovary where eggs mature.

oogonium Diploid cell that undergoes mitosis, beginning oogenesis.

ovulation event in which an egg bursts out of its follicle and through the
wall of an ovary.

primary oocyte Diploid daughter cell that results from mitosis of oogonium;
starts to go through the first cell division of meiosis.,
secondary oocyte

: Haploid cell formed when the primary oocyte completes

meiosis I.

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polar body Formed by the unequal meiotic divisions of cytoplasm during

oogenesis.

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6.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

45
CHAPTER
7
Menstrual Cycle
Chapter Outline

7.1 Menstrual Cycle

7.2 References

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7.0 Menstrual Cycle

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: May 02, 2014

[Figure 1]

What's the most important part of the female menstrual cycle?

A menstrual cycle calendar. A lot of things to keep track of. And for a few very important
reasons, it is important to know when a woman is ovulating. But what's the most important
part of the female menstrual cycle? That depends on who you ask.

Menstrual Cycle
Ovulation, the release of an egg from an ovary, is part of the menstrual cycle, which
typically occurs each month in a sexually mature female unless she is pregnant. Another
part of the cycle is the monthly period, or menstruation. Menstruation is the process in
which the endometrium of the uterus is shed from the body. The menstrual cycle is
controlled by hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries. For an
interactive animation of the menstrual cycle, you can go this link:
http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200132.htm

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

As shown in Figure below, the menstrual cycle occurs in several phases. The cycle begins
with menstruation. During menstruation, arteries that supply the endometrium of the uterus
constrict. As a result, the endometrium breaks down and detaches from the uterus. It passes
out of the body through the vagina over a period of several days.

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[Figure 2]

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle. The menstrual cycle occurs in the phases shown here.

After menstruation, the endometrium begins to build up again. At the same time, a follicle
starts maturing in an ovary. Ovulation occurs around day 14 of the cycle. After it occurs, the
endometrium continues to build up in preparation for a fertilized egg. What happens next
depends on whether the egg is fertilized.

If the egg is fertilized, the endometrium will be maintained and help nourish the egg. The
ruptured follicle, now called the corpus luteum, will secrete the hormone progesterone.
This hormone keeps the endometrium from breaking down. If the egg is not fertilized, the
corpus luteum will break down and disappear. Without progesterone, the endometrium will
also break down and be shed. A new menstrual cycle thus begins.

Menopause
For most women, menstrual cycles continue until their mid- or late- forties. Then women go
through menopause, a period during which their menstrual cycles slow down and
eventually stop, generally by their early fifties. After menopause, women can no longer

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reproduce naturally because their ovaries no longer produce eggs.

Summary
The menstrual cycle includes events that take place in the ovary, such as ovulation.
The menstrual cycle also includes changes in the uterus, including menstruation.

Menopause occurs when menstruation stops occurring, usually in middle adulthood.

Practice
Use these resources to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Hormonal Control

of Reproduction

1. What is estrogen?

2. What does GnRH do?

3. Describe the roles of FSH and LH in females.

4. Distinguish between a menstrual and estrus cycle.

5. Distinguish between the menstrual cycle and ovarian cycle.

6. Describe hormone levels during the follicular phase.

7. Describe hormone levels during the luteal phase.

8. Describe how birth control pills work.

The menstrual cycle at http://www.123esaaf.com/Atlas/Reproductive_03.swf.

1. What is the menstrual cycle?

2. What happens during days 1-5 of the menstrual cycle?

3. Describe what happens during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.

4. What are the roles of FSH and LH?

5. Describe what happens during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle.

6. Describe what happens during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.

7. Describe the two possible fates of the corpus luteum.

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Review
1. Define menstruation. What is the first menstrual period called?

2. What is menopause? When does it occur?

3. Make a cycle diagram to represent the main events of the menstrual cycle in both the
ovaries and the uterus, including the days when they occur.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

corpus luteum remains of the follicle after ovulation.

endometrium tissues lining the uterus; shed from the body during
menstruation.

follicle structure in the ovary where eggs mature.

menopause period during which menstrual cycles slow down and eventually
stop in middle adulthood.

menstrual cycle series of changes in the reproductive system of sexually mature

females that repeats every month on average; includes
ovulation and, if pregnancy does not occur, also includes
menstruation.

menstruation passage of blood from the uterus during a menstrual cycle;

commonly called menstrual period.

ovulation event in which an egg bursts out of its follicle and through the
wall of an ovary.

progesterone A hormone that keeps the endometrium from breaking down.

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7.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

51
CHAPTER
8
Fertilization
Chapter Outline

8.1 Fertilization

8.2 References

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8.0 Fertilization
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

How far does a sperm have to swim?

Sperm swimming to an egg. If fertilization occurs, the egg will have all the "instructions" to
grow into a new organism. That one cell will become two, then four, then eight, then
sixteen, and on and on and on. And after about 9 months, that one cell will have become a
new baby. But it all starts with the sperm swimming to the egg. A sperm cell is about two
thousandths of an inch long. And although they are small, they can swim roughly 8 inches in
an hour. To reach an egg, they will ultimately they have to swim around 192,000 times there
own length.

Cleavage and Implantation

A day or two after an ovary releases an egg, the egg may unite with a sperm. Sperm are
deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse. They propel themselves through the
uterus and enter a fallopian tube. This is where fertilization usually takes place.

When a sperm penetrates the egg, it triggers the egg to complete meiosis. The sperm also
undergoes changes. Its tail falls off, and its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the egg. The
resulting cell, called a zygote, contains all the chromosomes needed for a new human

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organism. Half the chromosomes come from the egg and half from the sperm.

Morula and Blastocyst Stages

The zygote spends the next few days traveling down the fallopian tube toward the uterus,
where it will take up residence. As it travels, it divides by mitosis several times to form a ball
of cells called a morula. The cell divisions are called cleavage. They increase the number of
cells but not the overall size of the new organism. As more cell divisions occur, a fluid-filled
cavity forms inside the ball of cells. At this stage, the ball of cells is called a blastocyst. The
cells of the blastocyst form an inner cell mass and an outer cell layer, as shown in Figure
below. The inner cell mass is called the embryoblast. These cells will soon develop into an
embryo. The outer cell layer is called the trophoblast. These cells will develop into other
structures needed to support and nourish the embryo.

[Figure 2]

Blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast and an
inner cell mass called the embryoblast.

Implantation
The blastocyst continues down the fallopian tube and reaches the uterus about 4 or 5 days
after fertilization. When the outer cells of the blastocyst contact cells of the endometrium
lining the uterus, the blastocyst embeds in the endometrium. The process of embedding is

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called implantation. It generally occurs about a week after fertilization. You can watch an
animation of a blastocyst implanting at this link:
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/notes/week2_3.htm

Summary
Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
The zygote undergoes many cell divisions before it implants in the lining of the uterus.

Practice
Use these resources to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Embryonic

Development (Reproduction & Devel. in Animals)

1. Distinguish between the animal and vegetal poles.

2. Describe the following:

a. clevage

b. blastula
c. blastocoel

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Human

Development

1. What develops from the blastocyst?

2. Define placenta.

3. What are embryonic stem cells?

4. What is implantation?

Review
1. What happens during fertilization? Where does it usually take place?

2. What is implantation? When does it occur?

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Vocabulary English
Term Definition

blastocyst fluid-filled ball of cells that develops a few days after fertilization
in humans.

embryoblast the inner cell mass of the blastocyst; soon develop into an
embryo.

fallopian tube one of two female reproductive organs that carry eggs from the
ovary to the uterus and provide the site where fertilization
usually takes place.

fertilization union of two gametes that produces a diploid zygote.

implantation process in which a blastocyst implants in the lining of the uterus

about one week after fertilization.

morula Initial ball of cells that forms from the zygote.

trophoblast The outer cell layer of the blastocyst; develop into structures
needed to support and nourish the embryo.

uterus female reproductive organ where an embryo or fetus grows and

develops until birth.

zygote diploid cell that forms when two haploid gametes unite during
fertilization.

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8.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

57
CHAPTER
9
Embryo Growth
Chapter Outline

9.1 Embryo Growth

9.2 References

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9.0 Embryo Growth

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

At one time, did we all really look alike?

We all start as a single cell and soon grow into an embryo. Notice the remarkable details
beginning to form. The eyes, backbone, and limb buds are obvious. Think about the
amazing complexity that must be going on inside the embryo, and the tremendous amount
of growth and development still to come. So, yes, at one time we all looked similar.

Growth and Development of the Embryo

After implantation occurs, the blastocyst is called an embryo. The embryonic stage lasts
through the eighth week following fertilization. During this time, the embryo grows in size
and becomes more complex. It develops specialized cells and tissues and starts to form
most organs. For an interactive animation of embryonic development, go to this link:
http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200129.htm.

Formation of Cell Layers

During the second week after fertilization, cells in the embryo migrate to form three distinct
cell layers, called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Each layer will soon develop
into different types of cells and tissues, as shown in Figure below.

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[Figure 2]

Cell Layers of the Embryo. The migration of cells into three layers occurs in the 2-week-old
embryo. What organs eventually develop from the ectoderm cell layer? Which cell layer
develops into muscle tissues?

Differentiation of Cells
A zygote is a single cell. How does a single cell develop into many different types of cells?
During the third week after fertilization, the embryo begins to undergo cellular
differentiation. Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become
specialized. As illustrated in Figure below, differentiation occurs as certain genes are
expressed ("switched on") while other genes are switched off. Because of this process, cells
develop unique structures and abilities that suit them for their specialized functions. You
can explore cell differentiation by watching the video at this link:
http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/10313-the-cell-cell-differentiation-video.htm.

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[Figure 3]

Cellular differentiation occurs in the 3-week-old embryo.

Organ Formation
After cells differentiate, all the major organs begin to form during the remaining weeks of
embryonic development. A few of the developments that occur in the embryo during weeks
4 through 8 are listed in Figure below. As the embryo develops, it also grows in size. By the
eighth week of development, the embryo is about 30 millimeters (just over 1 inch) in length.
It may also have begun to move.

[Figure 4]

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Embryonic Development (Weeks 4–8). Most organs develop in the embryo during weeks 4
through 8. If the embryo is exposed to toxins during this period, the effects are likely to be
very damaging. Can you explain why? (Note: the drawings of the embryos are not to scale.)

Summary
The embryonic stage begins with implantation.

An embryo forms three distinct cell layers, and each layer develops into different types of
cells and organs.

Practice I
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Embryonic

Development (Reproduction & Devel. in Animals)

1. Describe the following:

a. gastrula

b. invagination

c. gastrulation

d. organogenesis
2. What are the three primary germ layers? What develops from each layer?

Practice II
Guess the Embryo at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/guess-embryo.html.

Review
1. Explain how the embryo forms specialized cells.

2. What organs eventually develop from the ectoderm cell layer?

3. Which cell layer develops into muscle tissues?

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4. If the embryo is exposed to toxins during weeks 4 through 8, the effects are likely to be
very damaging. Can you explain why?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

blastocyst fluid-filled ball of cells that develops a few days after fertilization
in humans.

ectoderm outer embryonic cell layer in animals.

endoderm inner embryonic cell layer in animals.

mesoderm embryonic cell layer in many animals that is located between

the endoderm (inner cell layer) and ectoderm (outer cell layer).

zygote diploid cell that forms when two haploid gametes unite during
fertilization.

embryo very early stage in the development of an organism that lasts

from fertilization to the eighth week of development in which
initial growth and development take place.

differentiation the separation of planetary materials by density to create

distinctly different layers.

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9.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

64
CHAPTER
10
Prenatal Development
Chapter Outline

10.1 Prenatal Development

10.2 References

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10.0 Prenatal Development

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

What characterizes this fetus as human?

The human fetus. Notice the details in the face and hands. Compare this to the human
embryo, and the amount of growth and development is truly remarkable.

Growth and Development of the Fetus

From the end of the eighth week until birth, the developing organism is referred to as a
fetus. Birth typically occurs at about 38 weeks after fertilization, so the fetal period generally
lasts about 30 weeks. During this time, as outlined in Figure below, the organs complete
their development. The fetus also grows rapidly in length and weight.

For detailed videos of growth and development of the fetus birth, go to these links:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aR-Qa_LD2m4&feature=related and
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RS1ti23SUSw&feature=related.

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https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/244

https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/245

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[Figure 2]

Fetal Development (Weeks 9–38). Organ development is completed and body size
increases dramatically during weeks 9–38.

By the 38th week, the fetus is fully developed and ready to be born (see Figure below). A
38-week fetus normally ranges from 36 to 51 centimeters (14–20 inches) in length and
weighs between 2.7 and 4.6 kilograms (about 6–10 pounds).

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[Figure 3]

A 38-week-old fetus has completed development and will soon be born.

Summary
The fetal stage begins about two months after fertilization and continues until birth.

During this stage, organs continue to develop, and the fetus grows in size.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Human

Development

1. What four membranes develop early on in the embryo? Describe their roles.

2. What are the three germ layers?

3. What is a fetus?

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4. Describe the role of the placenta.

5. Describe fetal changes during the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy.

Review
1. Make a flow chart of embryonic and fetal development.

2. Why would an embryo be more susceptible than a fetus to damage by toxins?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

fetus stage of a developing human from the eighth week following

fertilization until birth.

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10.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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CHAPTER
11
The Placenta
Chapter Outline

11.1 The Placenta

11.2 References

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11.0 The Placenta

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

How does a developing baby breath?

Or eat? From mom of course. Shown is a detailed representation of the placenta. And this is
where all these interactions occur.

Placenta and Related Structures

The fetus could not grow and develop without oxygen and nutrients from the mother.
Wastes from the fetus must also be removed in order for it to survive. The exchange of
these substances between the mother and fetus occurs through the placenta.

Placenta
The placenta is a temporary organ that begins to form from the trophoblast layer of cells
shortly after implantation. (For an animation showing how the placenta forms, go to link
below.) The placenta continues to develop and grow to meet the needs of the growing
fetus. A fully developed placenta, like the one seen above, is made up of a large mass of
blood vessels from both the mother and fetus. The maternal and fetal vessels are close
together but separated by tiny spaces. This allows the mother’s and fetus’s blood to
exchange substances across their capillary walls without the blood actually mixing.

http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200122.htm

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The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord, a tube that contains two
arteries and a vein. Blood from the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical arteries,
exchanges gases and other substances with the mother’s blood, and travels back to the
fetus through the umbilical vein.

Amniotic Sac and Fluid

Attached to the placenta is the amniotic sac, an enclosed membrane that surrounds and
protects the fetus (see Figure above). It contains amniotic fluid, which consists of water and
dissolved substances. The fluid allows the fetus to move freely until it grows to fill most of
the available space. The fluid also cushions the fetus and helps protect it from injury.

Summary
The placenta allows nutrients and wastes to be exchanged between the mother and
fetus.

The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord.

Practice
Use these resources to answer the questions that follow.

Functions and Roles Of The Placenta at http://www.pregnancy-

calendars.net/placenta.aspx.

1. What does the Placenta do?

2. Describe the role of hCG?

3. How big does the Placenta get?

http://www.hippocampus.org/Biology → Biology for AP* → Search: Human

Development

1. What is the placenta?

2. List the four embryonic membranes? Describe the roles of the membranes.
3. Discuss the role of the placenta.

Review

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1. Describe the role of the placenta in fetal development.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

amniotic fluid consists of water and dissolved substances, which cushions the
fetus and helps protect it from injury.

amniotic sac membrane that surrounds a fetus and contains amniotic fluid,
which cushions the fetus and helps protect it from injury.

implantation process in which a blastocyst implants in the lining of the uterus

about one week after fertilization.

placenta temporary organ that consists of a large mass of maternal and

fetal blood vessels that allows the mother's and fetus's blood to
exchange substances, such as oxygen and nutrients.

trophoblast The outer cell layer of the blastocyst; develop into structures
needed to support and nourish the embryo.

umbilical cord long tube containing two arteries and a vein that connects a
fetus to the placenta.

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11.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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CHAPTER
12
Pregnancy
Chapter Outline

12.1 Pregnancy

12.2 References

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12.0 Pregnancy
Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: Apr 08, 2013

[Figure 1]

Why is it called labor?

So…the mother carries the developing baby for nine months. We know about the
tremendous growth and development of the embryo and fetus. Then comes labor.

Pregnancy and Childbirth

Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring from fertilization until birth. It is the
development of an embryo and fetus from the expectant mother’s point of view.

The Mother’s Role

The pregnant mother plays a critical role in the development of the embryo and fetus. She
must avoid toxic substances such as alcohol, which can damage the developing offspring.
She must also provide all the nutrients and other substances needed for normal growth and
development. Most nutrients are needed in greater amounts by a pregnant woman, but
some are especially important, including folic acid (vitamin B9), calcium, iron, and omega-3
fatty acids.

Childbirth
Near the time of birth, the amniotic sac breaks in a gush of fluid. Labor usually begins
within a day of this event. Labor involves contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus,
which cause the cervix to dilate. With the mother’s help, the contractions eventually push
the fetus out of the uterus and through the vagina. Within seconds of birth, the umbilical

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cord is cut. Without this connection to the placenta, the baby cannot exchange gases, so
carbon dioxide quickly builds up in the baby’s blood. This stimulates the brain to trigger
breathing, and the newborn takes its first breath.

Summary
A pregnant woman should avoid toxins and take in adequate nutrients for normal fetal
growth and development.
During childbirth, contractions of the uterus push the child out of the body.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

Anatomy of Childbirth at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/anatomy-childbirth.html.

1. Describe what happens during the three stages of childbirth.

2. What is the role of oxytocin?

3. What are fistulas?

4. What are some risks associated with delivery?

5. What is a postpartum hemorrhage?

Review
1. What causes the fetus to be pushed out of the uterus during birth?

2. Why is the umbilical cord cut before a newborn has started to breathe on its own?

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

cervix lower, narrower end of the uterus where the baby is pushed
through and out of the body during birth.

contraction process where muscles of the uterus push the fetus out of the
uterus and through the vagina.

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folic acid vitamin B9; vitamin needed in greater amounts by a pregnant

woman.

labor process during childbirth that involves contractions of the

muscular walls of the uterus, which cause the cervix to dilate.

pregnancy carrying of one or more offspring from fertilization until birth.

umbilical cord long tube containing two arteries and a vein that connects a
fetus to the placenta.

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12.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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CHAPTER
13
Birth to Adulthood
Chapter Outline

13.1 Birth to Adulthood

13.2 References

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13.0 Birth to Adulthood

Difficulty Level: At Grade | Created by: CK-12
Last Modified: May 02, 2014

[Figure 1]

What's the main difference between an adorable little baby and a teenager?

This quiet little baby will soon grow into someone who talks and expresses feelings and
attitudes. What's the main difference between an adorable little baby and a teenager?
Plenty.

From Birth to Adulthood

For the first year after birth, a baby is called an infant. Childhood begins at age two and
continues until adolescence. Adolescence is the last stage of life before adulthood.

Infancy
Infancy is the first year of life after birth. Infants are born with a surprising range of abilities.
For example, they have well-developed senses of touch, hearing, and smell. They can also
communicate their needs by crying. During their first year, they develop many other
abilities, including those described below. For a video of major milestones in the first year of
life, go to this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_Ao_3hTS6I.

By 6 weeks after birth, infants typically start smiling (see Figure below) and making vocal
sounds. By 6 months, infants are babbling. They have also learned to sit and are starting to
crawl. The deciduous teeth (baby teeth) have started to come in. By 12 months, infants may

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be saying their first words. They usually can stand with help and may even have started to
walk.

[Figure 2]

A baby’s first smile is an early milestone in infant development.

Infancy is the period of most rapid growth after birth. Growth is even faster during infancy
that it is during puberty. By the end of the first year, the average baby is twice as long as it
was at birth and three times as heavy.

Childhood
A toddler is a child aged 1 to 3 years. Children of this age are learning to walk, or “toddle.”
Growth is still relatively rapid during the toddler years but it has begun to slow down. During
the next three years, children achieve many more milestones.

By age 4, most children can run, climb stairs, and scribble with a crayon. They know many
words and use simple sentences. The majority are also toilet trained.
By age five, children are able to carry on conversations, recognize letters and words, and
use a pencil to trace letters. They can usually tie their own shoelaces and may be
learning to ride a bicycle, swing a bat, kick a ball and play other games (Figure below).

By age 6, most children begin losing their deciduous teeth, and their permanent teeth
start coming in. They speak fluently and are learning to read and write. They spend more
time with peers and develop friendships.

[Figure 3]

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Five year olds can usually play various games.

Older children continue to grow slowly until they start the adolescent growth spurt during
puberty. They also continue to develop mentally, emotionally, and socially. Think about all
the ways you have changed since you were as young as the child in Figure above. What
milestones of development did you achieve during these childhood years?

Adolescence
Adolescence is the period of transition between the beginning of puberty and adulthood.
Adolescence is also a time of significant mental, emotional, and social changes. For
example:

Adolescents generally develop the ability to think abstractly.

Adolescents may have mood swings because of surging hormones.

Adolescents usually try to be more independent from their parents.

Adolescents typically spend much of their time with peers.

Adolescents may start to develop intimate relationships.

Summary
Growth and development are most rapid during infancy and slower throughout the rest of
childhood until adolescence.

Adolescence involves mental, emotional, and social changes in addition to the physical
changes of puberty.

Practice
Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.

Piaget's Stages of Development at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRF27F2bn-A.

1. List Piaget's stages of development.

2. What happens during stage1?

3. What types of processes are discussed during stage 2?

4. Compare stages 2, 3 and 4.

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Review
1. Create a timeline of milestones of growth and development from birth to adolescence.

2. Compare and contrast adolescence and puberty.

3. Think about all the ways you have changed since you were a five year old child. List
milestones of development you have achieved since then.

Vocabulary English
Term Definition

adolescence stage of life between the start of puberty and the beginning of
adulthood that includes physical, mental, emotional, and social
changes.

childhood stage of human life that occurs between the age of 1 year and
the start of puberty.

deciduous teeth baby teeth.

hormone chemical messenger molecule.

infancy first year of life after birth in humans.

infant first year of life after birth in humans.

toddler child aged 1 to 3 years who is learning to walk, or “toddle.”

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13.2 REFERENCES

Image Attributions

Credit: CK-12 Foundation

Source: CK-12 Foundation
License: CK-12 Curriculum Materials License

Credit: Tsaitgaist
License: GNU-FDL 1.2

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