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Chapter# 2

Psychological causes and effects of violence and non-violence

1. Nature of human aggression/ emotion 2

2. Cycle of violence Roots of hate and prejudice 3

3. Roots of Hate and Prejudice 9

4. Cognitive/affective perspectives of world views 18

5. Emotional Intelligence 22

6. Learning theories on Violence and Peace 27

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1. Nature of human aggression/ emotion

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2. Cycle of violence Roots of hate and prejudice

Abuse

Abuse is any and every action that has the intention to exert control or hurt another

being. Abuse is often about establishing and demonstrating power and control over someone

else. Abuse can be physical, sexual, verbal, financial, or psychological.

Cycle of Violence

The cycle of violence theory, developed by Dr Lenore Walker in 1979, describes the

phases of an abusive relationship in the lead up to and following a violent event. The

model looks at the repeated actions of a perpetrator, and how it impedes a victim’s ability to

leave an abusive relationship. Once you are aware of this cycle it is much easier to notice the

signs of it in your relationship.

Tension Building Phase

 Build Up: Tension between the people in the relationship starts to increase

and verbal, emotional or financial abuse occurs.

 Stand-over: This phase can be very frightening for people experiencing abuse. They

feel as though the situation will explode if they do anything wrong. The behaviour of

the abuser intensifies and reaches a point where a release of tension is inevitable.

 Incident phase: At some point, the tension from the first stage in the cycle of abuse

starts to break. This may culminate in one or more abusive incidents. This stage is the

abusive partner’s attempt to overtly regain a sense of power and control.An abusive

incident may look different every time or from relationship to relationship. It could

include:

1. intimidation

2. threats of violence
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3. breaking of things in the home

4. insults, name-calling, and other verbal violence

5. physical violence

6. shaming and blaming

7. manipulation tactics like the silent treatment or gaslighting

8. humiliation

9. social isolation

10. financial abuse

Honeymoon Phase

 Remorse: At this point, the perpetrator may start to feel ashamed. They may become

withdrawn and try to justify their actions to themselves and others. For example, they

may say: “You know it makes me angry when you say that.”

 Pursuit: During the pursuit phase, the perpetrator may promise to never be violent

again. They may try to explain the violence by blaming other factors such as alcohol or

stress at work. The perpetrator may be very attentive to the person experiencing

violence, including buying gifts and helping around the house. It could seem as though

the perpetrator has changed. At this point, the person experiencing the violence can feel

confused and hurt but also relieved that the violence is over.

 Denial phase: Both people in the relationship may be in denial about the severity of

the abuse and violence. Intimacy can increase during this phase. Both people may feel

happy and want the relationship to continue, so they may not acknowledge the

possibility that the violence could happen again.

 Calm phase: During the calm phase, your partner may continue to be attentive;

however, you might notice a shift from them being apologetic to now excusing their
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actions.During the calm stage, abusive behaviors may be minimized. You may notice

your partner:

1. shifts responsibility for the abuse (“I’m sorry but it’s all because of so-and-so.”)

2. justifies their behavior (“If the garbage man didn’t do that, I wouldn’t get so angry.”)

3. gaslights you (“It really wasn’t that big of a deal.”)

This stage can feel confusing. Your partner seemed to want to make things right, but there’s

now an underlying tone of dismissal you just can’t put your finger on.

Types of abuse

Abuse can be both subtle and evident. Bruises, for example, from a physical abuse

altercation are obvious. Emotional signs may be far more challenging to spot, and may go

undetected until years down the road

 Physical Hitting, kicking, biting, burning, or any other physical source of harm.

 Emotional Using manipulation tactics like blaming and fear to control and cause

distress.

 Sexual Imposing unwanted sexual activities or experiences.

 Verbal Insults, criticism, hurtful sarcasm, or other verbal attacks.

 Neglect Not attending to basic human needs for physical and emotional well-being.

 Technological Using technology, like computer use monitoring, to control a partner.

 Financial Using financial control to keep a partner unable to act independently.

 Stalking Constantly monitoring where someone is and what they are doing

Power and Control wheel

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 Emotional abuse: Putting her down or making her feel bad about herself, calling her

names, making her think she’s crazy, and mind games.

 Economic abuse

Trying to keep her from getting or keeping a job, making her ask for money, giving her

an allowance, or taking her money.

 Sexual abuse: Making her do sexual things against her will, physically attacking the

sexual parts of her body, or treating her like a sex object.

 Using children: Making her feel guilty about the children, using the children to give

messages, using visitation as a way to harass her.

 Threats: Making and/or carrying out threats to do something to hurt her emotionally,

threaten to take the children, commit suicide, or report her to welfare.

 Using male privilege: Treating her like a servant, making all the “big” decisions, acting

like the “master of the castle”

 Intimidation: Putting her in fear by using looks, actions, gestures, loud voice,
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smashing things, destroying her property.

 Isolation: Controlling what she does, who she sees and talk to, where she goes.

Factors influencing abuse

1. Individual Factors

● Mental Health Issues: Conditions like depression, anxiety, or personality disorders can

contribute to abusive behavior.

● Substance Abuse: Alcohol and drugs can impair judgment and increase aggression.

● History of Abuse: Individuals who were abused as children may perpetuate the cycle in their

own relationships.

2. Relationship Factors

● Power Imbalance: One partner may exert control over the other, leading to abusive dynamics.

● Conflict Resolution Styles: Poor communication and inability to resolve conflicts can escalate

tensions.

● Dependency: Emotional or financial dependency can trap individuals in abusive relationships.

3. Societal Factors

● Cultural Norms: Societal acceptance of violence or traditional gender roles can normalize

abusive behavior.

● Economic Factors: Poverty and lack of resources can increase stress and lead to abusive

situations.

● Social Isolation: Lack of support networks can make it difficult for victims to seek help.

4. Environmental Factors

● Community Violence: Living in a violent neighborhood can normalize aggressive behavior.

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● Access to Resources: Availability of shelters, counseling, and support services can influence

the ability to escape abuse.

5. Legal Factors

● Inadequate Legal Protections: Weak laws and enforcement regarding domestic violence can

leave victims vulnerable.

● Stigma and Fear of Reporting: Victims may fear not being believed or facing retaliation if

they report abuse.

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3. Roots of Hate and Prejudice

Hate Prejudice

Hatred or hate is an intense negative Prejudice refers to a preconceived judgment,

emotional response towards certain people, opinion or attitude directed toward certain

things or ideas, usually related to opposition people based on their membership in a

or revulsion toward something. Hatred is particular group. It is a set of attitudes, which

often associated with intense feelings of supports, causes, or justifies discrimination.

anger, contempt, and disgust. Prejudice is a tendency to over categorize.

Perceived Threat: Hate often arises from a Negative Attitude: Prejudice involves

sense of threat, real or perceived, to the holding unfavorable opinions and beliefs

hater's self-image, values, or worldview. about a group, which can manifest as dislike,

Dehumanization: Hated targets are often distrust, or even hostility.

viewed as inherently evil or as lacking Group Membership: The focus is on the

human qualities, which can justify violence individual's perceived affiliation with a

or discrimination. specific group, such as race, ethnicity,

Motivational Goal: Hate can motivate religion, gender, or sexual orientation, rather

individuals to seek revenge, harm, or even than their individual characteristics.

eliminate the object of their hatred. Preconceived Judgments: Prejudice often

Distinction from Anger: While anger is involves making assumptions or judgments

often a response to specific actions, hate is a about individuals before having any real-

more pervasive and enduring negative world experience or knowledge of them.

attitude toward the whole person or group, Stereotypes: Prejudice is frequently

regardless of their actions. intertwined with stereotypes, which are

Social and Historical Context: Hate is oversimplified and often inaccurate

shaped by social and historical factors, such generalizations about groups.

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as power dynamics, prejudice, and Discrimination: While prejudice is an

discrimination. attitude, discrimination is the behavioral

Psychological Roots: Hate can stem from a expression of that attitude, involving unfair

variety of psychological factors, including or unequal treatment based on group

fear, insecurity, unresolved trauma, and a membership.

need for control. Psychological Roots: Social psychologists

Impact on Individuals and Society: Hate explore the psychological factors that

can have severe consequences, both for the contribute to the development and

person experiencing it and for the target of maintenance of prejudice, such as social

hatred, leading to mental health problems, identity theory, realistic conflict theory, and

violence, and social division the role of in-group/out-group dynamics.

Affective, Cognitive, and Conative

Components: Some models of prejudice

suggest that it can be understood through

three components: affective (emotions),

cognitive (beliefs), and conative (behavioral

intentions

Factors influencing Hate and Prejudice

1. Psychological Factors

 Social Identity Needs: People derive self-worth from group memberships. A threat to

the in-group can trigger hostility toward out-groups.

 Authoritarian Personality: Individuals with rigid thinking and a need for control are

more prone to prejudice.

 Cognitive Biases:

 Confirmation bias: Favoring information that supports pre-existing beliefs.

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 Stereotyping: Oversimplified ideas about groups reduce individuals to their

group identity.

 Fear and Uncertainty: Anxiety about economic or social instability can make people

more receptive to hateful narratives.

2. Social and Cultural Factors

 Group Norms: Prejudice can be learned from family, peers, or community norms that

promote "us vs. them" thinking.

 Scapegoating: When societal frustrations (e.g., unemployment) are projected onto

minorities or outsiders.

 Dehumanization: Targeted groups are stripped of humanity, making aggression or

neglect easier to justify.

 Media Influence: Stereotypical or negative portrayals in media can normalize

discriminatory attitudes.

 Historical Narratives: Long-standing conflicts or colonial histories can sustain

intergroup resentment.

3. Structural and Institutional Factors

 Systemic Inequality: Laws or policies that privilege one group over others reinforce

societal prejudice.

 Educational Gaps: Lack of critical thinking or exposure to diverse perspectives can

deepen ignorance and bias.

 Political Manipulation: Leaders may incite hate or fear to gain power or distract from

broader issues.

 Segregation: Limited interaction between groups fosters misunderstanding and fear.

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Theories on Hate and Prejudice

1. Scapegoat Theory

Scapegoat Theory is a concept within Prejudice Theory that explains how individuals

or groups misdirect their frustration and aggression toward those who are not responsible for

their difficulties. Originating in the 1940s, the theory was developed by social psychologists to

understand the roots of prejudice and racism, suggesting that when people face social or

economic challenges, they may unfairly blame a marginalized group, such as immigrants or

racial minorities, for their problems. This dynamic often occurs in contexts where in-groups

and out-groups interact, leading to conflict and scapegoating as a way to deflect anger away

from the true sources of frustration. Scapegoat Theory has been utilized to analyze

contemporary issues like affirmative action and immigration, illustrating how societal tensions

can manifest in hostility toward vulnerable groups. Despite its historical significance, modern

scholars tend to adopt social cognitive theories that view racism as a natural cognitive process,

focusing on the broader institutional and social constructs that perpetuate prejudice.

Scapegoat Theory explains prejudice as a result of displaced aggression—when people

cannot express their frustrations directly at the true source, they redirect that anger toward a

more vulnerable or socially acceptable target. This theory suggests that individuals or groups

often look for someone to blame for their problems, especially in times of stress, uncertainty,

or economic hardship. The “scapegoat” is usually a minority group with little power to defend

itself, making it an easy target for blame.

The psychological mechanism behind scapegoating is based on frustration-aggression

theory, which states that frustration can lead to aggression when an individual’s goals are

blocked. If the real source of frustration (such as a government, employer, or broader economic

system) is too powerful or abstract to confront directly, people may channel their anger toward

a substitute target—often an out-group that is already marginalized. For example, during

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economic downturns, immigrants or ethnic minorities are frequently blamed for "taking jobs"

or causing social decline, even if they have little actual impact on those problems.

Scapegoat theory helps explain how prejudice and discrimination can be socially

contagious, especially during times of crisis. Politicians, media, or community leaders may

intentionally reinforce scapegoating to unify the in-group or distract from systemic issues.

While the theory doesn't explain all types of prejudice, it is valuable in understanding why

hostility toward certain groups intensifies during periods of economic or political

instability. Addressing scapegoating involves not only correcting misinformation but also

helping people recognize the real sources of their frustration and promoting empathy toward

the unfairly targeted group.

2. Authoritarian Personality Theory:

The Authoritarian Personality Theory, introduced by Theodor Adorno and

colleagues in 1950, seeks to explain how certain personality traits make individuals more prone

to prejudice, especially against minority or marginalized groups. This theory emerged in the

aftermath of World War II as psychologists tried to understand the psychological roots of

fascism, racism, and anti-Semitism. According to Adorno, individuals with an authoritarian

personality tend to be rigid, conformist, submissive to authority figures, and aggressive toward

those perceived as different or inferior. These traits are believed to stem from a strict, punitive,

and hierarchical upbringing that suppresses the child’s impulses, leading to displaced

aggression later in life.

A person with an authoritarian personality typically divides the world into "us vs.

them," holds strong traditional values, and dislikes ambiguity or change. They are more likely

to see the world in black-and-white terms and project their inner conflicts onto vulnerable out-

groups. As a result, they often direct hostility toward people who are perceived to challenge

social norms, such as ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, or people with alternative
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lifestyles. This form of prejudice is not necessarily driven by personal experience with the out-

group, but rather by a deep-seated psychological need for control, order, and authority.

In modern psychology, while the authoritarian personality is still a relevant concept, it

is often studied alongside broader theories like right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social

dominance orientation (SDO). These expanded frameworks integrate both personality traits

and social context, recognizing that prejudice is shaped by both individual psychology and

societal influences. Nevertheless, Adorno’s original theory remains a foundational contribution

to understanding how personal insecurity and a desire for conformity can translate into

intolerance and bigotry.

3. Social Identity Theory (SIT):

Social Identity Theory (SIT), developed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979, explains that

people derive a sense of self from their group memberships, leading to in-group favoritism and

out-group discrimination. This group-based thinking can contribute to prejudice, bias, and

intergroup conflict, especially when individuals feel their group identity is threatened. In peace

psychology, which focuses on understanding and promoting peaceful intergroup relations, SIT

offers a valuable framework for understanding the psychological roots of conflict beyond

material or political causes.

SIT is particularly useful in designing peace interventions that address identity needs.

Peace psychologists use strategies like promoting superordinate identities (e.g., a shared

national identity) and dual identities (maintaining subgroup identity while embracing a larger

shared one) to reduce hostility. Programs based on structured intergroup contact—with equal

status and cooperative goals—help decrease in-group bias and increase empathy. SIT also helps

explain why people struggle to empathize with out-groups and how tools like storytelling and

dialogue can bridge this gap by humanizing the “other.”

Finally, SIT highlights that peace-building efforts must be sensitive to identity threats.
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When a peace process implies a loss of identity or moral defeat for one group, it can provoke

resistance. Sustainable peace requires inclusive approaches that validate all group identities

and promote mutual respect. Real-world applications—such as post-apartheid reconciliation in

South Africa, national unity in Rwanda, or identity-based initiatives in Israel-Palestine—

demonstrate how SIT-informed strategies can support healing, reduce prejudice, and foster

long-term peace.

4. Dehumanization Theory:

Dehumanization Theory explains how individuals or groups come to perceive others

as less than human, stripping them of dignity, empathy, and moral concern. When people are

dehumanized, they are no longer seen as individuals with thoughts, feelings, and rights but are

instead viewed as objects, animals, or even diseases. This mental shift makes it easier to justify

harm, exclusion, or violence toward the dehumanized group. Dehumanization is often fueled

by propaganda, stereotypes, and fear, and it plays a central role in enabling atrocities like

genocide, war crimes, and systemic oppression.

There are two main forms of dehumanization by Nick Haslam animalistic and

mechanistic. Animalistic dehumanization likens people to primitive, irrational beings (e.g.,

calling a group “savages” or “vermin”), often targeting racial or ethnic minorities. Mechanistic

dehumanization, on the other hand, treats individuals as cold, emotionless, or machine-like—

common in contexts like healthcare or bureaucracies, where people are reduced to cases or

numbers. Both forms lead to the erosion of empathy and moral responsibility, allowing

perpetrators to treat others cruelly without guilt.

Dehumanization is not only a cause of extreme violence but also a tool used in everyday

social exclusion and discrimination. It can be found in hate speech, hostile humor, and media

representations that portray certain groups as inherently dangerous or inferior. In peace

psychology and conflict resolution, addressing dehumanization is critical to rebuilding trust

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and promoting reconciliation. Restoring the humanity of those who have been dehumanized—

through dialogue, education, and storytelling—is a key step toward healing and long-term

peace.

Summary Table: Theories on Prejudice and Hate

Core
Theory Key Concept Examples/Applications
Ideas/Mechanisms

Frustration and Blame is redirected

Immigrants blamed for
aggression are toward marginalized
Scapegoat economic downturns,
displaced onto groups during times of
Theory minorities blamed for
vulnerable out- social or economic
societal problems.
groups. stress.

Individuals with

Certain personality authoritarian traits are

Hostility toward ethnic
Authoritarian traits make rigid, conformist, and
minorities, LGBTQ+
Personality individuals more submissive to authority,
individuals, or alternative
Theory prone to prejudice projecting their inner
lifestyles.
and intolerance. conflicts onto out-

groups.

Group-based thinking
People derive self- Post-apartheid South
promotes intergroup
concept from group Africa’s reconciliation
Social Identity conflict. Interventions
memberships, efforts, national unity in
Theory (SIT) can use superordinate or
leading to in-group Rwanda, or peace efforts in
dual identities to reduce
favoritism and out- Israel-Palestine.
hostility.
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Core
Theory Key Concept Examples/Applications
Ideas/Mechanisms

group

discrimination.

Two forms of
Individuals or
dehumanization: Genocides, hate speech,
groups perceive
Dehumanization animalistic (comparing media portrayals of out-
others as less than
Theory to primitive beings) and groups as dangerous or
human, enabling
mechanistic (treating as inferior.
harm or violence.
machines).
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4. Cognitive/affective perspectives of world views

Introduction:

The field of peace psychology explores the psychological factors that contribute to both

violence and non-violence in society. One crucial aspect of this field is the cognitive/affective

perspective of world views, which examines how individuals’ beliefs, attitudes, and emotions

shape their engagement with violence or non-violence.

1. The cognitive perspective of world views examines how individuals’ thoughts, beliefs,

and cognitive processes shape their engagement with violence or non-violence,

emphasizing the role of cognitive biases, social learning, and moral reasoning.

2. The affective perspective of world views explores how individuals’ emotions, attitudes,

and emotional regulation influence their propensity for violence or non-violence,

highlighting the impact of empathy, anger, fear, and emotional intelligence.

3. By studying the cognitive and affective aspects of world views, we gain insights into

the psychological causes and effects of violence and non-violence, informing

interventions and strategies to promote peace, conflict resolution, and the cultivation of

non-violent attitudes and behaviors.

1. Cognitive perspective of world view:

Cognitive Processes and Violent World Views:

a. Social Learning Theory: Discuss how exposure to violence and aggressive behavior models

can shape individuals’ cognitive frameworks, leading to the adoption of violent world views

b. Cognitive Distortions: Explain how cognitive biases, such as dehumanization.

Dichotomous thinking, and moral disengagement, contribute to the justification of violence

and the construction of violent world views.

c. Group Dynamics and Conformity: Explore how group identification, conformity, and the
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influence of authority figures can impact individuals’ cognitive processes, reinforcing violent

world views.

Cognitive Processes and Non-violent World Views:

1. Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Highlight the role of empathy and perspective-taking

in fostering non-violent world views, including the ability to recognize the shared

humanity of others and understand their experiences.

2. Cognitive Complexity: Discuss how cognitive complexity, including the ability to

Consider multiple perspectives and tolerate ambiguity, contributes to the development

of non-violent world views.

3. Moral Development: Explore the influence of moral reasoning and ethical Frameworks

on the adoption of non-violent world views, emphasizing principles of justice, care, and

human rights.

II. Affective Perspective of World Views:

Emotional Factors and Violence:

1. Anger and Aggression: Examine the relationship between anger and aggression,

Including how unresolved anger and hostile emotions can contribute to violent

tendencies and world views.

2. Fear and Threat Perception: Discuss how fear, both real and perceived, can influence

individuals’ tendency to resort to violence as a means of protection or control.

3. Frustration and Powerlessness: Explore how feelings of frustration and powerlessness

can contribute to the adoption of violent world views, as individuals seek outlets for

their grievances.

Emotional Factors and Non-violence:

1. Empathy and Compassion: Highlight the role of empathy and compassion in fostering

non-violent attitudes and behaviors, including the ability to connect with others’
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suffering and respond with care.

2. Hope and Optimism: Discuss the positive emotional states of hope and optimism and

how they can contribute to the pursuit of non-violent approaches, even in the face of

adversity.

3. Emotional Regulation and Conflict Resolution: Explore the importance of Emotional

regulation skills in non-violent conflict resolution, including techniques such as active

listening, negotiation, and compromise.

III. Psychological Consequences of Violence and Non-violence:

Psychological Effects of Violence

1. Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Examine the psychological

impact of exposure to violence and traumatic events, including the development of

PTSD symptoms.

2. Dehumanization and Desensitization: Discuss the potential dehumanizing and

desensitizing effects of engaging in violence, including the erosion of empathy and

moral sensitivity.

3. Cycle of Violence: Explore how participation in violence can perpetuate a cycle of

aggression, leading to further violence in individuals and communities.

Psychological Effects of Non-violence

1. Well-being and Mental Health: Highlight the positive psychological outcomes

associated with non-violent approaches, including improved mental health, higher

levels of life satisfaction, and greater overall well-being.

2. Empowerment and Self-Efficacy: Discuss how engaging in non-violent actions can

enhance individuals’ sense of empowerment, self-efficacy, and agency, leading to

increased confidence and resilience.

3. Social Cohesion and Reconciliation: Explore how non-violent approaches can foster
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social cohesion, promote trust-building, and contribute to post-conflict reconciliation

and peace-building efforts.

Conclusion

The cognitive/affective perspective of world views provides valuable insights Into the

psychological causes and effects of violence and non-violence. By understanding the cognitive

processes and affective factors involved in adopting violent or non-violent world views, we

can develop interventions and strategies to promote peace, conflict resolution, and non-violent

approaches. It is essential to recognize the interconnectedness between individuals’ beliefs,

attitudes, and emotions and their engagement with violence or non-violence, as this

understanding forms the foundation for building a more peaceful and harmonious society.
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5. Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (also known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to

understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress,

communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict.

Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at school and work, and

achieve your career and personal goals. It can also help you to connect with your feelings, turn

intention into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to you.

Key Skills to Emotional intelligence:

 Self-management:

Self-management refers to the processes and strategies individuals use to regulate their

own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to promote personal growth, well-being, and peaceful

relationships.

Key Aspects of Self-Management:

 Emotional Regulation: Managing emotions to respond to situations in a thoughtful,

rather than impulsive, manner.

 Self-Awareness: Understanding one's own values, goals, strengths, and weaknesses to

make informed decisions.

 Goal Setting: Establishing clear, achievable goals and developing strategies to achieve

them.

 Self-Motivation: Cultivating motivation and discipline to pursue goals and overcome

challenges.

 Resilience: Developing coping skills and strategies to bounce back from setbacks and

adversity.

 Self-awareness:
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Self-awareness is the foundation for personal growth, relationships, and conflict

resolution. It involves understanding your thoughts, feelings, values, and behaviors.

Key Aspects of Self-Awareness:

 Values and Beliefs: Recognizing your core values and beliefs.

 Emotional Intelligence: Understanding and managing your emotions.

 Thought Patterns: Identifying and challenging negative thought patterns.

 Behavioral Patterns: Recognizing and changing destructive behaviors.

 Self-Reflection: Regularly examining your thoughts, feelings, and actions.

 Social awareness.

Social awareness refers to the ability to understand and empathize with the perspectives,

experiences, and emotions of others in social contexts.

Key Aspects of Social Awareness:

 Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.

 Perspective-Taking: Seeing things from another person's point of view.

 Cultural Competence: Understanding and appreciating diverse cultures and

backgrounds.

 Social Justice: Recognizing and addressing social inequalities and injustices.

 Community Engagement: Building connections with others and contributing to the

community.

 Relationship management.

Relationship management refers to the ability to build, maintain, and nurture positive

relationships with others

Key Aspects of Relationship Management:

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 Communication: Effective communication is key to building strong relationships.

 Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.

 Conflict Resolution: Resolving conflicts in a constructive and respectful manner.

 Boundary Setting: Establishing and maintaining healthy boundaries.

 Emotional Intelligence: Recognizing and managing one's own emotions and the

emotions of others.

Importance of emotional intelligence (EQ)

As we know, it’s not the smartest people who are the most successful or the most

fulfilled in life. You probably know people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially

inept and unsuccessful at work or in their personal relationships. Intellectual ability or your

intelligence quotient (IQ) isn’t enough on its own to achieve success in life. Yes, your IQ can

help you get into college, but it’s your EQ that will help you manage the stress and emotions

when facing your final exams. IQ and EQ exist in tandem and are most effective when they

build off one another.

Emotional intelligence affects:

 Performance at school or work. High emotional intelligence can help you navigate the

social complexities of the workplace, lead and motivate others, and excel in your career.

In fact, when it comes to gauging important job candidates, many companies now rate

emotional intelligence as important as technical ability and employ EQ testing before

hiring.

 Physical health. If you’re unable to manage your emotions, you are probably not

managing your stress either. This can lead to serious health problems. Uncontrolled

stress raises blood pressure, suppresses the immune system, increases the risk of heart
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attacks and strokes, contributes to infertility, and speeds up the aging process. The first

step to improving emotional intelligence is to learn how to manage stress.

 Mental health. Uncontrolled emotions and stress can also impact your mental health,

making you vulnerable to anxiety and depression. If you are unable to understand, get

comfortable with, or manage your emotions, you’ll also struggle to form strong

relationships. This in turn can leave you feeling lonely and isolated and further

exacerbate any mental health problems.

 Relationships. By understanding your emotions and how to control them, you’re better

able to express how you feel and understand how others are feeling. This allows you to

communicate more effectively and forge stronger relationships, both at work and in

your personal life.

 Social intelligence. Being in tune with your emotions serves a social purpose,

connecting you to other people and the world around you. Social intelligence enables

you to recognize friend from foe, measure another person’s interest in you, reduce

stress, balance your nervous system through social communication, and feel loved and

happy.

Techniques:

 Self-Reflection: Regularly reflecting on your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to

increase self-awareness.

 Mindfulness Meditation: Practicing mindfulness meditation to increase awareness of

your emotions and thoughts.

 Emotional Labeling: Labeling and recognizing emotions in yourself and others.

 Empathy-Building Exercises: Engaging in exercises that promote empathy and

understanding, such as role-playing or perspective-taking.

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 Journaling: Writing down your thoughts and feelings to process and understand them

better.

Therapies:

 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A type of therapy that helps individuals identify

and change negative thought patterns and behaviors.

 Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): A type of therapy that focuses on developing

emotional regulation and coping skills.

 Emotionally Focused Therapy (EFT): A type of therapy that focuses on improving

emotional intelligence and relationships.

 Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR): A type of therapy that combines

mindfulness meditation with stress reduction techniques.

 Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): A type of therapy that focuses on

increasing psychological flexibility and acceptance of emotions.

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6. Learning theories on Violence and Peace

Learning theories on peace and violence

Learning theories related to peace and violence explore how individuals and societies

learn about conflict, violence, and peace, encompassing approaches like social learning theory,

conflict resolution, and peace education, aiming to foster peaceful behaviors and societies.

Peace

absence of, or cessation of war or hostilities; the condition or state of a nation or

community in which it is not at war with another. absence of noise, movement, or activity;

stillness, quiet.

Types

It is the state of affair where there is no physical violence or conflict or war. Types of

Peace. There are two types of peace namely positive peace and negative peace: 1. Positive

peace occurs when things that bring conflict and misunderstanding have been removed.

Factors

There are 8 factors of positive peace which we must focus on achieving:

 Well-functioning government

 Equitable division of resources

 Free flow of information

 Good relations with neighbors

 High levels human capital which increases life expectancy and increases literacy

 Acceptance of the rights of others

 Low level corruption

 Sound Business environment

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Violence

Violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against

another person that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, or

psychological harm.

Types

here are many different types of violence including physical, sexual, emotional,

psychological, spiritual, economic, and cultural violence. Other terms used to describe violence

include reactive, predatory, and affective violence.

Factors

These risk factors are poverty, family violence, exposure to media violence, availability

of weapons, drug abuse, and membership in gangs.

THEORIES ON VIOLENCE

Learned behavior theory of violence

According to learned behavior theory of violence men are violent because they had

learned violence in their families as children, and women sought out abusive men because they

saw their mothers being abused.

1.Violence as a result of loss of control

Heather Douglas and Alan Reed

The role of loss of self-control in defences to homicide: a critical analysis of

Anglo-Australian developments, we analyse the operation of the ‘loss of control’ defence

introduced by the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (CJA) in 2009. The ‘loss of control’ partial

defence to murder replaced the provocation defence in England and Wales (sections 54–56 CJA).

We review this reform in England and Wales and also examine reform of the provocation defence

in Australia, in particular in Queensland and New South Wales (NSW). We focus on the operation
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of the defence in the context of an abused woman who kills her abuser. Notably, one of the key

challenges for law reform has been how to ensure homicide defences are not overly restrictive for

abused women who kill their abuser, while at the same time ensuring that homicide defences are

not overly expansive for domestic abusers who kill their partner. We highlight a number of

concerns with the current articulation of the ‘loss of control’ defence in the CJA and with the

provocation reforms in Queensland and NSW.

The defences of ‘loss of control’ and provocation in homicide represent an exceptional

mitigatory factor in English law and in some Australian states. In murder cases, the fact that the

accused committed the violent act under ‘loss of control’ or when provoked may result in a

conviction for manslaughter. In England and Wales, the ‘loss of control’ defence now posits several

opportunities for the Crown to disprove it. The first requirement is subjective, requiring that the

killing resulted from the accused’s (partial) loss of control (section 54 CJA). The loss of control no

longer needs to be ‘sudden’ and ‘temporary’. This may mean that the defence is more accessible to

victims of family violence who may not lose control immediately in response to the identified

provocation, while, an accused who has acted with a desire for revenge, will not have lost control.

The second requirement is the imposition of new ‘qualifying triggers’ (section 55CJA). The ‘loss

of control’ defence is unavailable to the inciter of violence, and anything done or said related to

sexual infidelity is to be disregarded. It was hoped that these reforms would assist abused women

who killed their partner in response to domestic abuse. Our analysis of the Sally Challen case

suggests that the reforms may have some concerning limitations.

Sally Challen killed her husband Richard Challen with at least 20 blows of a hammer. The

marriage had endured 31 years. Sally alleged that Richard anally raped and sexually assaulted her,

made egregious and continual demands of her and created an atmosphere of subservience

reinforced by threats. Richard had caused distress to Sally through his unfaithfulness, visits to

brothels, and his demeaning of her in front of family and friends. The couple had recently reunited

after separation and were preparing for a trip. During the course of preparations, Sally checked
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Richard’s phone and realised he had recently rung another woman. She attacked him with the

hammer. At the initial trial, provocation was not pleaded, but was left to the jury to consider. Sally

was convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. Fresh psychiatric evidence that Sally

had a borderline personality disorder and bipolar affective disorder at the time of the killing was

admitted in the appeal against conviction, heard eight years subsequently. It was also contended

that evidence of Richard’s coercive and controlling behaviour supported the defence of ‘loss of

control’. The Court of Appeal expressed no view on whether Sally was a victim of coercive control

and quashed the conviction and ordered a retrial based on the psychiatric evidence.

Sally Challen was presented by the prosecution as jealous and brooding, rather than a

person who had endured sexual violence and coercive control, as well her husband’s sexual

infelicities and intimate breaches of trust. While killings prompted by proprietorialness (often

male), sexual jealousy and premeditation by a cuckolded partner ought to be excluded from the

‘loss of control’ defence, the apparent disqualificatory trigger of sexual infidelity (in section

55(6)(c) CJA) may present a potential hurdle for other primary victims of abuse. We argue that, in

some cases, where a loss of control is in response to an instance of sexual infidelity in circumstances

where it is part of a history of coercive control, a manslaughter conviction may be justified.

In Clinton [2012] EWCA Crim 2 the appellate court determined that it was a misdirection to

withdraw the loss of control defence from consideration where sexual infidelity was relevant to the

totality of matters relied on as a qualifying trigger for loss of control.

In the article, we consider reforms to the provocation defence in Queensland and NSW, Australia.

Reforms in both jurisdictions have attempted to ensure that abused women who kill their abuser

can access the provocation defence while at the same trying to narrow the application of the

provocation defence in circumstances where domestic abusers killed their partner. This has proved

to be a difficult balance to achieve.

Queensland has retained a traditional common law formulation of provocation but identifies that,

except in ‘circumstances of an exceptional character’ the provocation defence does not apply, in
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the context of a domestic relationship or where the provocation is based on anything done by the

deceased, or anything the person believes the deceased has done to end or change the relationship

(section 304 Queensland Criminal Code). While this addition was developed to ensure that men

who were provoked by their partner’s decision to leave or change the relationship would not have

access to the defence, at least one recent case has resulted in an apparently jealous male partner

being convicted of manslaughter of his partner pursuant to this defence. NSW provocation law now

provides for a verdict of manslaughter in cases where the killer lost control in response to ‘extreme

provocation’, defined as a ‘serious indictable offence’ (section 23 Crimes Act 1900 (NSW)). A

non-violent sexual advance or conduct incited by the accused to provide an excuse to use violence

against the deceased are both expressly excluded as forms of extreme provocation. Our review of

case law demonstrates that, while no cases involving domestic abuse have yet engaged the new

formulation of provocation, several cases have defined serious indictable offences very widely to

include harassment and intimidation, and in a practical sense this may mean there is little change

in the application of the provocation defence in NSW.

In England and Wales, Queensland and NSW, reforms to the provocation defence aimed to

balance the aspirations of limiting the defence of provocation in circumstances where men act with

proprietary entitlement over women’s lives with the need to retain the defence for use by abused

women who have killed their partner after experiencing abuse. Our analysis questions whether the

reforms have achieved this balance. Drawing on a range of alternative approaches in Australia, we

conclude our article with some suggestions for reform. Our suggestions include the introduction of

evidence provisions that encourage the admission of family violence evidence and an alternative

partial defence specially developed to be used in situations where abused women kill their abusive

partner in circumstances that fall short of self defence.

2.Learned Helplessness Theory

Martin Seligman's theory of learned helplessness posits that individuals, after

experiencing repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control, develop a passive expectation that
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their actions will not alter the outcome, leading to a state of helplessness.

Here's a more detailed explanation:

The Core Idea:

Learned helplessness suggests that repeated exposure to uncontrollable, aversive

events can lead individuals to believe that their actions are ineffective in changing their

situation, even when control is later restored.

Seligman's Experiments:

Seligman and his colleagues conducted experiments with dogs, exposing them to

inescapable electric shocks.

 Uncontrollable Shock: Dogs in the first phase of the experiment were subjected to

shocks they couldn't escape.

 Subsequent Escape Possible: In a later phase, these dogs were placed in a situation

where they could escape the shocks by jumping a barrier, but they often failed to do

so, even when they had previously been able to escape.

 Learned Helplessness: This demonstrated that the dogs had learned to become

passive and expected that their actions would not prevent the shocks, even when

escape was possible.

 Implications for Humans:

 Seligman argued that learned helplessness can have significant implications for

human behavior, including:

 Depression: The theory suggests that a lack of perceived control can contribute to the

development of depression and other mental health issues.

 Motivation: Individuals who feel helpless may become demotivated and lose the

drive to pursue goals.

 Cognitive Distortion: Learned helplessness can lead to negative thinking patterns,

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such as attributing failures to personal shortcomings rather than external factors.

 Learned Optimism:

 Seligman also developed the concept of "learned optimism" as a countermeasure to

learned helplessness, suggesting that individuals can learn to challenge negative

thoughts and develop a more optimistic outlook.

Three Components of Learned Helplessness:

 Contingency: The perception that one's actions have no effect on the outcome.

 Cognition: The negative thoughts and expectations that arise from the perception of

uncontrollability.

 Behavior: The passive and apathetic behavior that results from the belief that actions

are futile.

3.Cycle of violence

The cycle of violence theory, proposed by Lenore Walker, describes a pattern of abuse

in relationships characterized by phases of tension building, a violent incident, and a period of

remorse/honeymoon, which can repeat over time.

Explanation of the cycle of violence theory:

Tension-Building Phase:

During this phase, tension and anger build up, and the abuser may become verbally

or emotionally abusive.

 Acute Battering Incident (Explosion): This is the phase where the actual violence

occurs, whether physical, sexual, or emotional.

 Honeymoon Phase (Remorse): After the violent incident, the abuser may become

apologetic, loving, and remorseful, promising to change and make amends.

 The Cycle Repeats: The tension-building phase starts again, and the cycle repeats
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itself, potentially with increasing intensity and shorter intervals between phases.

Key Concepts:

 Learned Helplessness: Victims may become trapped in the cycle due to feelings of

helplessness and fear, believing they cannot escape the abuse.

 Battered Woman Syndrome: This term, while now less commonly used, refers to

the psychological effects of long-term exposure to domestic violence, including

feelings of fear, anxiety, and depression.

 Power and Control: The cycle of violence is often seen as a way for abusers to

maintain power and control over their partners.

 Criticisms of the Theory:

 Not Universal: Some critics argue that the cycle of violence is not a universal pattern

and may not accurately describe all abusive relationships.

 Focus on Women: The theory has been criticized for its focus on women as victims

and men as abusers, potentially overlooking other forms of abuse and gender

dynamics.

 Predictive Nature: Some argue that the cycle of violence is too predictive, suggesting

that abuse is inevitable once the cycle begins, which may not always be the case.

 In summary, the cycle of violence theory highlights the cyclical nature of abuse,

emphasizing the phases of tension, violence, and remorse, and the challenges victims

face in breaking free from these patterns.

4.Family/Relationship Conflict Model

Family/relationship conflict model theory, a perspective within sociology, views

families and relationships as arenas of power struggles and potential for inequality,

emphasizing conflict as a natural and integral part of human interactions, rather than solely as

a dysfunctional element.
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Core Tenets:

 Conflict as a Natural Phenomenon: Conflict theorists view conflict not as a

deviation from the norm, but as an inherent aspect of human interaction and a

necessary part of social change.

 Power Dynamics: Conflict theory highlights the role of power in family and

relationship dynamics, arguing that relationships are often characterized by power

imbalances and struggles for control.

 Social Inequality: This perspective suggests that families can perpetuate and

reinforce social inequalities, such as those based on gender, class, or race.

 Not a Haven: Conflict theorists argue that families are not always havens but can be

arenas where conflict and power struggles occur.

 Social Institutions as Tools: Conflict theorists view social institutions, including the

family, as tools used by certain groups to maintain their dominance and power over

others.

Examples of Conflict in Family/Relationship:

 Power Struggles: Conflicts can arise from disagreements about decision-making,

resource allocation, or household chores.

 Gender Roles: Conflict theory examines how traditional gender roles can lead to

conflict and inequality within families.

 Intergenerational Conflicts: Conflicts can occur between parents and children, or

between different generations within a family.

 Work-Family Conflict: The demands of work and family can create tension and

conflict, particularly for individuals who are trying to balance both roles.

Distinction from Other Theories:

 Functionalism: Functionalism views families as systems that contribute to the

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stability and well-being of society, whereas conflict theory focuses on the potential

for instability and inequality.

 Symbolic Interactionism: This perspective emphasizes the meanings and symbols

that people attach to their interactions, while conflict theory focuses on power

struggles and social inequalities.

 Social Exchange Theory: This theory views relationships as exchanges of rewards

and costs, while conflict theory highlights the role of power and conflict in these

exchanges.