202 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

less enigmatic, with both inscriptions and art virtually from the inception of the Pallava
monuments in stone appearing to initiate a tradition and perhaps the two phases should be
steady tradition that lasted approximately two considered shifts in emphasis rather than total
hundred years. The Pallavas were heirs to the abandonment of one form and the supplanting
Andhra region, but expanded their territories of another. Various stylistic designations of
to include much of the Tamil area to the south. Pallava art and architecture are traditionally
At times, their empire also reached into the associated with specific rulers, who may have
Deccan and to the frontier of Orissa. The figure been responsible for the inception of certain
style visible in their art shows clear ties to the stylistic changes. In general, the developments
earlier Buddhist traditions developed under the of the Pallava period include a progression
Satavahanas and Iksvakus, although the Pallavas from rather simple forms to ones of greater
were Hindus, primarily Saivite. The origins of complexity. This progression has been attributed
their architectural forms, however, are more to the growing accumulated skill on the part
difficult to assess, since precedents in ephemeral of the artisans over the centuries in working
Detail of 14.18. materials are unknown and earlier stone monu- the hard granitic stone native to the region.
ments in the Pallava regions are scarce. It has However, it is likely that the increased com-
been suggested that a strong, traditional use of plexity in style and growing elaboration of
stone as a medium for funerary monuments in detail and iconographic forms were also part of
CHAPTER FOURTEEN the south, as seen in the long megalithic tradi- the pan-Indic developments of post-Gupta peri-
tion, led to a reticence to employ it in temple ods, which in general may be said to be char-
architecture prior to the Pallava period.! Perhaps acterized by such a transformation. Compared
SouthernDevelopments a study of some of the caves in the Vijayavada to northern developments, however, the south-
region may some day shed light on the origins ern style maintains a much greater simplicity
Under the Pallavasand the Pandyas of Pallava stone monuments.2 and the changes are more subtle.
The burst of artistic energy under the Pallavas, The earliest body of surviving architectural
however, cannot be understood simply in terms monuments of the Pallava period belongs to
of precedents, for the Pallava empire was the reign of Mahendravarman I, whose rule in
blessed with a number of strong rulers, several the first three decades of the seventh century
At the same time that petty chieftains and primarily through warfare, but this association of whom imposed their personalities on the coincided with that of Pulakesin II of the Early
former feudatories of the Guptas struggled to is also reflected in certain borrowed elements production of art. Religious developments, Western Calukyas.4 Originally a Jain, Mahen-
gain power in northern India following the in their art. Yet each evolved a highly distinctive particularly bhakti cults, must have also played dravarman was converted to Saivism by the
collapseof the Gupta dynasty, powerful families art style, the Early Western Calukyas incorporat- a major role in providing impetus to artistic saint Appar, and this fact is visible in the
were arising in parts of India that had never ing elements of northern, southern, and Deccan developments. In particular, the Alvars, a group primarily Saivite dedications of monuments
been under the Gupta hegemony. In the Deccan, modes, while the Pallavas firmly established a of Tamil Vaisnavite poet-saints, and the Saivite associated with him.
for example, the Early Western Calukyas began southern style that visibly persisted in the art Nayanmars stimulated religious thought, which One monument of Mahendra I's reign is a
to gain control of vast territories. In the south, of subsequent periods. Other dynasties in the may have affected the production of art and cave temple at Mandagappattu, which is called
the major force was the Pallava family, which south, such as the Pandyas, also evolved signifi- temple architecture. Four of the Alvars came Laksitayatana (temple ofLaksita) in its dedicatory
by the late sixth and early seventh centuries cant artistic traditions during this period but from the Pallava country and their devotional inscription (Fig. 14.1).6 The name Laksita is a
had created an empire whose renown extended the full import of these is not yet known, since (bhakti)hymns, which were concerned with the well-known epithet (biruda) for Mahendra I,
beyond the Indic realm to China and Southeast they have been largely overshadowed by the
personal experience of the deity rather than and thus, the royal patron, who is also called
Asia. The Pallavas and Early Western Calukyas Pallava creations.
metaphysics, must have had great impact on Vichitrachitta (Curious Minded) in the epigraph,
were in constant contact with each_ other, the society. may be identified. The inscription further
It is usually assumed that the early phase of reveals that the cave was dedicated to the Hindu
ce A AGVeAS
Pallava architecture consisted primarily of trinity (Brahma, Visnu, and Siva) and calls it
rock-cut monuments, while the later phase is a brickless, timberless, metalless, and mortarless
be traced as far back as the second century A.D., dominated by structural buildings. As a general mansion. This latter statement is generally taken
As in the case of many other ruling families in
but it is not until the latter half of the sixth rule, this is true, at least in terms of the surviving to mean that the usual temple would have been
South Asia, the Pallavas were known in history
century that the family and its history become examples. However, there is evidence to suggest a structural building, made of some of the
long before they rose to prominence: they may
that structural monuments were produced materials enumerated in the inscription, and
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 293 294 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

moving figures to be seen in Pallava art. Also

characteristic of the Pallava dvarapala type is
the fierce appearance of the figures, most easily
visible in the bulging eyes of the example to
the left of the facade.®
Also safely attributable to the reign of Mahen-
dra I on the basis of inscriptional evidence is the
upper cave temple at the hill fort in the heart of
the city of Tiruchirappalli called Lalitankura’s
cave after another biruda of Mahendra’s (Fig.
14.4).7Its facade, which faces south, is essentially
a refinement of the Mandagappattu type, with
an extra pair of pillars, a broader intercolumnia-
tion (which makes the pillars appear very
slender), and carved medallions decorating the
facets of the pillars. Although the devotee
enters the cave between the two central pillars,
the main axis of the temple extends laterally.
This was apparently done so that the shrine
could be placed on the east, in spite of the fact
that the facade was on the south. Such problems
é eee cea SS in orientation, which were often extremely
14.3. Dvarapala at left side of facade, Laksita’s cave. complex in rock-cut architecture, may have
Mandagappattu, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, been one of the reasons for the eventual aban-
14.1. Exterior of Laksita’s cave. Mandagappattu, Tamil Nadu, reign of Mahendravarman I. Ca. 600-630. donment of cave excavations by the Hindus in
India. Pallava period, reign of Mahendravarman I. Ca. 600-630. favor of structural temples, although not before
they went on to produce some of the most
examples, and the lateral sectioning is reminis- remarkable achievements of South Asian art.
cent of Early Western Calukya examples and The plan (Fig. 14.5) shows that the cave
thus, that Mahendra I was the initiator of a
also suggests ties to earlier cave traditions of consists of two chambers: a larger pillared hall
new stone tradition. Whether or not this is the
the east coast of India, such as the Undavalli (mandapa)and a cubical shrine. A pair of dvara-
case, the use of stone was truly unusual at this
caves or, further north, much earlier examples palas flanks the entrance to the shrine, each fig-
time, judging from the lack of extant remains.
from Khandagiri/Udayagiri in Orissa. The ure appearing in the animated, slightly twisted
The facade of the cave has a low, wide, simplicity of the cave and lack of decorative posture typical of Pallava examples. At the
rectangular appearance with two central pillars carving in general characterizes this early opposite end of the hall, to the west, located
and a pilaster at each side flanked by large Pallava phase, for the dvarapalas comprise where the entrance would probably have been
sculpted representations of door guardians. The almost the sole sculptural enhancement (Fig. if this were a structural example, is a relief
niches in which the guardian figures appear 14.3). These slender, animated figures show showing Siva as Gangadhara (Bearer of the
repeat the shape of the space between the stylistic affinitiesto the earlier traditions of the Ganges River; Fig. 14.6). As Gangadhara, Siva
columns of the facade with their square bottoms Satavahanas and Iksvakus, demonstrating that is shown receiving in his hair the heavenly
and tops, octagonal central portions, and the Pallavas were indeed the heirs to the Ganges River as it came to earth as a result of
bracketlike capitals. A second row of pillars Andhra-region traditions. Characteristic of Pal- the penance performed by one Bhagiratha, who
and pilasterswithin the cave divides the interior lava dvarapaladepictions, the difference between wished to use the holy water to purify the
ie) 10 20
of the main hall into two lateral sections, while fp ae
0 1
Te DT
5
4 \
the left and right guardians is pronounced, for ashes of his deceased uncles. The lengthy in-
three identical shrines for housing the images ML 1 1 1 1 r 4

they are placed in different postures. The near scription in the cave located on the pilasters
of the trinity (no longer present) to whom the profile positioning of the body of the left guard- adjoining the Gangadhara panel suggeststhrough
cave is dedicated are placed along the rear wall 14.2. Plan of Laksita’s cave. Mandagappattu, Tamil ian (Fig. 14.3), possibly deriving from the high- the use of double entendre that the choice of
(Fig. 14.2). The shallowness of the excavation, Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Mahendravar- ly mobile postures of Iksvaku representations, this subject was deliberate and significant.8 In
though not so pronounced as in other Pallava man I. Ca. 600-630.
anticipates the still more animated and freely- particular, a play on the word Kaviri, which
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 295 296 DYNASTIES
OF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
14.4. Exterior of Lalitankura’s cave.
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
Pallava period, reign of Mahen-
dravarman I. Ca. 600-630.

14.6. Siva as Gangadhara, Lalitankura’s cave.

Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava
period, reign of Mahendravarman I. Ca. 600-
630.

the Chinese pilgrim Hsiian-tsang visited Kafici- South Asian art, it has never been thoroughly
puram, then a major Pallava city and capital. studied, analyzed, and examined element by
Although the seaport city of Mamallapuram™ element in order to determine the sequence of
was named after Mamalla I, he was not its monuments and their place in the development
founder, for Roman coins found in the area of Pallava art and architecture.
and descriptions by early classical writers such The vibrancy and animation of Pallava art
as Ptolemy indicate that the town had been is perhaps nowhere better seen than in the
famous as a seaport at least since the beginning Varaha mandapaat Mamallapuram. Thought to
of the Christian era. In addition, although it belong to the period of Mamalla I, this cave
ge has often been assumed that the majority of exhibits both the elaboration of sculptural and
monuments at the site belong to his reign, this iconographic elements and the refinement of
idea has been increasingly challenged. However, architectural features associated with his reign.
he should be credited with stimulating the A feature of Pallava architecture seen here,
14.5. Plan of Lalitankura’s cave. development of Mamallapuram (City of Mamal- and one which comes to fruition in early Cola
f=)
0
ee
5 10
4
15
1
20
1 i
25 Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, la) as a great seaport, vital in the dissemination monuments, is the presence of a tank preceding
India. Pallava period, reign of of south Indian culture to Southeast Asia and (or later, surrounding) the monument itself
0 1 5 E
Mahendravarman I. Ca. 600-630.
M bee 1 = 4 4 uy
commercially important in the Indian Ocean (Fig. 14.7). The use of tanks or other artificial
trade network. Most of the monuments at reservoirs of water and of water symbolism
Mamallapuram are rock-cut, carved out of in general seem to have played an important
refers both to the Kaviri River in full view of King Nrsirnhavarman I, who is known most
the boulders and cliffs that abound in the area. role in Pallava iconographics. One aspect of
the cave and to a courtesan, suggests a parallel popularly by his epithet Mamalla I. This son such symbolism may have been a reference to
These include caves, monoliths, and large
between Siva and Mahendra I, for Kaviri is of Mahendravarman I succeeded his father
sculpted reliefs, although some structural build- one of the practical aspects of kingship, that of
described as the beloved of the Pallava king around the fourth decade of the seventh cen-
ings were also erected (these are generally later providing public irrigation reservoirs. Here,
just as Ganga was the beloved of Siva. The tury.10 A memorable ruler, Mamalla I sent
implied equation between Siva and Mahendra in date than the rock-cut examples). The site, the tank extended across the entire front of
naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, defeated the
which covers several square miles, is virtually the cave, so that when it was full of water, the
I and their respective river goddesses is signifi- Early Western Calukyas under Pulakesin II, and
a stone city in which boulders and rock faces devotee would have had to cross the water to
cant in light of other Pallava inscriptional captured Badami in 642 from the Calukyas
have been carved into buildings, animals, reach the cave. The facade is based on earlier
and artistic evidence.® (in retaliation for his father’s earlier defeat by
sculpted reliefs, and other forms. In spite of examples, such as those from the reign of
The most famous phase of Pallava art was Pulakesin II), in addition to defeating other
the popularity of the site as a tourist resort, and Mahendra I, but here the pillars and pilasters
that apparently inaugurated during the reign of south Indian ruling families. During his reign,
its mention in virtually every general book on are slenderer, providing a more open appearance,
 THE PALLAVAS AND THE PANDYAS 207 298 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
and bear cushion-type capitals reminiscent of
Early Western Calukya types. The seated lions
at the bases are a typical Pallava characteristic,
and may be seen as a precedent for the later
animal pillars of south Indian temples. The cave
consists of the rectangular hall and a shrine that
projects forward into the space of the hall (Fig.
14.8) bearing representations of dvarapalas on
the front surface, each of which is contained in
a niche as is typical of the south Indian style.
The simplicity of the architectural features,
such as the plain niches with large figures,
characterizes the Pallava style, which, in
contrast to the usual northern and Deccan
styles, is virtually devoid of subsidiary elements
like vine scrolls,gem motifs, and similar designs.
Four major sculptural panels dominate the
interior of the cave. Following a pattern visible
in Hindu art as early as the Gupta period, the
reliefs seem to have double meanings, referring
both to the deities represented as well as to
achievements of the king, presumably Mamalla
I. The left wall of the cave bears a representation
of Varaha resting the earth goddess on_ his
14.7. Exterior of Varaha cave. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla I. Ca. second-third
upraised knee (Fig. 14.9). Visnu as Trivikrama
quarter seventh century. is depicted on the right wall (Fig. 14.10). Varaha
as rescuer of the earth has already been discussed
as a religious symbol with political overtones,
and Trivikrama as conqueror ofthe three worlds
may be seen to have similar levels of meaning.
In the Trivikrama incarnation, Visnu assumed
the form of the dwarf Vamana, who extracted
a promise from Bali, king of the asuras, that he
could have territorial control over the amount
of space he could cover in three paces. Vamana
then assumed a gigantic form and covered the
earth-world with his first stride, the mid-world
between heaven and earth with his second, and
with his third, stepped upon the head of Bali,
thereby sending him to the nether world of the
[Link] metaphors, the Varaha and Trivikrama
Tank subjects, while not unique to Pallava art, might
have been deliberately chosen to refer to specific
achievements of the king, presumably his defeat
of Pulakesin and the avenging of the defeats to
VMbeet 1 1 1 the Pallavas under his father.12 The rear walls
14.8. Plan of Varaha cave. Mamallapuram, Tanul Nadu, India. of the cave bear images of Gajalaksmi on the
Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla I. Ca. second-third
left (Fig. 14.11) and Durga on the right (Fig.
quarter seventh century.
14.12), suggesting the notions of prosperity §
Soe
a
 300 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 299
<j 14.9. Nr-Varaha, Varaha cave. Mamallapuram, Tamil (Gajalaksmi) and once again victory (Durga).
Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Ma- An interesting aspect of the Durga relief is the
malla I. Ca. second-third quarter seventh century.
figure at the front left of the composition who
<] 14.10. Trivikrama, Varaha cave. Mamallapuram,
is in the act of self-immolation by decapitation.
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Such figures are found during the Pallava period
Mamalla I. Ca. second—third quarter seventh century. and later in south Indian art, generally in rela-
tionship to Durga images and may be related
<i) wits Gajalaksmi, Varaha cave. Mamallapuram, to rituals detailed in at least one Hindu text.!8
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Each relief is characterized by essentially
Mamalla I. Ca. second-third quarter seventh century.
naturalistic scaling, in contrast to what is often
seen in Indic sculptures, and by considerable
spatial complexity. In this latter sense, strong
ties to the Iksvaku tradition are suggested. This
earlier Indian dynasty from the Andhra region
inherited by the Pallavas used sophisticated
devices to imply illusionistic space that were
perhaps originally or partially inspired by
Roman art. In the Varaha relief, this complexity
is seen in the two figures at the left who turn
inward and are shown in a rear/profile view.
In the relief of Durga, one figure is shown from
the rear while another is depicted in profile.
Although arbitrary adjustments of scale to suit
the hierarchic needs prevail in South Asian art, ae: pee pn wv, ere —
essentially naturalistic means are used here to 14.13. Exterior of Trimtrti cave. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu,
achieve emphasis. In the Gajalaksmi panel, for India. Pallava period. Ca. mid-to-late seventh century.
example, the central figure is emphasized by
being placed above the others on a throne but
14.12. Durga, Varaha cave. Mamallapuram, Tamil is depicted in the same scale as other figures.
Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla In all the reliefs the elements are carved in a directly from the exterior with no porches or by a pair of male figures who serve as dvarapalas.
I. Ca. second-third quarter seventh century. mandapas, but unified by the carving of the The back wall of each of the small rectangular
fairly three-dimensional manner; space exists
around each figure and the effect is almost as exterior of the rock into temple facades with shrines is decorated with a large relief represent-
if the deities and their attendants were indeed architectural niches containing figurative sculp- ing the deity to whom the shrine is dedicated.
in the presence of the worshiper. The slender ture. The name Trimurti means literally “triple In the case of the Siva shrine, a stone linga is
figures, with their narrowed, tapered limbs, form,” but here it refers to the Hindu trinity also placed on the floor in front of the image
betray the Andhra heritage of Pallava art and of Siva, Visnu, and Brahma. Siva is the most (Fig. 14.15). This practice of carving the rear
anticipate the typical style of the south Indian prominent of the three in this conception, since wall of the shrine is typical of Pallava monu-
Tamil area to be continued into the reign of his is the central shrine, flanked by those of ments and contrasts with the often bare-walled
the Colas and even of the still later Vijayanagar Brahma (viewer's left) and Visnu (viewer’sright). shrines found throughout northern Indian
kings. The slightly larger size of the central shrine, and Hindu architecture. In Pallava shrines (as here)
Each of the caves at Mamallapuram is unique. its projecting form, emphasize its preeminence. the liga is usually carved of a different stone
The variety of iconographic types represented A fourth worship area is designated at the right than that of the shrine itself, and in the case
in them indicates an already established wealth of the facade where a set of steps leads to an of cave monuments, the linga is added rather
of imagery. This suggests that these excava- image of Durga, although an excavated shrine is than rock-cut.!4 The facade of this excavation
tions were modeled after structures that no not present (Fig. 14.14). Durga is shown in an contrasts with that of the Varaha cave in that
longer exist but which might have revealed eight-armed form, standing frontally and atop it is not pillared. Instead, it replicates an actual
the formative stages of architectural develop- the buffalo head of the defeated Mahisa in a vimana, that is, a shrine with its superstructures,
ment. The Trimurti cave (Fig. 14.13), for ex- format typical of Pallava representations of the and is better compared to the free-standing
ample, consists of three similar shrines entered subject. Each door to the three shrines is flanked monoliths found nearby at Mamallapuram. The
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 301 302 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

4
4
toast’

14.14. Durga on facade, Trimirti cave. Mamallapuram, 14.15. Interior, central shrine, Trimiirti cave. Mamal-
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period. Ca. mid-to-late lapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period. Ca. mid-
seventh century. to-late seventh century.
14.16. Yali cave. Saluvankuppam (Mamaliapuram), Tamil Nadu,
India. Pallava period. Ca. late seventh-early eighth century.

date of this cave is unknown but its form a monument of the late seventh or early eighth
suggests that it was excavated in the middle
century.
to late seventh century. In addition to the variety of architectural
A highly unusual cave was excavated not far types seen in the caves of Mamallapuram,
from the heart of Mamallapuram about five numerous religious subjects were interpreted
kilometers away at Saluvankuppam, a village anew by the Pallavas in sculpture and others
which certainly lieswithin the ancient boundaries were introduced for the first time. A represen-
of Mamallapuram. This excavation, the so-called tation of Durga battling the demon Mahisa
Yali (Vyala) cave (Fig. 14.16)is distinguishedby in the so-called Mahisasuramardini cave (Fig.
the eleven vyala (horned lion) heads that form 14.17),for example, is unlike any other depiction
a kind of ring around the centralexcavatedcham- of this scene known in earlier Hindu art. Durga
ber and its two flanking niches. To the view- sitsastride her lion vahanawhile Mahisa, depicted
er’s left of this area but also on the face of the as a human figure with a buffalo head, appears
rock are carved elephants, forward facing, and at the right, as if recoiling from her attack.
bearing small shrines atop their backs. Although Fallen warriors of Mahisa’s army appear at the
the main chamber and its two adjacent niches right and lean in the direction of retreat, while
show no trace of any original images within, Durga’s forces advance from the left. The
these small shrines each bear a much worn naturalistic rather than hierarchic scaling of the
depiction of a four-armed deity. The original figures, including Durga herself, who is not
purpose and meaning of the cave, however, even as large as her opponent, heightens the
remains unknown.!5 Further, the date of the sense of emotion and drama of the scene. In
14.17. Durga Mahisasuramardini, Mahisasuramardini cave. Ma-
excavation is uncertain, although it is probably addition, the figures are in animated and logical mallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period. Ca. seventh century.
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 303 304 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

Ganga River or Arjuna’s Penance are convincing selves, for just as Arjuna sought Siva’s aid in
in each case.1? Both stories are found in Indian the war against the Kurus, the Pallavas sought
literature, although different versions appear in victory in their continuing competition with
the Early Western Giueyae
various texts. A strong case for the Descent
interpretation is presented by the central cleft In light of such strong but conflicting evi-
of the composition, with its naga inhabitants, dence, it might be argued that both meanings
as a representation of the holy river, the Ganga simultaneously were intended by the creators of
itself. In the rainy season, a now lost receptacle this remarkable relief. However, this suggestion,
is believed to have filled with water, which too, would need further substantiation.
could then fall down the cleft into a tank as a Important features of the relief include the
kind of living reenactment of the sacred descent. large elephants at the lower right, the small
Some scholars believe that the tank, at the shrine with a representation of a deity, the
base of the relief, would have served as a royal ascetics worshiping at the shrine to the left of
bathing pool for the king himself. the cleft, and the numerous devas flying through
The arguments for the Arjuna story are less the air from both sides as if to converge at the
ernest though still substantial. In this tale, cleft. Considerable naturalism in pose and
Arjuna, one of ae five Pandava brothers of the individuality in facial features is seen in the
Mahabharata, performed severe austerities in figures, reflecting some of the concern with
order to enlist Siva’said (literally, his weapons) naturalism seen elsewhere in Pallava art. As is
in achieving victory in the pending war between generally true in Indic art, the figures are the
the Pandavas and the Kurus. Since Arjuna’s principal elements of the composition; it is the
penance was performed on the banksof a river, figures that create the volumes and dynamism,
14.18. Relief showing either Descent of Ganga River or
the argument can be made that this subject is rather than arbitrary devices, such as systems of
Arjuna’s Penance. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
Pallava period. Ca. early-to-mid seventh century. represented in the Mamallapuram relief. perspective or landscape elements, which could
Both the Descent and Arjuna’s Penance in- be used to render a context.
terpretations would be served well by the figures Other monuments at Mamallapuram include
at the top of the relief, just to the left of the cleft the nine free-standing monolithic buildings
poses that further increase the sense of actuality. (Fig. 14.19).The penance-performing individual, scattered throughout the site. A series of five
In compositions such as this, the Pallava sculptors with arms raised and balanced on one leg, could concentrated in one group near the sea gives the
achieved a striking balance between the world represent either Bhagiratha, whose penances visitor the remarkable sense of walking through
of nature and the realm of the divine. brought the Ganga to earth, or Arjuna, whose w a petrified city (Fig. 14.20). The origin of the
The most impressive sculptural composition penances earned ivr the aid of Siva’s weapons. idea of producing complete replicasof structural
at Mamallapuram is the famous relief that has Siva, who appears next to the ascetic in a four- buildings is not known; the Mamallapuram
been alternately identified as the Descent of armed form, attended by his dwarves (ganas), monuments are the earliest surviving examples
the Ganga River or Arjuna’sPenance (Figs.14.18, performs the varada mudra, or gift-bestowal of rock-cut buildings, complete both inside and
14.19).16This striking work is believed to have gesture, with his front left hand, a gesture that outside. But, apparently, this mode never became
been carved during the reign of either Mahendra- would be appropriate to either story. as popular as the cave format, which did not
varmanI or that of his son Mamalla. Measuring In each case, too, secondary meanings relating require the completion of exterior detail other
nearly thirty meters in length and approximately to the Pallavas themselves, of the type inferred than that of the facade. Usually, these monoliths
fifteen meters in height, it contains a myriad in other contexts for Pallava art, might be have been called rathas, a complete misnomer
of figures, animals and other subjects, all of suggested. A later Pallava inscription mentions since they are clearly not intended to represent
which are carved on an approximately life-size that the Pallavas resembled the Descent of the temple carts (rathas), but are more properly
scale. A major aspect of the composition is the Ganga as it (too) purified the whole world.18 termed vimanas,for each is a distinctive shrine.
central cleft of the rock, presumed to be a Considering the prominence already accorded The major group of five monoliths (Fig. 14.20)
natural feature, which has been skillfully incor- the Gangadharamirti icon in Pallava art (Fig. has been traditionally named for the five Pandava
eee”
“
af
oe
gel eS
ee
porated into the design and subject matter of 14.6), considerable credibility is given to this brothers (two of whom have been assigned to
14.19. Detail, Descent of Ganga or Arjuna’s Penance.
the carving. interpretation. Alternately, Arjuna, the hero of one shrine), and their common wife, Draupadi,
Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period. Ca. Arguments for the interpretation of this the Mahabharata and leader of the Pandavas, although this iconographic interpretation is
early-to-mid seventh century. impressive scene as either the Descent of the might serve as a symbol of the Pallavas them- clearly erroneous.
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 305
306 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
a iy

DHARMARAJA
RATHA
BHIMA RATHA (SIVA SHRINE)

(VISNU SHRINE)

LION a aS

NAKULA SKETCH PLAN

| SAHADEVA
RATHA SCALE AND

LOCATIONS

APPROXIMATE

14.21. Plan of monolithic temples. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu,

India. Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla I. Ca. second—
third quarter seventh century.

14.20. Monolithic temples from southwest. Mamallapuram, Tamil

Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Mamalla I. Ca.
second-third quarter seventh century. shrine dedicated to Durga, distinguished by imagery. In the Trimurti cave, Durga’s im-
its curved roof, which is believed to have been portance is apparent from the fact that a sepa-
modeled after that of a thatch prototype (Fig. rate niche had been provided for her (Fig.
14.22, left). Square in plan, this single-celled, 14.14). Here, an entire shrine is allotted to her
Each monolith is unique, yet the five seem to as they went and using the uncut rock beneath
one-story shrine shares a low plinth with the worship. Ultimately, south Indian architects
form a coherent group and must have been as a platform upon which to work.
adjacent “Arjuna ratha’”’(Fig. 14.22, right). The will create a separate temple dedicated to the
carved at about the same time, probably during The buildings are important not only in
exterior wall decoration consists of pilasters at female principle within the compound of the
the reign of Mamalla I.2° Four of the buildings their own right but as documents of what must
each of the four corners and niches containing main temple, the so-called Amman. shrine,
were apparently carved out of what was once have been the contemporary free-standing
images. The two niches flanking the door to the already visible in nascent form in Pallava monu-
a single outcropping of stone, not separate temple architecture of the Pallavas. As such,
interior contain life-size female door guardians ments. As in Buddhism of post-Gupta ages,
boulders, as has often been stated. The fifth, they provide vital information regarding the
(dvarapalikas). The single niches on the three Hinduism of the later periods is characterized
which is not on a line with the others, was genesis of south Indian architectural forms and
remaining sides each contain a representation of by increasing emphasis on the female principle
carved out of a smaller adjoining boulder (Fig. indicate that within a short time after the Gupta
Durga. The rear wall of the interior of the or female energy (Sakti).
14.21). Three large animal sculptures, of a lion, period, clear distinctions between northern
shrine bears a panel showing Durga, standing, “Arjuna’s ratha’”’
(Fig. 14.22,right) is not much
an elephant, and a reclining bull, are also as- and southern modes were already present,
being adored by worshipers, one of whom is larger than the Durga shrine sharing its plinth
sociated with the vimanas. The highest part of although all of the stages in these developments
performing a self-decapitation like that seen in but it is significantly different in appearance.
the major boulder was at the south, where the have not been traced. It should not be inferred
the Durga relief in the Varaha cave. The pillared front of this square shrine is remi-
so-called Dharmaraja ratha is located, and then, that the Mamallapuram examples represent the
The free-standing lion vahana of Durga is niscent of the format seen in Pallava cave archi-
the form tapers to the smaller, so-called Draupadi beginning of the tradition; rather, they are
located outside the shrine (Figs. 14.21, 4.22). tecture. However, the superstructure clearly
shrine at the other end. From unfinished ex- manifestations of what must have been already
The distinctly feminine nature of the sculptural reflects the form of a structural building. The
amples of rock-cut shrines at Mamallapuram, it widespread forms.
The smallest and simplest of the group is the program of this small temple contrasts with the two-tiered roof is pyramidal in shape and is
may be inferred that the workmen proceeded
“Draupadi” monolith, which is in fact a other monoliths, which are male-oriented, and capped by a domelike element called a sikhara,
from top to bottom, completing each section
suggests the growing emphasis on female which is, in this case, octagonal. In southern
 THE PALLAVAS AND THE PANDYAS 307 308 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

14.22. “Draupadi” (left) and “Arjuna” (right) shrines from west.

Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign
of Mamalla I. Ca. second-third quarter seventh century.

ures, each separated by pilasters with bracketed Aiyanar-Sasta,a hunter god whoiis known only
Indian architecture, the term sikhara refers only capitals. This format, of figures contained with- in south India.21Not ie does Sasta commonly
to this crowning member and not, as in northern in niches separated by pilasters and, in fact, ride an elephant, but the depictions of Siva and
India, to the entire tower comprising the super- the pilastered wall in general, is typical of Visnu on the shrine reinforce the Sasta inter-
structure of the vimana. Each of the levels of south Indian temple architecture from this pretation since the god is believed to be the
the roof is decorated with a design of miniature period forward, contrasting strongly with the son of Siva and Visnu, a birth which occurred
barrel-vaulted roofs (sala) interspersed with wall treatment that characterizes north Indian when Visnu took the feminine form known as
candrasalas (essentially a rounded arch of the monuments of later periods. The two side walls Mohini. The suggestion of the union between
type formed by the end of a sala), as well as have six niches each, although in both cases, Siva and Visnu,en led to the birth of Sasta,
pilastered niches, some of which contain half- the panel nearest the front has been left un- is strengthened by the presence of mithuna
length figures. These figures (Fig. 14.23)give the sculpted, while the rear has only five niches couples in the niches flanking the principal
impression that they are partially hidden due (Fig. 14.23). niches.2*While mithunasare common in many
to the viewer’s perspective from below, and Male attendants appear at the corners of each other regional schools of South Asian art, their
like the freely moving figures in the other side while the central niches contain images of near absence in Pallava depictions suggests
niches, again show the realism characteristic of principal deities of the iconographic program: that their inclusion here was for the specific
Pallava art. Visnu on the north, Siva leaning on Nandi on purpose of amplifying the iconographic program
The two sides and rear of the lower story
the south, and a male figure ade an elephant of the shrine.
are carved into a series of niches containing fig-
on the east (Fig. 14.23). This figure hasee “Bhima’sratha’ is atwo-storied, oblong build-
traditionally identified as Indra on his elephant ing with a barrel-vaulted roof (sala; Fig. 14.24).
mount, or, sometimes, Subrahmanya (known The main image within, although neverfet
also as Murukan), son of Siva, who is associated was intended to be a representation of the
14.23. East face, “Arjuna” shrine. Mamallapuram,
with the elephant in south [Link] both of reclining Visnu Anantasayana for which such
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallaya period, probably reign of
the ENE interpretations bear some credibility, an elongated structure is appropriate. Entered
Mamalla I. Ca. second-third quarter seventh century.
another suggestion is that the figure represents on the long side rather than the short side, this
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 309 310 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
<J 14.24. “Bhima” shrine, from west. by their wives, occur in the art of Mamal-
Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India. lapuram. But those at the Adi-Varaha cave,
Pallava period, probably reign of
Mamalla I. Ca. second-third quarter
for example, depict the royal personages in
seventh century. more relaxed postures and as accompaniments
to the divine subjects carved in the other com-
positions of the cave. Here, Nrsitmhavarman
is almost indistinguishable in his general de-
meanor from the deities carved as part of the
same iconographic program. His depiction, then,
Luft stl : 7 must have served a role that was an integral part
“Mh UPDBat o Sle Pe
“Of tN ‘4\ ar of the meaningof the monument as a whole. The
oy placement of his image on the south face of
> = the building may be revealing in this respect,
for in Hinduism, south is the quadrant of Yama,
the god and judge of the dead. Later south
Indian inscriptions of the Colas reveal that
specific funerary monuments called pallippadai
were erected for royal personages. Although
14.25. “‘Dharmaraja” shrine from conclusive evidence is lacking, this Pallava
west. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, building may be an early example ofjust such
India. Pallava period, probably reign a building.
of Mamalla I or later. Ca. mid-to-late
seventh century.
Another important image of the “Dharmaraja
ratha’ is a sculpted panel in the shrine of the
third story, which shows Siva with his wife,
Uma (a form of Parvati), and their son, Skanda,
building provides a completely different effect on the shrine was abandoned, for the rather in a group known as Somaskanda (Fig. 14.27).
than the barrel-roofed Buddhist pillared halls; unified style of the monument suggests that it Here, the figures are also flanked by images of
the somewhat similar roof form may imply was the product of a fairly concentrated effort, Brahma and Visnu. The Somaskanda subject
14.26. Portrait of Nrsitnhavarman (Mannaalla I), on
only a common architectural prototype rather and thus a monument of Nrsirnhavarman I’s
south face of “Dharmaraja” shrine. Mamallapuram, becomes a popular Pallava icon that in later
than direct influence of one religion upon reign. Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Ma- contexts served as a metaphor for the Pallava
another. As in the case of the “Arjuna ratha,” Similar in concept to “Arjuna’s ratha,” al- malla [ or later. Ca. mid-to-late seventh century. royal family.2° Since this is the earliest Soma-
candrasalasand miniature barrel-vaulted shrines though larger and more elaborate, this shrine skanda image known,?6 it is possible that it was
decorate the upper levels of the monument. also depicts in rock-cut form what must have introduced as part of the royal symbolism
The pillared facade, with seated lion bases, been a popular style of free-standing monument associated with this monument in general.
typifies one Pallava architectural format. Even and demonstrates what was a fully developed be seen in Cola-, Vijayanagar-, and Nayak- The roughly carved surfaces of this sculpture
though it is unfinished and contains virtually southern style of architectureduring this period. period monuments. may indicate that the work would have been
no sculpture, this monument provides valuable Each ofthe four sides,if completed, would have While decidedly Saivite in iconography and completed by plastering and painting.
information about a rare form in Hindu archi- had a pillaredfacadeflankedby nichescontaining dedication, the overall scheme of the monument The last of the group, the “Nakula-Sahadeva
tecture.23 [Link] southern-style superstructurehas has yet to be established. A variety of Hindu ratha’’ (Figs. 14.21, 14.28), is not in line with the
The “Dharmaraja ratha” (Figs. 14.21, 14.25) three stories that diminish in sizeas they ascend, deities people the exterior of the various stories. other four, and, unlike them, it faces south,
is the tallest of the group, but it too remains forming a pyramidal profile. Each roof is One image depicts Nrsitmhavarman (I) him- not west. Because it lacks figure carving, it is
unfinished. The inscriptions on the shrine decorated with barrel-vaulted shrines (sala) self, identified by an inscription (Fig. 14.26). not possible to determine anything about its
present conflicting evidence regarding the date and candrasalasand the whole is capped by an It is possible that his presence is significant in iconography and how it relates to the other
of its excavation, for while the name Nrsimha octagonal [Link] the “Arjuna ratha’’,this determining the purpose of the building, for four shrines. However, its form is extremely
and a number of birudassuggest that the monu- building is a clear replica of the vimana of a although the king appears in a two-armed form important to the understanding of the develop-
ment was begun during the reign of Nrsitnha- southern-style structural temple, which would, befitting his human nature, he stands in the stiff ment of south Indian architecture. Its apsidal
varman I (Mamalla 1),24other epigraphs refer in general, be preceded by a mandapaand which frontal manner appropriate for deities, with no shape documents a rare type among the surviv-
to later kings. However, it is possible that the might typically be enclosed in a rectangular flexion to his body (samabhanga).Other portraits ing examples of Hindu temples, but one that
additional names were inscribed after work compound. This form is the basisfor what will of Pallava kings, sometimes even accompanied is clearly related to Iksvaku prototypes like the
 Q 1 bo DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD
THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 311

14.27. Somaskanda, in third-story

shrine, ““Dharmaraja”’ shrine. Ma-
mallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
Pallava period, reign of Mamalla
I or Jater. Ca. mid-to-late seventh
century.

“ r e oo gn
OE ag! FF
i
14.29. “Shore Temple,” from south. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu,
India. Pallava period, probably reign of Nrsitmhavarman II Ra-
jasitha. Ca. first third eighth century.

14.28. ““Nakula-Sahadeva”’ shrine,

from southwest. Mamallapuram,
Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava pe-
riod, probably reign of Mamalla I. 14.30. Plan of “Shore Temple.” Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
Ca. second-third quarter seventh Pallava period, probably reign of Nrsitmhavarman II Rajasirha.
century. Ca. first third eighth century.
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 313 314 DYNASTIES OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD

temple at Chezarla (Fig. 9.28). That this building for the understanding of south Indian develop- relief of Somaskanda in the central shrine, faces able to Nrsitmhavarman II Rajasithha’s reign,
is decidedly southern in style is seen in the ments to follow. east and consists of a rectangular walled en- some forty kilometers away at Kaficipuram
pilastered walls (here, with empty niches) and Free-standing structural temples of the Pallava closure, the main shrine and its antechamber, (Conjeevaram), is less enigmatic. Inscriptional
in the tiered roof with candrasalasand barrel- period provide further information about reli- and a circumambulatory passage between the evidence on this Siva temple clearly indicates
vaulted salas. The whole is capped by a sala gious and artistic developments. The so-called wall and the central building. A third shrine, that Nrsithhavarman II Rajasirnha was the
roof. It may be noted that although the exterior Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (Fig. 14.29) dedicated to Visnu as Anantasayana, is aligned builder of the structure and that he named the
rear of the shrine is rounded, the interior cell is thought to be a product of the reign of with the central shrine and is located at the deity enshrined in it (and by implication, the
is squared. Nrsithhavarman II Rajasirhnha,who ruled from western end of the main temple, connecting the temple) after himself, calling it Rajasimha Palla-
The rock-cut monuments of Mamallapuram, about 700 to 728 and who is credited with two Siva shrinesinto a single unit. The sculpture vesvara, in keeping with a practice that was to
which have only been sampledhere, demonstrate giving a major impetus to the production of of Anantasayana was carved in situ from an become very popular in south India.28 Com-
conclusively a well-developed architectural and structural temples. However, the aberrant plan existing rock and this may explain part of the monly called the Rajasitmhesvara, it is also
iconographic vocabulary by the seventh century of the temple, consisting as it does of three peculiarity of the plan. Access to the Visnu known as Kailasanatha(referring to Siva as Lord
A.D. This implies a tradition of some long distinct worship areas, suggests that it was not shrine is possible only from the southern side of Mount Kailasa),a name that may have arisen
standing that must predate such remains. The the product of a unified scheme, but that it of the circumambulatory passage around the from a verse in one of its inscriptions, which
variety of architectural types, seenin the different was modified or added to after its initial con- large Siva shrine. The temple (if this term may states that the temple “touches the cloud with
roofs, wall treatments (including pilasteredwalls struction, although possibly still within the be used to describe all three units as a whole) its top... [and] robs Kailasa of its beauty.”?9
with and without sculptures),and other features reign of the one king.?? A plan of the temple is thus oriented both to the east and the west The temple scheme includes a large rectan-
all suggest that these forms had been developing (Fig. 14.30) shows a small square Siva shrine, and is apparently dedicated to both Siva and gular enclosure containing more than fifty chap-
in the early Pallava period and earlier, although containing a linga and representation of Soma- Visnu. Obviously, the east-facing Siva shrine els surrounding the main structure (Fig. 14.32).
the complete evolution is not known. Yet, as skanda, on the western side of the temple com- is the most important, as oes by its size A second row of small shrines at the east end
preserved, like petrified replicas of vanished plex and slightly to the north. The main temple, and the fact that it has the highest superstructure. of the temple compound suggests that at some
monuments, they provide an important basis also dedicated to Siva and containing a lingaand A much smaller tower appears atop the western time, perhaps after Rajasirmha’sinitial period of
Siva shrine while none is present over the construction, a second compound was to have
Visnu shrine. An entrance through the temple been built, but this was never completed (Figs.
wall on the east and another leading into the 14.32, 14.33). At the eastern end, aligned with
rectangular temple compound on the west the front of the inner compound wall, a smaller
(Fig. 14.31) may be prototypes for the monu- shrine, also dedicated to Siva, was built by
mental gateways (gopura)that will characterize Rajasimha’s son, Mahendravarman III (Fig.
south Indian temples in later periods. The 14.32).Like his father, Mahendravarman named
compound itself is much ruined due to the the deity of the structure he had built for
ocean spray and blowing sands that pose a con- himself, and it is called Mahendresvara (or
tinual threat to the monument but enough Mahendravarmesvara) in an inscription.®9Unlike
remains on the west to suggest that water had the separate elements of the “Shore Temple,”
been channeled into a series of passages and this smaller shrine was probably part of the
pools. A related use of water was seen at the original conception of the temple, for here a
Varaha mandapa, and both of these anticipate clear break has been allotted for it in the wall,
Cola-period designs. The “Shore Temple’ is and it is probable that the son had the shrine
decidedly southern in style, as may be seen built while his father was engaged in the original
in the pyramidal shape of the superstructure project.3! Mahendravarman’s structure is topped
and pilastered wall treatment. The towers in by a sala roof, but the main sanctuary, Raja-
this case are far taller and slenderer than the simnha’sdedication, bears a typically tiered south-
superstructure of the “Dharmaraja ratha,” ern form tower (Figs. 14.33, 14.34). The main
although this may not indicate a general trend building consists of a principal central shrine
of the period. Sculptures of dvarapalas, lions, with its liiga and enclosed circumambulatory
and other figures were fairly abundant at the passage, surrounded by nine smaller shrines,
ES: “Shore Tempe * but the sea air has rendered with the two at the eastern end now accessible
14.31. “Shore Temple,” gateway on west. Mamallapuram, Tamil all of them into virtual shadows of their only through a pillared hall that was added at
Nadu, India. Pallava period, probably reign of Nrsithhavarman original forms. a dater. date: (Figss' 14:92) 14.34). detached
II Rajasirhha. Ca. first third eighth century. Another monument, more securely attribut- mandapato the east of the shrine area was part
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS S15) 316 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLEPERIOD

oR ER BL Md
bd Bd Bb

ee
In |

Ti
ia
an

ca
J

aTT

———

Ftd : i

|
~ |

14.32. Plan of Rajasithhesvara (““Kailasanatha’’)temple. Kaficipuram,

Tamil Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Nrsitnhavarman II
Rajasiha. Ca. first third eighth century.
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 317 318 DYNASTIESOF THE MIDDLEPERIOD
of the original conception but is now attached
to the main building owing to the addition of
the intermediary mandapa.
An important feature of this temple complex
is the presence of gopuras(gateways) and proto-
gopuras in the enclosure walls (Fig. 14.32). On
the west, the central pavilion is in fact a gateway
(although sealed off at present) and is distin-
guished from the other pavilions in the row by
its decoration and sala form. Directly opposite
the central shrine in the walled enclosure on 14.35. Rajasirhhesvara (‘“Kailasa-
the south and north are chapels that are also natha”) temple, view along north
visibly different from the others in the row in wall of temple compound, look-
their shape, size, and the presence of the sala ing west. Kaficipuram, Tamil
Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign
roof. These are clearly shrines, not gateways,
of Nrsitnhavarman II Rajasitiha.
but serve as precedents for what will ultimately Ca. first third eighth century.
be the placement of gopuras in line with the
main shrine and for the evolution of the gopura age

form out of shrines with sala roofs.32 The

largest of all the chapels aligned with the main
shrine, Mahendravarman’s temple on the east,
also has a barrel roof and servesas the equivalent
of the other three pavilions although much
grander. In contrast to latergopuras,this structure
14.33. Rajasithhesvara (“Kailasanatha”) temple, com- cannot be traversed; instead, the devotee is
pound exterior from northeast. Kaficipuram, Tamil
Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Nrsitnhavarman
diverted to one side or the other in order to
II Rajasirnha. Ca. first third eighth century. enter the main courtyard. A small gopura on
the east provides access to the forecourt of
this shrine. The alignment of these four chapels-
cum-gopurasis clearly with the main shrine of
the temple rather than with the center of the 14.36. Gana panel at base of
respective walls of the rectangular compound; RajasimheSvara_ (‘‘Kailasanatha”’)
this practice explains the often asymmetrical temple. Kaficipuram, Tamil Na-
du, India. Pallava period, reign
appearance of the placement ofgopuras in later
of Nrsirhhavarman II Rajasiha.
monuments. Ca. first third eighth century.
In contrast to early Pallavamonuments, which
are generally rather simple in their architectural
and sculptural embellishment, this temple com-
plex is rather lavishly decorated. One major height demonstratesthe high quality of carving Rajasimha’s time occurs in an inscription at
sculptural motif particularly associated with that must have characterized the workmanship the temple stating that “just as Guha [Skanda|
Rajasimnha’sreign is the rampant lion, which at the temple (Fig. 14.36).These animated fig- (also called Subrahmanya or Kumara) took
appears almost ubiquitously as part of the ures, crisply carved and delicatelymodeled, may birth from the supreme lord (Siva) . . . thus
facadedecoration of the shrinesin the compound be classed with the finest of Indic sculptures. from the supreme lord Ugradanda . there
wall (Fig. 14.35). Plaster and paint on the By far the most common icon enshrined in took birth a very pious prince (subrahmanyah
chapel walls in particular from post-Pallava the walls of chapels is [Link] this kumarah), the illustrious Atyantakama, the chief
redecorationsof the temple have obscured much subject may have been introduced into Pallava of the Pallavas.’’%8Thus the Pallava king Para-
<| 14.34. Rajasithhesvara (‘‘Kailasanatha”) temple, view
from northeast, inside compound. Kaficipuram, Tamil of the other sculptural work. However, a panel art earlier (Fig. 14.27) it was certainly popu- mesvara I and his son Rajasirha, each referred to
Nadu, India. Pallava period, reign of Nrsitmhavarman showing ganas and other creatures on the base larized during the reign of Rajasirnha. A clue by one of his alternate names, are likened to Siva
II Rajasirnha. Ca. first third eighth century. of the temple and only thirty centimeters in to the importance of Somaskanda in the art of and his son in what appears to be another Pal-
 THE PALLAVASAND THE PANDYAS 319
lava synthesis of the divine and kingly realms. Historically, another aspect of this temple
The Rajasithhesvara temple at Kaficipuram deserves mention. Inscriptions on the pillars
displays many of the essential characteristicsof of the detached mandaparecord that the Early
the evolving southern architectural style. Some Western Calukya king, Vikramaditya II (r.
of these contrast sharply with those of the de- 733-44), visited the temple, and was apparently
veloping idioms of the north and Deccan. The so impressed by it that he did not carry off its
storied pyramidal form of the tower above the treasures as spoils of war but instead allowed
shrine, the use of a rectangular enclosure wall them to remain at the temple.*4It is likely that
with gopuras, and the distinctive wall treatment his notice of the temple resulted in his carrying
using nicheswith or without figuresand pilasters back certain ideas concerning the structure that
are all important features. These characteristics were eventually manifested in Early Western
and others, form the basis of later southern Calukya buildings in the Deccan. A very specific
styles, although their treatment will be elabo- instance ‘of a possible transmission of style is
rated upon and modified. thus recorded.

THE Earty PANDYAS

Although no one could doubt the importance Like the Pallavas, the Early Pandyas employed
of the Pandya dynasty in the history of south the rock-cut medium in addition to what must
India, considerable controversy exists over have been a flourishing brick and wooden
whether or not there is a “Pandya phase” in temple tradition. However, this excavation is
art. According to some scholars, the Pandyas unlike any of the known Pallava monuments,
added nothing really “new” to art, merely for it is neither a cave nor a monolith. Essen-
reflecting the Pallava works when south India tially, it is a free-standing building that was
was under the sway of the Pallavas, and Cola liberated from the surrounding matrix of rock
trends during the Cola period of supremacy. so that it would have stood in a kind of pit
This view seems to be an overstatement: the when completed. In this respect and in details
fact is, little is known of the Pandyas and their of its form, it bears a striking resemblance to
art, their productions having been largely the celebrated Kailasanatha temple at Ellora,
overshadowed by the study of Pallava and Cola with which it may be roughly contemporaneous
remains. Monuments found in the Pandya (Fig. 16.3). Although it is not known which
territories must be thoroughly surveyed and was created first, both monuments date from the
their inscriptions studied before the true place of eighth century. This east-facing Siva temple
Pandya art in the history of Indic traditions is consists of a mandapa and sanctum, the latter
known.35 surmounted by a storied southern-style super-
Pandya history is generally divided into two structure elaborately decorated with figures and
phases, the first being roughly contemporary decorative motifs and capped by an octagonal
with the Pallavaperiod, the Early Pandya period sikhara(Figs. 14.37,14.38).The figures, posed in
of concern here, and the Later Pandya period, highly naturalistic relaxed postures, almost give
coinciding with the late Cola and post-Cola the impression of being live persons inhabiting
periods. The Pandya name is known as early as the roof of the temple. Stylistically, they are
the Asokan edicts of the third century B.c.,but it closely related to Pallava figurative conventions,
was not until the sixth century that the family, especially in the treatment of the torsos and
with their territories concentrated in the Madurai details of ornamentation, although a hint of the
area, became a major force in south India. Deccan styles of the Early Western Calukyas or
Perhaps the most impressive Early Pandya Rastrakutas may be discerned in the somewhat
monument is the unfinished rock-cut Vattu- fuller facesand in some of the [Link]
vankovil temple at Kalugumalai (Fig. 14.37). of the figures are depicted only down to the