VERTICAL DEFLECTION
Vertical Deflections
- are the local differences between the true zenith (plumb line) and its theoretical vertical direction on a global ellipsoid.
- Abbreviated as VD and in mathematical computation are designated as ξ (xi), η (eta)
- Also known as the deflection of the plumb lines and Astro-geodetic deflections.
- Are important parameters of the local gravity field.
- They are widely used in Geodesy, for surveying networks and for geophysical purposes.
- VDs are caused by mountains and by geological irregularities of the subsurface, and amount to angles of 10″ (flat areas) or 20-50″ (alpine
terrain).
- At the axis of valleys the values are rather small, whereas the maxima occur at steep mountain slope.
The deflection of the vertical is a difference vector and therefore has two (2) components:
o North-South Component ξ
o East-West Component η
The value of ξ is the difference of geographic and ellipsoidal latitude; the latter is usually calculated by geodetic network
coordinates.
The value of η corresponds to the difference of the adequate longitudes.
- The deflections are connected with the local and regional undulation of the geoid, and also with gravity anomalies for they are functionals of
the gravity field and its inhomogeneities.
- VDs are usually determined astronomically.
- The true zenith is observed astronomically with respect to the stars, and the ellipsoidal zenith (theoretical vertical) by geodetic network
computation, which always takes place on Reference Ellipsoid.
- Additionally, the very local variations of the VD can be computed from gravimetric survey data and by means of digital terrain model (DTM),
using a theory originally developed by Vening-Meinesz.
- VDs are used in astro-geodetic levelling, a geoid determination technique.
- As a vertical deflection describes the difference between the geoidal and ellipsoidal normals, it represents the horizontal gradient of the
undulations of the geoid (i.e., the separation between geoid and reference ellipsoid).
- Given a starting value for the geoid undulation at one point, determining geoid undulations for an area becomes a matter for simple
integration.
- In practice, the deflections are observed at special points with spacings of 20 or 50 kilometers. The densification is done by a combination of
DTM models and areal gravimetry.
- Precise VD observations have accuracies of ±0.2″ (on high mountains ±0.5″), calculated values of about 1–2″.
- The maximal VD of Central Europe seems to be a point near of the Großglockner (3,798 m), the highest peak of the Austrian Alps. The approx.
values are ξ = +50″ and η = −30″.
Application of Deflection data
Vertical deflections are principally used in a threefold matter:
For precise calculation of survey networks. The geodetic theodolites and levelling instruments are oriented with respect to the
true vertical, but its deflection exceeds the geodetic measuring accuracy by a factor of 5 to 50. Therefore the data have to be
corrected exactly with respect to the global ellipsoid. Without these reductions, the surveys may be distorted by some
centimeters or even decimeters per km.
For the geoid determination (mean sea level) and for exact transformation of elevations. The global geoidal undulations
amount to 50–100 m, and their regional values to 10–50 m. They are adequate to the integrals of VD components ξ,η and
therefore can be calculated with cm accuracy over distances of many kilometers.
For GPS surveys. The satellites measurements refer to a pure geometrical system (usually the WGS84 ellipsoid), whereas the
terrestrial heights refer to the geoid. We need accurate geoid data to combine the different types of measurements.
For geophysics. Because VD deflection data are affected by the physical structure of the Earth's crust and mantle, geodesists are
engaged in models to improve our knowledge of the Earth's interior. Additionally and similar to applied geophysics, the VD data
can support the future exploration of raw materials, oil, gas or ores.
Gravity Anomaly
- The subtle difference between gravity anomalies and gravity disturbances has lead to conflicting definitions of what a gravity anomaly
actually is.
- The gravity anomaly is typically defined in one of two ways:
1) as the difference between gravity on the geoid and gravity on the reference spheroid (mostly in geodesy), and
2) as the difference between observed gravity and some theoretical value of gravity predicted at the measurement point
(mostly in geophysics).
Introduction
- In geodesy, gravity data are used to define the figure of the Earth.
- In geophysics, the data are used to constrain subsurface density variations to help to understand problems related to tectonics or commodity
exploration.
- To this end, the geodesist seeks to exploit the differences between the difficult-to-measure real gravity field and a mathematically based
model gravity field.
- The aim in geophysics is to remove global and other large-scale gravity effects that mask the local anomalies that are of direct interest.
- This failure has been recognized as the so-called geophysical indirect effect whereby the model gravity value is derived by correcting normal
gravity on a reference spheroid to the level of the gravity measurement using a sea-level (geoid) referenced elevation, not a spheroid-
referenced elevation.
Gravity anomalies and gravity disturbances
In the strictest sense, the gravity anomaly vector, Δg, is defined by the equation:
Δg=g-γ (1)
where:
Δg is the Gravity Anomaly Vector (delta g)
g is gravity at the geoid, appropriately downward-continued from surface data
(gρ) whilst preserving the mass of material above the geoid.
γ is normal gravity on the reference spheroid (gamma)
The gravity disturbance, δgρ , at a point P (at the surface, or any other level) is defined as
δgρ = gρ – γρ (2)
where g ρ is observed gravity measured at the surface point P, and
γρ is normal gravity at the measurement point (Figure 1).
γρ is determined by applying the free- air and Bouguer corrections to normal gravity on the spheroid, γ .
Reduction, correction or downward continuation
In geophysical applications, where the aim is to remove large-scale effects on locally measured gravity (such as those arising
from the mass of the Earth) it is logical to think of an anomaly as the difference between the observed value of gravity ata
point, and some predicted, or theoretical, value for that point.
This theoretical value is determined by correcting normal gravity on the spheroid to the level of the measurement point by
applying the free-air and Bouguer corrections.
The indirect effect
- The indirect effect arises because the geoid and reference spheroid do not coincide.
- Correct computation of gravity disturbances requires that the free-air and Bouguer corrections incorporate spheroidal height, h.
- If a geoid-referenced elevation is used instead, then the combined free-air and Bouguer correction will be either an under- or over-
correction, depending on the geoid height, N (Figure 2).
- Globally, the indirect effect on Bouguer anomalies varies between about -200 and 150 µm.s -2 and on free-air anomalies it varies between
about -270 and 250 µm.s-2 (Figure 3) .
Gravity Anomalies and Corrections
- The absolute observed value or actual gravity value is affected by several different factors:
elevation of the location above some arbitrary reference point (oftentimes sea level),
mass between the location and the arbitrary reference point, terrain around the location,
latitudinal position on the Earth's surface, and
even the curvature of the Earth if a survey has been conducted over a large area.
The process involved:
calibrating the data,
applying tidal corrections,
averaging repeated values and their times of occupation,
De-drifting the values,
obtaining gravity differences between the base and the stations referred to it, and
converting the relative values to absolute values using a base at which absolute gravity is known.
Gravity Anomaly
- Because measurements are not done on the reference spheroid, the first thing to correct is the height effect. This is called the free-air
correction.
- Free Air Correction is a correction for ALTITUDE alone (It assumes there's nothing but air between you and sea level).
- What is left after the Altitude (Free-Air) and Latitude corrections were applied is called the free-air anomaly.
- However, when we calculate Free-Air gravity for regions of high elevation, we get values that are too high, because we have neglected the
mass of the topography beneath us.
- Therefore, the free-air anomaly is the gravity anomaly measured on the reference geoid.
- The vertical change in gravity is about 0.3 mgal/m. This change is easily detectable by modern gravimeters. The change from the basement to
the roof of a small building would be quite obvious. For example, from the street level along Ayala Avenue up to the top floor of PBCom
building Tower in Makati with a height of 259 meters will have a gravity correction of 77.70 mGal, a significant fraction of the gravity variations
observed in Metro Manila.
- In special cases, a terrain model, using a map or a digital terrain model (DTM). A terrain correction, computed from a model structure,
accounts for the effects of rapid lateral change in density, eg. edge of plateau, cliffs, steep mountains, etc.
The free-air gravity anomaly can also be determined using the following equation:
FA = go− gt +( δg/δz) h
where:
FA = is the Free Air Gravity Anomaly (mGal)
go = is the observed gravity (mGal)
δg/δz= is the vertical gradient of gravity (.3086mGal·m-1)
h = is the elevation above mean sea level
Bouguer Anomaly
- The absolute observed values, which are the actual values of gravity at particular sites, constitute the fundamental value that is to be
subtracted from a modified theoretical value to produce the so-called Bouguer anomaly.
- The Bouguer anomaly is named after a French scientist (Pierre Bouguer), who derived the formula for an infinitely extending slab, the basis
for the so-called mass correction.
- This gravity value is also affected by any lateral deviation from a simple concentrically-layered density configuration of the Earth.
- The lateral deviations in density are the target of a gravity survey, but their effects are obscured by the previously-cited factors of mass,
elevation, terrain, latitude, and curvature.
- Therefore, the density-change portion of the gravity value must be isolated from the rest of the gravity value by mathematical procedures;
this process results in the Bouguer anomaly.
Two types of Bouguer anomalies are recognized:
1. simple Bouguer anomalies, in which the various factors have been corrected, with the exception of terrain effects, and
2. complete Bouguer anomalies, for which terrain effects have also been removed.
Three steps are followed in calculating the Bouguer anomaly (presuming the observed absolute value is already available):
1. Calculate the theoretical value for a station, based on its latitudinal position (formula derived from the mathematical expression for
the reference ellipsoid).
2. Modify the theoretical value, as if it had been obtained with the same elevation, mass distribution, and terrain conditions as are
present at the measured station.
3. Subtract the modified theoretical value from the observed absolute value.
CALCULATING THEORETICAL VALUES
- The theoretical value of gravity at any position is predicted by the International Gravity Formula, based on a so-called reference
ellipsoid.
- This figure of the earth is one that tries to account for the changes in gravity on Earth, caused both by its departure from
sphericity, resulting in an elliptical shape, and its rotation (causing centrifugal forces that affect the gravity field).
- The formula currently being used was developed in 1967, and is based on both theoretical and empirical considerations. This
formula replaced a 1930 version, used to produce a great many Bouguer anomaly maps.
- The free-air correction on land ignores the material between the measurement point and the reference geoid, which results in a
gravity correction of
dgB(h) = -2 p G r h.
This is called the Bouguer Correction.
What is left after the free-air and Bouguer correction
D gB = D gF + dgB is called the Bouguer Gravity Anomaly.
where:
go = observed gravity (mGal)
gt = theoretical gravity (mGal
δg/δz = vertical gradient of gravity (0.3086 mGal·m-1)
G= gravitational constant (6.672 x 10-11 m³·kg-1s-2 or 6.672 x 10-6 m²·kg-1·mGal
ρc = density of crustal rock (kg·m-3)
h = elevation above mean sea level (m).
MODIFYING THEORETICAL VALUES
Four steps are needed to modify the theoretical value, so that it can be compared with the observed absolute value:
1. Apply an elevation modification (so-called free air correction)
2. Apply a mass modification (so-called Bouguer correction)
3. Apply a terrain correction
4. Apply a curvature correction
The first two modifications are hereby discussed.
- The terrain modification is more complicated, and either requires a manual exercise for each station using a template and topographic map,
or requires a sophisticated computer program using a digital elevation model of the local topography.
- Terrain corrections are necessary to be conducted.
• Elevation Modification.
- Gravity changes with vertical position, decreasing with increased elevation above Earth's surface.
- The rate of change, or so-called free-air correction, is 0.09406 milligals per foot of elevation.
- Sea level is the reference for elevations on topographic maps, which are still mostly expressed in English system units (feet rather than
meters). Consequently, this formula is most useful to us in the form given.
- Sea level is the most common reference used for making free-air corrections, although in some local surveys, it may be advantageous to use
another reference elevation.
• Mass Modification.
- If a gravity station lies above a reference plane, it not only is affected by the elevation, but by the mass that lies between it and the reference
plane.
- The effect of that mass is to increase the gravity value.
- The amount of increase is proportional not only to the distance (elevation), but also to the density of the intervening rock.
- The mass factor, in milligals per foot of elevation, is 0.01277x ρ, where ρ is the density expressed in grams/cm3.
- This expression is multiplied times the elevation above or below the reference plane to obtain the modification factor.
- The choice of density is of course very important, and its value is known as the reduction density fore the survey.
- For regional surveys, a value of 2.67 gm/cm3 is usually used, since it is an average value for crustal rocks.
- The anomaly caused by a serpentinite is one due to the lateral change in density from graywacke to serpentinite, and it is thus most
appropriate to use the 2.60 value as the reduction density.
Gravity Value Determination
Gravity Survey = Gravimetry = Physical Geodesy
Gravity = is an effect created by the direct forces towards the Earth’s center and by the Centrifugal Force due to the rotation of the Earth
about its axis.
Gravimetry = is the science of determining the variations of gravity at several points on the Earth’s surface.
Methods in determining the value of gravity:
a. Absolute determination where the value of g is determined directly
b. Relative determination where g is determined by a reference to a Base
Station
The Instrument used in Absolute Gravity determination is called Pendulum Gravity
Apparatus; formally called Mendel Hull it was modified to another design by Brown.
The Spheroidal shape of the Earth is the result of the interplay between gravity and
centrifugal force caused by the Earth’s rotation about it’s axis.
Gravimeter = is an instrument used to determine variation of gravity.
General Procedure in Absolute Determination:
1. Set the instrument over the point where g is to be determined.
2. Determine the period of the pendulum from interval of time that has elapsed during the observation.
3. Compute the correction for:
1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Rate of Pendulum
4. Flexure
4. Compute the corrected observed period using the formula for gravity determination.
Relative determination of g:
1. Determine the period of the pendulum at the Base Station whose value of g is known.
2. Take the instrument to the station where value of g is to be determined the period of the pendulum.
3. Determine the value of g from the relationship of the following formula:
Procedure in Pendulum Observation:
1. The pendulum is placed in position, case enclosed and the air is exhausted until the pressure becomes 60mm
2. Observer should lower the pendulum until it rests on the knife edge; start swinging them on arc of 0 053’ and note the arc on the
scale.
3. Observe the coincidence by switching on the Chronometer and the flash apparatus. Watch the flash when they are approaching
the coincidence.
4. Note the time (h-m-s) in the Chronometer for all coincidences.
5. Perform the operation on several occasions, always set the Chronometer and leave the pendulum swinging for several hours
(about 6-8-12 hrs)
6. Then observer reads arc, temperature, and pressure.
7. After the scheduled observations (6-8-12 hrs), the observer again observe flash coincidences and take note of the time.
8. Then, finally the observer reads the arc, temperature and the pressure after the process.
Theoretical Gravity
To find the theoretical gravity (the gravity field expected for an oblate sphere) we must remove the effect of change in latitude and elevation
on gravitational acceleration.
Where:
g t = theoretical gravity for the latitude of the observation point (Gal)
Φ = latitude of the observation point (decimal degrees)
Correction from gobs that accounts for Earth's elliptical shape and rotation. The gravity value that would be observed if Earth
were a perfect (no geologic or topographic complexities), rotating ellipsoid is referred to as the normal gravity.
Gravity INCREASES with increasing latitude.
Correction is ADDED as we move toward the equator.
Correction is applied ONLY for relative movement in the N-S direction.
Correction for a given latitude is linear over about 1 km.
The normal gradient of gravity (rate of change of gravity for change of elevation), as :
in free air, usually 0.3086 milligals per meter (0.0003086 gals), or the
Bouguer gradient of 0.1967 mGal/m (19.67 µm/(s²·m) which considers the mean rock density (2.67 g/cm³) beneath the point;
this value is found by subtracting the gravity due to the Bouguer plate, which is : 0.1119 mGal/m (11.19 µm/(s²·m)) for this
density.
Simply, we have to correct for the effects of any material between the point where Gravimetry was done and the Geoid.
To do this we model the material in between as being made up of an infinite number of slabs of thickness t.
These slabs have no lateral variation in density, but each slab may have a different density than the one above or below it. This
is called the Bouguer Correction.
