ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL, CHEMICAL AND MATERIAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING MECHANICS II, DYNAMICS; MEng2104
CHAPTER-2
KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES
Prepared by: Mr. Temesgen Batu (MSc)
Reviewed by: Mr. Girmachew A (MSc)
Date, 2024

08/04/2025
 Contents
2.1. Introduction Kinematics
2.2. Rectilinear motion
2.3. General Curvilinear Motion
[Link] coordinates (x-y)
[Link]. Projectile motion
2.3.2. Normal and tangential coordinates (n-t)
[Link]. Circular motion
2.3.3. Polar coordinates (𝑟−𝜃)
2.4. Relative motion (translating axes) analysis of particle
2.5. Constrained motion of connected particles
Reference
LESSON 3: INTRODUCTION KINEMATICS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Able to define kinematics of particle and explain types of motion.

 List the different types of coordinates system to describe position of particle.

 Able to define and explain motion variables under rectilinear motion.

 Calculate dynamics problem on rectilinear motion using analytical and graphical method.
2. INTRODUCTION

2.1. KINEMATICS:- is the branch of dynamics which describes the motion of bodies without

reference to the forces which either cause the motion or are generated as a result of the motion.

 Kinematics is often described as the “geometry of motion.”

 Knowledge of kinematics is a prerequisite to kinetics.

 A particle is a body whose physical dimensions are so small compared

with the radius of curvature of its path.

 Here we may treat the motion of the particle as that of a point.

 If the particle is confined to a specified path, as with a bead sliding along a fixed wire, its

motion is said to be constrained.

 If there are no physical guides, the motion is said to be unconstrained.

E.g. A small rock tied to the end of a string and whirled in a circle undergoes constrained

motion until the string breaks, after this instant its motion is become unconstrained.
The position of particle P at any time t can be described by specifying its:

 Rectangular coordinates x, y, z,

 Cylindrical coordinates r, 𝜃, z, or

 Spherical coordinates R, 𝜃, ɸ.

Figure 2.2. Shows a particle P moving along some general path in space.
 The motion of P can also be described by measurements along

the tangent t and normal n to the curve.

 The direction of n lies in the local plane of the curve.

 These last two measurements are called path variables.

 We restrict our attention in the first part of this chapter to the case of motion on a single

plane.
2.1.1. Motion analysis types

Absolute-motion analysis:- the motion of particles (or rigid bodies) can be

described by using coordinates measured from fixed reference axes.

Fig 3. Absolute motion analysis

Relative-motion analysis:- using coordinates measured from moving

reference axes.

Fig 4. Relative motion analysis.

2.2. RECTILINEAR MOTION
 The position of P at any instant of time t can be specified by its distance s measured from some
convenient reference point O fixed on the line.

Fig 4. Rectilinear motion.

 At time 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 the particle has moved to P′ and its coordinate becomes 𝑠 + Δ𝑠, which is motion
along a straight line.
 The change in the position coordinate during the interval Δ𝑡 is called the displacement Δ𝑠 of the
particle.
 The displacement would be negative if the particle moved in the negative s-direction.
Velocity and Acceleration
 The average velocity of the particle during the interval Δ𝑡 is the displacement divided by the
time interval or

∆𝐒
𝐯𝑎𝑣𝑒 = … … … … … … … … … … 𝑒𝑞. 2/1
∆𝑡
 Thus, the velocity is the time rate of change of the position coordinate s.
 The velocity is positive or negative depending on whether the corresponding displacement is
positive or negative.
 Instantaneous velocity:- the average velocity of the particle is the limit as Δ𝑡 becomes smaller
and approaches zero, which is:

∆𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝐯𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = lim 𝑜𝑟 v = = 𝑆ሶ … … … … … … … . 𝑒𝑞. 2/2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The average acceleration of the particle during the interval Δ𝑡 is the change in its velocity divided
by the time interval or

∆𝐯
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = … … … … … … … … … . 𝑒𝑞. 2/3
∆𝑡
 As Δ𝑡 becomes smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average acceleration approaches the
instantaneous acceleration of the particle, which is

∆𝐯 𝑑𝐯 𝑑2 𝑆
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = lim 𝑜𝑟 𝒂 = = 𝐯ሶ 𝑜𝑟 𝒂 = 2 = 𝑆ሷ … … … … … … … … . 𝑒𝑞. 2/4
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 The acceleration is positive or negative depending on whether the velocity is increasing or
decreasing.
 If the particle is slowing down, the particle is said to be decelerating.

 The sense of the vector along the path is described by a plus or minus sign.
 By eliminating the time 𝑑𝑡 between Eq. 2 and Eq. 4, we obtain a differential equation relating
displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
 This equation is:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑎 𝑣
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 or 𝑠𝑑𝑣
ሶ = 𝑠ሷ 𝑑𝑠 … … … … … … … … … 𝑒𝑞. 2/5
 Problems in rectilinear motion involving finite changes in the motion variables are solved by
integration of these basic differential relations.
Graphical Interpretations
 Interpretation of the differential equations governing rectilinear motion is considerably clarified
by representing the relationships among s, v, a, and t graphically.

 By constructing the tangent to the curve at any time t, we obtain

the slope, which is the velocity:
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠/𝑑𝑡.
 Thus, the velocity can be determined at all points on the curve
and plotted against the corresponding time.
 The area under the v-t curve during time 𝑑𝑡 is 𝑣𝑑𝑡, which from
Eq. 2/2 is the displacement ds.
 Consequently, the net displacement of the particle during the
interval from 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 is the corresponding area under the curve,
which is:
𝑠2 𝑡2

න 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠2 −𝑠1 = (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)

𝑠1 𝑡1
 Area under the a-t curve during time 𝑑𝑡 is 𝑎𝑑𝑡, which, from the
first of Eqs. 2 /4, is 𝑑𝑣.
 Thus, the net change in velocity between 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 is the
corresponding area under the curve, which is

𝑣2 𝑡2

න 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑎𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣2 −𝑣1 = (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 − 𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)

𝑣1 𝑡1
  When the acceleration a is plotted as a function of the position
coordinate s.
 The area under the curve during a displacement ds is ads, which,
from Eq. 2 /5, is 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑(𝑣 2 /2).
 Thus, the net area under the curve between position coordinates
𝑠1 and 𝑠2 is:
𝑣2 𝑠2
1
න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 (𝑣2 2 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 − 𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)
2
𝑣1 𝑠1
ANALYTICAL INTEGRATION
(a) Constant Acceleration.
 When acceleration a is constant, the first of Eqs. 2/2 and 2 /4 can be integrated directly.
 For simplicity with s = 𝑠0 , v = 𝑣0 , and t =0 designated at the beginning of the interval, then for a
time interval t the integrated equations become:

𝑣 𝑡
‫𝑣𝑑 𝑣׬‬ = 𝑎 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑣0 +𝑎𝑡 ………………………………2/6
0

𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑠/𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣/a.
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑠.
𝑣 𝑠
‫𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝑣׬‬ = 𝑎 ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑠׬‬ 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑠−𝑠0 )………………….2/7
0 0
 Substitution of the integrated expression for 𝑣 into Eq. 2 and integration with respect to t gives:

𝑠 𝑡 1
‫׬ = 𝑠𝑑 𝑠׬‬0 (𝑣0 +𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = 𝑠0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ……………………………2/8
0

 These relations are necessarily restricted to the special case where the acceleration is constant only.

 Caution: A common mistake is to use these equations for problems involving variable
acceleration, where they do not apply.
(b) Acceleration Given as a Function of Time, a =ƒ(t).
 Substitution of the function into the first of Eqs. 2/4 gives ƒ(𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣 /𝑑𝑡. Multiplying by 𝑑𝑡
separates the variables and permits integration. Thus,

𝑣 𝑡2 𝑡2
‫𝑣𝑑 𝑣׬‬ = ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡………………….2/9
0

 From this integrated expression for v as a function of t, the position coordinate s is obtained by
integrating Eq. 2, which, in form, would be
𝑠 2 𝑡 2 𝑡
‫׬ = 𝑠𝑑 𝑠׬‬0 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = 𝑠0 + ‫׬‬0 𝑣𝑑𝑡………………….2/10
0
(c) Acceleration Given as a Function of Velocity, a =ƒ(v).
Substitution of the function into the first of Eqs. 2/4 gives:
ƒ(𝑣) = 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡, which permits separating the variables and integrating. Thus,

𝑡 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫𝑣׬‬ …………………………………….2/11
0 𝑓(𝑣)
(d) Acceleration Given as a Function of Displacement, a =ƒ(s).
Substituting the function into Eq. 2/5 and integrating give the form:

𝑣 𝑠 𝑠

න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2 න 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 ………………….2/12

𝑣0 𝑠0 𝑠0
Example 1
The position coordinate of a particle which is confined to move along a straight line is given by
s =2𝑡 3 −24t +6, where s is measured in meters from a convenient origin and t is in seconds. Determine
(a) the time required for the particle to reach a velocity of 72 m /s from its initial condition at t =0, (b)
the acceleration of the particle when v =30 m /s, and (c) the net displacement of the particle during the
interval from t =1 s to t =4 s.
1. The velocity of a particle which moves along the s-axis is given by v =2 − 4t +5𝑡 (3/2) , where t is in
seconds and v is in meters per second. Evaluate the position s, velocity v, and acceleration a when
t =3s. The particle is at the position 𝑠0 = 3𝑚 when t =0.
2. The acceleration of a particle is given by a =2t −10, where a is in meters per second squared and t is
in seconds. Determine the velocity and displacement as functions of time. The initial displacement
at t = 0 is 𝑠0 = −4 m, and the initial velocity is 𝑣0 =3 m /s.
3. From experimental data, the motion of a jet plane while traveling along a runway is defined by the
v–t graph. Construct the s–t and a–t graphs for the motion. When t =0, s =0.
LESSON 4: GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION
Learning Outcomes
 Able to define and explain motion variables under curvilinear motion.

 Using different coordinate systems like:

 rectangular coordinates,

 normal and tangential coordinates, and

 polar coordinates, to describe position of particle moves along a curved path.

2.3. General Curvilinear Motion

 Curvilinear motion occurs when a particle moves along a curved path which lies in a single

plane.

 This motion is a special case of the more general three dimensional motion.

 Vector analysis will be used to formulate the particle’s position, velocity, and acceleration.
Position

 Consider a particle located at a point on a space curve defined by the path function s(t).

 The position of the particle, measured from a fixed point O, will be designated by the

position vector r = r(t).

 Notice that both the magnitude and direction of this vector will change as the particle

moves along the curve.

Displacement

 Suppose that during a small time interval ∆𝑡 the particle moves a distance ∆s along the

curve from A to a new position A’.

 The displacement ∆𝐫 represents the change in the particle’s position and is determined by

vector subtraction;

𝐫 ′ − 𝐫 = ∆𝐫

Fig. 2.1
Velocity

 During the time ∆t the average velocity of the particle between A and A′ is defined as:

∆𝐫
𝐯𝐚𝐯𝐞 = ……………………………………………..2/13
∆t

which is a vector whose direction is to that of Δr and whose magnitude is the magnitude

of Δr divided by Δt.

 The average speed of the particle between A and A′ is the scalar quotient Δs/Δt.
 The instantaneous velocity v of the particle is defined as the limiting value of the average velocity as

the time interval approaches zero. Thus,

∆𝐫
vinst = lim ………………….2/14
∆t→0 ∆𝐭

 We observe that the direction of Δr approaches that of the tangent to the path as Δt approaches zero

and, thus, the velocity 𝐯 is always a vector tangent to the path.

 We now extend the basic definition of the derivative of a scalar quantity to include a vector quantity

and write:

𝐝𝐫
𝐯= = 𝐫ሶ …………………………………………...2/15
𝐝𝐭

 The derivative of a vector is itself a vector having both a magnitude and a direction.

 The magnitude of v is called the speed and is the scalar:

𝐝𝒔
𝒗= 𝐯 = = 𝒔ሶ ……………………………………..….2/16
𝐝𝐭
From Fig. 2.2. denote the velocity of the particle at A by the tangent vector v and the velocity at A′ by

the tangent v′.

• Clearly, there is a vector change in the velocity during the time Δt. The velocity v at A plus

(vectorially) the change Δv must equal the velocity at A′, so we can write:

𝐯′ − 𝐯 = 𝚫𝐯………………….2/17

• Inspection of the vector diagram shows that Δv depends both on the change in magnitude (length) of

v and on the change in direction of v.

• These two changes are fundamental characteristics of the derivative of a vector.

Acceleration

 The average acceleration of the particle between A and A′ is defined as Δv/Δt, which is a vector

whose direction is that of Δv.

 The magnitude of this average acceleration is the magnitude of Δv divided by Δt.

 The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle is defined as the limiting value of the average

acceleration as the time interval approaches zero. Thus,

∆𝐯
𝐚𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 = lim ………………………………..………….2/18
∆t→0 ∆t
 By definition of the derivative, then, we write

𝐝𝐯
𝒂= = 𝐯ሶ = 𝒔ሷ ……………………………………………….…….2/19
𝐝𝐭

 The acceleration a, then, includes the effects of both the change in magnitude of v and the change of
direction of v.
 In general, that the direction of the acceleration of a particle in curvilinear motion is neither tangent
to the path nor normal to the path.
 We do observe, however, that the acceleration component which is normal to the path points toward
the centre of curvature of the path.
2.3.1. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES (x-y)

 This system of coordinates is particularly useful for describing motions where the x- and y-

components of acceleration are independently generated or determined.

 The resulting curvilinear motion is then obtained by a vector combination of the x- and y-

components of the position vector, the velocity, and the acceleration.

𝐫 = 𝐱𝐢 + 𝐲𝐣

𝐯 = 𝐫ሶ = 𝐱𝐢ሶ + 𝐲𝐣ሶ

𝒂 = 𝐯ሶ = 𝒓ሷ = 𝒙𝐢ሷ + 𝐲𝐣ሷ

Fig. 2.2
 As we differentiate with respect to time, we observe that the time derivatives of the unit vectors are
zero because their magnitudes and directions remain constant.
 The scalar values of the components of v and a are merely:
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒙,ሶ 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒚ሶ and 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒗ሶ 𝒙 = 𝒙ሷ , 𝒂𝒚 = 𝒗ሶ 𝒚 = 𝒚ሷ
(As drawn in Fig. 2.2., 𝒂𝒙 is in the negative x-direction, so that 𝒙ሷ would be a negative number.)
 As observed previously, the direction of the velocity is always tangent to the path, and from the
figure it is clear that:

𝑣𝑦
2
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 𝑣= (𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ………………….2/20
𝑣𝑥

𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 𝑎= (𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 )

Example1: The velocity of a particle is v = 3i + (6 - 2t)j m/s, where t is in seconds. If r = 0 when t = 0,

determine the displacement of the particle during the time interval t =1 s to t =3 s.

Example 2: At time t =10 s, the velocity of a particle moving in the x-y plane is v = 0.1i +2j m /s. By

time t =10.1s, its velocity has become −0.1i +1.8j m /s. Determine the magnitude 𝑎𝑎𝑣 of its average

acceleration during this interval and the angle 𝜃 made by the average acceleration with the positive x-

axis.
𝑎𝑎𝑣 = 2.83 m /𝑠 2 , 𝜃 =225°
 [Link]. Projectile Motion
 An important application of two-dimensional kinematic theory is the problem of projectile motion.
For a first treatment of the subject:
 We neglect aerodynamic drag,
 The curvature and rotation of the earth, and
 We assume that the altitude change is small enough so that the acceleration due to gravity can be
considered constant.
 With these assumptions, rectangular coordinates are useful for the trajectory analysis.
For the axes shown in Fig. 2.3., the acceleration components are:
𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟏m/𝒔𝟐 𝒐𝒓 − 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐
 The horizontal component of velocity always remains constant during the motion.
Integration of these accelerations follows the results obtained previously for constant acceleration
and yields:
Horizontal Motion: 𝒗𝒙 = (𝒗𝒙 )𝟎 and 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + (𝒗𝒙 )𝟎 𝑡

Fig. 2.3

Vertical Motion: 𝒗𝒚 = (𝒗𝒚 )𝟎 − 𝑔𝑡 𝒗𝒚 2 = (𝒗𝒚 )02 −2𝑔(𝑦−𝑦0 )

1 2
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + (𝒗𝒚 )0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
1. With what minimum horizontal velocity u can a boy

throw a rock at A and have it just clear the obstruction at B?

Ans. u = 28m/s

2. The projectile is launched with a velocity . Determine

the range R, the maximum height h attained, and the time

of flight. Express the results in terms of the angle and.

The acceleration due to gravity is g.

3. The velocity of the water jet discharging from the orifice can be

obtained from 𝑣 = 2𝑔ℎ ,where ℎ = 2𝑚 is the depth of the orifice

from the free water surface. Determine the time for a particle of
water leaving the orifice to reach point B and the horizontal distance
x where it hits the surface.
2.3.2. NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COORDINATES (n-t)

 One of the common descriptions of curvilinear motion uses path variables:

 tangent (t) and normal (n) to the path of the particle,

 provide a very natural description for curvilinear motion,

 the most direct and convenient coordinates to use and are frequently used.
 The positive direction for n at any position is always taken toward the centre of curvature

of the path.

 As seen from Fig. 2.4, the positive n-direction will shift from one side of the curve to the

other side if the curvature changes direction.

Fig. 2.4 Normal and Tangent coordinates

Velocity and Acceleration

 Coordinates n and t uses to describe the velocity (v) and acceleration (a) for the curvilinear motion

of a particle.

 For this purpose, we introduce unit vectors 𝑒𝑛 in the n-direction and 𝑒𝑡 in the t-direction, for the

position of A.

 During a differential increment of time dt, the particle moves a differential distance ds along the

curve from A to A′.

 With the radius of curvature of the path at this position designated by 𝜌, we see that ds = 𝜌d𝛽,

where 𝛽 is in radians.
 It is unnecessary to consider the differential change in 𝜌 between A and A′.

 Thus, the magnitude of the velocity can be written v = ds/dt = 𝜌d𝛽/dt, and we can write the velocity
as the vector

ሶ 𝑡 ………………….2/21
𝐯 = 𝑣𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝛽𝑒

 The acceleration is a vector which reflects both the change in magnitude and the change in direction
of v.

𝑑v 𝑑(𝑣𝑒𝑡 )
𝑎= = = 𝑣 𝑒ሶ𝑡 + 𝑣𝑒
ሶ 𝑡 ………………….2/22
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Where the unit vector 𝑒𝑡 now has a nonzero derivative because its direction changes.
The direction of d𝑒𝑡 is given by 𝑒𝑛 . Thus, we can write d𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒𝑛 d𝛽. Dividing by d𝛽 gives

𝑑𝑒𝑡
𝑒𝑛 =
𝑑𝛽

ሶ 𝑛 …………………………………….……….2/23
𝑒ሶ𝑡 = 𝛽𝑒
 With the substitution of Eq. 2 and 𝛽ሶ from the relation v = 𝜌𝛽,ሶ for the acceleration becomes

𝑣2
𝑎= 𝑒 + 𝑣𝑒
ሶ 𝑡 ………………………………..….2/24
𝜌 𝑛

𝑣2
𝑎𝑛 = = 𝜌𝛽ሶ 2 = 𝑣𝛽ሶ
𝜌

𝑑(𝜌𝛽)ሶ
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣ሶ = 𝑠ሷ = = 𝜌𝛽ሷ + 𝜌ሶ 𝛽ሶ
𝑑𝑡

𝑎= (𝑎𝑡2 + 𝑎𝑛2 )
[Link]. Circular Motion
 Circular motion is an important special case of plane curvilinear motion where the radius of
curvature 𝜌 becomes the constant radius 𝑟 of the circle.
 And also the angle 𝛽 is replaced by the angle 𝜃 measured from any convenient radial
reference to 𝐎𝐏,
 The velocity and the acceleration components for the circular motion
of the particle 𝐏 become:

𝑣 = 𝑟𝜃ሶ

𝑣2
𝑎𝑛 = = 𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 = 𝑣𝜃ሶ
𝑟

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣ሶ = 𝑟𝜃ሷ
Example: A test car starts from rest on a horizontal circular track of 80-m radius and increases its
speed at a uniform rate to reach 100 km/h in 10 seconds. Determine the magnitude a of the total
acceleration of the car 8 seconds after the start.
Example: The car C increases its speed at the constant rate of 1.5 𝑚/𝑠 2 as it rounds the curve
shown. If the magnitude of the total acceleration of the car is 2.5 𝑚/𝑠 2 at point A where the
radius of curvature is 200m, compute the speed v of the car at this point. Answer 𝑣 = 20 𝑚/𝑠
2.3.3. POLAR COORDINATES (𝒓−𝜽)

We now consider the third description of plane curvilinear motion, namely,

polar coordinates where the particle is located by:

 the radial distance 𝑟 from a fixed point and

 by an angular measurement 𝜃 to the radial line.

Polar coordinates are particularly useful:

 when a motion is constrained through the control of a radial distance and

an angular position or

 when an unconstrained motion is observed by measurements of a radial

distance and an angular position.

 The polar coordinates r and 𝜃 which locate a particle traveling on a curved path.

 An arbitrary fixed line, such as the x-axis, is used as a reference for the measurement of 𝜃.

 Unit vectors 𝑒𝑟 and 𝑒𝜃 are established in the positive r and 𝜃 transverse directions, respectively.

 The position vector r to the particle at A has a magnitude equal to the radial distance r and a

direction specified by the unit vector 𝑒𝑟 .

 Thus, we express the location of the particle at A by the vector

𝐫 = 𝑟𝑒𝑟
Time Derivatives of the Unit Vectors

𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝜃
= 𝑒𝜃 and = −𝑒𝑟 …………………………eq 2/25
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

ሶ 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒ሶ𝜃 = −𝜃𝑒

𝑒ሶ𝑟 = 𝜃𝑒 ሶ 𝑟 ……………………………………..eq 2/26
Velocity
 We are now ready to differentiate 𝐫 = 𝑟𝑒𝑟 with respect to time. Using the rule for differentiating
the product of a scalar and a vector gives:
𝐕 = 𝐫ሶ = 𝒓𝑒
ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑟𝒆ሶ 𝑟
With the substitution of 𝒆ሶ 𝑟 from Eq. 5.3 the vector expression for the velocity becomes
ሶ 𝜃 ………………….2/27
ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑟𝜽𝑒
𝐕 = 𝒓𝑒
𝒗𝒓 = 𝐫ሶ
𝒗𝜽 = 𝑟𝛉ሶ

𝑣= (𝑣𝑡2 + 𝑣𝜃2 )
 The r-component of v is merely the rate at which the vector r stretches.

 The 𝜃-component of v is due to the rotation of r.

Acceleration
 We now differentiate the expression for v to obtain the acceleration 𝐚 = 𝐕.ሶ
ሶ 𝜃 will produce three terms, since all three factors are variable.
 Note that the derivative of 𝑟𝜽𝑒
Thus, continuously
𝐚 = 𝐕ሶ = (𝒓𝑒 ሶ 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜽𝑒
ሷ 𝑟 + 𝒓ሶ 𝒆ሶ 𝒓 ) + (𝒓ሶ 𝜽𝑒 ሷ 𝜃 + 𝑟𝜽ሶ 𝒆ሶ 𝜽 ) ………………….2/28

𝐚 = (𝒓ሷ − 𝒓𝜽ሶ 𝟐 )𝑒𝑟 + (𝑟𝜽ሷ + 2𝒓ሶ 𝜽)𝑒

ሶ 𝜃

𝒂𝒓 = 𝒓ሷ − 𝒓𝜽ሶ 𝟐
𝒂𝜽 = 𝑟𝜽ሷ + 2𝒓ሶ 𝜽ሶ

𝑎= (𝑎𝑟2 + 𝑎𝜃2 )
Geometric Interpretation

 Polar coordinates developed to show the velocity vectors and their r- and 𝜃-components at position

A and at position A′ after an infinitesimal movement.

 Each of these components undergoes a change in magnitude and direction.

(a) Magnitude Change of 𝐯𝒓 : This change is simply the increase in length of 𝒗𝒓 or d𝒗𝒓 = d𝐫,ሶ and the

ሶ = 𝒓ሷ in the positive r-direction.

corresponding acceleration term is d𝐫/dt
(b) Direction Change of 𝑽𝒓 : The magnitude of this change is seen from the figure to be:

𝑣𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = rሶ 𝑑𝜃, and also its contribution to the acceleration becomes

r𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡
ሶ = 𝑟ሷ which is in the positive 𝜃-direction.

ሶ and
(c) Magnitude Change of 𝑽𝜽 : This term is the change in length of 𝑉𝜃 or d(𝑟𝜃),

its contribution to the acceleration is:

ሶ
d(r𝜃)/dt = r𝜃ሷ + rሶ 𝜃ሶ and is in the positive 𝜃 -direction.
(d) Direction Change of 𝑽𝜽 :The magnitude of this change is:

ሶ and
𝑣𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑟𝜃𝑑𝜃

The corresponding acceleration term is observed to be:

𝑟𝜃ሶ (d𝜃/dt)=𝑟𝜃ሶ 2 in the negative r-direction.

Circular Motion
 For motion in a circular path with r constant, the components of become simply.

𝒗𝒓 = 𝟎
𝒗𝜽 = 𝑟𝛉ሶ
𝒂𝒓 = −𝒓𝜽ሶ 𝟐
𝒂𝜽 = 𝑟𝜽ሷ
Example: Rotation of the radially slotted arm is governed by 𝜃 = 0.2𝑡 + 0.02𝑡 3 , where 𝜃 is in
radians and t is in seconds. Simultaneously, the power screw in the arm engages the slider B and
controls its distance from O according to 𝑟 = 0.2 + 0.04𝑡 2 , where r is in meters and t is in seconds.
Calculate the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration of the slider for the instant when t =3 s.
Example: Rotation of bar OA is controlled by the lead screw which imparts a horizontal velocity v
to collar C and causes pin P to travel along the smooth slot. Determine the values of 𝐫ሶ and 𝛉,ሶ where
𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃, if h =160 mm, x =120 mm, and v =25 mm /s at the instant represented.
Example: At the bottom of a loop in the vertical (𝑟−𝜃) plane at an altitude of 400 m, the
airplane P has a horizontal velocity of 600 km/h and no horizontal acceleration. The radius of
curvature of the loop is 1200 m. For the radar tracking at O, determine the recorded values of rሷ
and 𝜃ሷ for this instant.
LESSON 5: RELATIVE MOTION (TRANSLATING AXES) ANALYSIS OF PARTICLE

Learning Outcomes

Explain what relative motion analysis mean and its difference with absolute motion analysis.

Express the relative-motion terms in whatever coordinate system is convenient such as:

 rectangular coordinates,

 normal and tangential coordinates, and

 polar coordinates, to describe position of particle moves along a curved path.

 Explain Constrained motion of connected particles and determine motion variable on one

and two degree of freedom.

2.4. RELATIVE MOTION (TRANSLATING AXES)

 Previously, we have described particle motion using coordinates referred to fixed reference axes.

 However, there are many engineering problems for which the analysis of motion is simplified by

using measurements made with respect to a moving reference system.

 These measurements, when combined with the absolute motion of the moving coordinate system,

enable us to determine the absolute motion in question. This approach is called a relative-motion

analysis.
 We will confine our attention in this situation to moving reference systems which translate but do
not rotate.
 We will also confine our attention here to relative-motion analysis for plane motion.
Vector Representation

 Now consider two particles A and B which may have separate curvilinear motions in a

given plane or in parallel planes.

 We will arbitrarily attach the origin of a set of translating (nonrotating) axes x’-y’ to

particle B and observe the motion of A from our moving position on B.

 The position vector of A as measured relative to the frame 𝑥−𝑦 is:

𝒓𝑨/𝑩 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒋, where the subscript notation “A/B” means “A relative to B” or

“A with respect to B”
 The unit vectors along the x- and y-axes are i and j, and x and y are the coordinates of A measured

in the x-y frame. The absolute position of B is defined by the vector 𝒓𝑩 measured from the origin of

the fixed axes X-Y. The absolute position of A is seen, therefore, to be determined by the vector

𝒓𝑨 = 𝒓𝑩 + 𝒓𝑩/𝑨 ………………………………..…….2/29
 We can express the relative-motion terms in whatever coordinate system is convenient rectangular,
normal and tangential, or polar and the formulations in the preceding articles can be used for this
purpose.
 The selection of the moving point B for attachment of the reference coordinate system is arbitrary.
 Therefore, the three corresponding relative-motion equations
for position, velocity, and acceleration are:
Example: Passengers in the jet transport A flying east at a speed of 800 km /h observe a second jet
plane B that passes under the transport in horizontal flight. Although the nose of B is pointed in the 45°
northeast direction, plane B appears to the passengers in A to be moving away from the transport at the
60°angle as shown. Determine the true velocity of B.
Example: Car A is traveling at the constant speed of 60 km /h as it rounds the circular curve of 300m
radius and at the instant represented is at the position θ = 45°. Car B is traveling at the constant speed
of 80 km /h and passes the centre of the circle at this same instant. Car A is located with respect to car
B by polar coordinates r and θ with the pole moving with B. For this instant determine 𝒗𝑨/𝑩 and the
values of 𝒓ሶ and 𝜽ሶ as measured by an observer in car B.
Example:- At the instant shown in Fig, cars A and B are traveling with speeds of 18 m/s and
12 m/s, respectively. Also at this instant, A has a decrease in speed of 2𝑚/𝑠 2 , and B has an
increase in speed of 3𝑚/𝑠 2 . Determine the velocity and acceleration of B with respect to A.
2.5. CONSTRAINED MOTION OF CONNECTED PARTICLES
 In some types of problems the motion of one particle will depend on the corresponding motion of
another particle.
 This dependency commonly occurs if the particles, here represented by blocks, are interconnected
by inextensible cords which are wrapped around pulleys.
 If the total cord length is 𝑙 𝑇 , the two position coordinates are related by the equation.

𝑆𝐴 + 𝑙𝐶𝐷 + 𝑆𝐵 = 𝑙 𝑇 ………………….2/30
 Here 𝑙𝐶𝐷 is the length of the cord passing over arc CD.

 Taking the time derivative of this expression, realizing that 𝑙𝐶𝐷 and 𝑙 𝑇 remain constant,

while 𝑆𝐴 and 𝑆𝐵 measure the segments of the cord that change in length,

𝑑𝑆𝐴 𝑑𝑆𝐵
+ =0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐵 = −𝑣𝐴 ………………….2/31
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Note that each of the coordinate axes is

(1) measured from a fixed point (O) or fixed datum line,

(2) measured along each inclined plane in the direction of motion of each block, and

has a positive sense from the fixed datums to A and to B.

One Degree of Freedom

 Consider first the very simple system of two interconnected particles A and B.

 It should be quite evident by inspection that the horizontal motion of A is twice the vertical

motion of B.

 The motion of B is clearly the same as that of the center of its pulley, so we establish

position coordinates y and x measured from a convenient fixed datum.

 The total length of the cable is:
Two Degrees of Freedom

 Here the positions of the lower cylinder and pulley C

depend on the separate specifications of the two coordinates

𝑦𝐴 and 𝑦𝐵 .

 The lengths of the cables attached to cylinders A and B can

be written, respectively, as
 It is clearly impossible for the signs of all three terms to be positive simultaneously.

 So, for example, if both A and B have downward (positive) velocities, then C will have

an upward (negative) velocity.

 It is clearly impossible for the signs of all three terms to be positive simultaneously.

 So, for example, if both A and B have downward (positive) velocities, then C will have

an upward (negative) velocity.

Example:- If the velocity 𝑥ሶ of block A up the incline is
increasing at the rate of 0.044 m/s each second, determine
the acceleration of B.
Example:-
Example:-
Summary
 We have developed and illustrated the basic methods for describing particle motion. The time derivative of
a vector depends on direction change as well as magnitude change.
 We commonly describe motion or make motion measurements with respect to fixed reference axes
(absolute motion) and moving axes (relative motion). The acceptable choice of the fixed axes depends on
the problem.
 The choice of coordinates is of prime importance. We have developed the description of motion using the
following coordinates:
1. Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates (x-y-z)
2. Normal and tangential coordinates (n-t)
3. Polar coordinates (r-𝜃)
Cont.…
 We have discuss Constrained motion of connected particles as the dependence of motion of one
particle on the corresponding motion of another particle which are interconnected by inextensible cords
which are wrapped around pulleys.
 If the total cord length is 𝑙 𝑇 , the two position coordinates are related by the equation

𝑆𝐴 + 𝑙𝐶𝐷 + 𝑆𝐵 = 𝑙 𝑇
Reference
J.L. Meriam, L.G. Kraige and J.N. Bolton. (2015). ENGINEERING MECHANICS; DYNAMICS (8th ed., Vol. 2).
United States.
R. C. Hibbeler. (2016). ENGINEERING MECHANICS; DYNAMICS (14 ed.). New Jersey, United States of
America: Pearson Prentice Hal.