‫التوزيـع اإللكتــروني‬

Chapter 08: Electron Configurations and Periodicity

195
 Electronic Structure of Atoms
I
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table
8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule

Periodicity of the Elements

II
8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table
8.6 Some Periodic Properties
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements

196
 Electronic Structure of Atoms

8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

‫ وقد وجهوا حزمة من الذرات‬،1921 ‫أوتو ستيرن ووالتر جيرالش الحظ ألول مرة دوران اإللكترون مغنطيسيا في عام‬
.‫الفضية إلى مجال مغناطيس مصمم بشكل خاص يمكن إجراء التجربة نفسها مع ذرات الهيدروجين‬
‫شعاع الهيدروجين يقسم الذرات إلى ذرتين حسب املجال املغناطيس ي؛ نصف الذرات منحنية في اتجاه واحد والنصف اآلخر‬
.‫(انظر الشكل) حقيقة أن الذرات تتأثر يوضح مغناطيس املختبر أنهم يعملون بأنفسهم كمغناطيس‬

The resulting directions of spin magnetism correspond to spin quantum numbers

ms +1/2 and ms -1/2.

Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams:

Electron configuration of an atom is a particular distribution )‫ (توزيع معين‬of
electrons among the available subshells.
A subshell consists of a group of orbitals )‫ (مدارات‬having the same n and l
quantum numbers but different ml values.
For example, a configuration of the lithium atom (atomic number 3) with two
electrons in the 1s subshell and one electron in the 2s subshell is written 1s2 2s1

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We use a diagram to show how the orbitals of a subshell are occupied by
electrons. It is called an orbital diagram.

which there are two electrons in the 1s subshell, or orbital (one electron with
ms= +1/2 , the other with ms= -1/2 ) ; two electrons in the 2s subshell (ms= +1/2,
ms= -1/2 ); and one electron in the 2p subshell (ms= +1/2).
The electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p1.

Pauli Exclusion Principle:

The Pauli Exclusion Principle, which summarizes )‫ (يلخص‬experimental
observations, states that) no two electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers).
If one electron in an atom has the quantum numbers n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, and ms =
+1/2, no other electron can have these same quantum numbers.
In other words, you cannot place two electrons with the same value of ms in a 1s
orbital. The next orbital diagram is not a possible arrangement of electrons.

We can restate the Pauli Exclusion Principle:

Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold at most two electrons, and
then only if the electrons have opposite spins.
.‫ فقط إذا كانت اإللكترونات تحتوي على غزل معكوس لكل منهما‬،‫يمكن أن يحمل املدار إلكترونين على األكثر‬
Each subshell holds a maximum of twice as many electrons as the number of
orbitals in the subshell. Thus, a 2p subshell, which has three orbitals (with ml = –
1, 0, and +1), can hold a maximum of six electrons. The maximum number of
electrons in various subshells is given in the following table:

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 Example (1):

Which of the following orbital diagrams or electron configurations are

possible and which are impossible, according to the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
(Explain)

Answer:
a. Possible orbital diagram
b. Impossible orbital diagram; there are three electrons in the 2s orbital.
c. Impossible orbital diagram; there are two electrons in a 2p orbital with the
same spin.
d. Impossible electron configuration; there are three electrons in the 1s subshell
(one orbital).
e. Impossible electron configuration; there are seven electrons in the 2p subshell
(which can hold only six electrons).
f. Possible. Note that the 3d subshell can hold as many as ten electrons.

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8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table

Building-up principle (or Aufbau principle), a schem )‫ (مخطط‬used to reproduce

the electron configurations of the ground states of atoms by successively filling
subshells with electrons in a specific order (the building-up order):

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f.

This order reproduces the experimentally determined electron configurations

(with some exceptions )‫ (استثناءات‬which we will discuss later)

The building-up order corresponds for the

most part to increasing energy of the
subshells. You might expect this. By filling
orbitals of lowest energy first, you usually
get the lowest total energy (ground state)
of the atom.
‫يتم ملئ االلكترونات في املدارات حسب الزيادة في الطاقة حيث‬
.‫يبدأ امللئ من املستوى االقل طاقة لالعلى طاقة‬

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 Ground-State Electron Configurations of Atoms Z = 1 to 36

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table:

By this time you can see a pattern )‫ (نمط‬develop among the ground-state
electron configurations of the atoms. This pattern explains the periodic table
Consider helium, neon, argon, and krypton, elements in Group 8A of the
periodic table.

These elements are the first members of the group called noble gases because of
their relative unreactive.

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‫يمكن استخدام الغازات النبيلة في التوزيع الذري لاللكترونات وذلك ألن جميع املستويات ممتلئة ويعود ذلك لشدة‬
‫استقرارهم كما هو موضح باألمثلة التالية‪:‬‬

‫(الجدول السابق يوضح توزيع االلكترونات في املدار االخير والتي تأتي بعد توزيع الغازات النبيلة وهو لالستطالع فقط‬
‫ويساعدكم في التأكد من الحل في الفصول القادمة)‬
‫‪Noble-gas core is an inner-shell configuration corresponding to one of the noble‬‬
‫‪gases, plus two outer electrons with an ns2 configuration.‬‬
‫‪The noble-gas core together with (n –1) d10 electrons is often referred to as a‬‬
‫‪pseudo-noble-gas core.‬‬

‫‪Examples:‬‬
‫‪1)Zn : 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s²‬‬
‫)‪Zn+2 : 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 (pseudo-noble-gas core‬‬

‫‪202‬‬
 2) Ag: [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ 5s¹
Ag+: [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁶ 4d¹⁰ (pseudo-noble-gas core)

3)In: [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p1

In+ : [Kr] 5s2 4d10 (pseudo-noble-gas core)

Exceptions to the Building-Up Principle:

Chromium Cr (Z = 24)
The building-up principle predicts the configuration [Ar]3d44s2, though the
correct one is found experimentally to be [Ar]3d54s1.
‫ من‬3d ‫ واملدار‬4s ‫ يكون أكثر استقرار عندما يكون نصف ممتلئ وأيضا بسبب قرب املدار‬3d ‫ويعود ذلك ألن املدار‬
.‫بعضهما في الطاقة وبالتالي فهو استثناء عن مبدأ البناء الذي شرحناه سابقا‬

Copper Cu (Z =29)
Cu is another exception to the building-up principle, which predicts the
configuration [Ar]3d94s2 although experiment shows the ground-state
configuration to be [Ar]3d10 4s1.
‫ يفضل ويكون أكثر استقرار عندما يكون ممتلئ‬3d ‫وايضا يعد النحاس من االستثناءات؛ حيث اثبتت التجارب ان املدار‬
.‫ في الطاقة فهو يأخذ إلكترون ليصبح أكثر استقرارا‬4s ‫ولقربه من املدار‬

8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table

Depending on the electronic distribution of atoms, we can find out where they
are in the periodic table (Group and period).

 Main-group elements:
:‫ ويمكن معرفة موقعهم في الجدول الدوري كاالتي‬s + p ‫ أو‬s ‫ينتهي توزيع اإللكترونات في هذه العناصر بـ‬
➔ The group: It is determined depend on the valance electrons that exist
in previous page.
➔ The period: The highest value for n.
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 Example (2):

Detect group and period for:

1) Lithium (Li) 1s2 2s1
2) Carbon (C) 1s2 2s2 2p2
3) Gallium (Ga) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1
Answer:
1) The group = valance electrons = 1A (2s1)
The period = the highest value for n = 2 (2s1)

2) The group = valance electrons = 4A (2s2 2p2) so, 2e- + 2e- = 4

The period = the highest value for n = 2 (2s2)

3) The group = valance electrons = 3A (4s2 4p1) so, 2e- + 1e- = 3

The period = the highest value for n = 4 (4s2)

 Transition metals:
‫ ويمكن معرفة موقعهم في الجدول‬f (n-2), ns ‫ أو‬d (n-1) , ns ‫ينتهي توزيع اإللكترونات في هذه العناصر بـ‬
:‫الدوري كاالتي‬
➔ The group: It is determined depend on the valance electrons that exist
in previous page.
➔ The period: The highest value for n.

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 Example (3):

Detect group and period for:

1) Cobalt (Co) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
2) Copper (Cu) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
3) Titanium (Ti) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Answer:
1) The group = valance electrons = 9B (3d7 4s2) so, 7e-+2e- = 9
The period = the highest value for n = 4 (4s2)

2) The group = valance electrons = 11 (1B) (3d10 4s1) so, 10e-+1e- = 11

The period = the highest value for n = 4 (4s1)
‫ وكذلك األمر في‬1B ‫ ولكن هذه املجموعة غير موجودة وتسمى في الجدول الدوري‬11 ‫في هذا املثال يظهر أن رقم املجموعة هو‬
2B ‫ حيث تم تعريفها في الجدول الدوري على أنها‬12 ‫املجموعة‬

3) The group = valance electrons = 4B (3d2 4s2) so, 2e- + 2e- = 4

The period = the highest value for n = 4 (4s2)

8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule

Hund’s rule states that: (the lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in a

subshell is obtained by putting electrons into separate orbitals of the subshell
with the same spin before pairing electrons).
‫هي أحد قواعد توزيع اإللكترونات في املستويات الفرعية تنص على أن عند إضافة االلكترونات للمدارات متساوية الطاقة يجب إضافة‬
configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2

Three possible arrangements are given in the following orbital diagrams:

205
To apply Hund’s rule to the carbon atom, whose ground-state configuration is
1s2 2s2 2p2 we place the first four electrons as follows:

The next two electrons go into separate 2p orbitals, with both electrons having
the same spin, following Hund’s rule:

The following Table gives orbital diagrams for the ground states of the first ten
elements:

206
 Example (4):

Write an orbital diagram for the ground state of the iron atom (Fe) (Z=26)
Answer:

Magnetic Properties of Atoms:

The magnetic properties of an atom can be observed. The most direct way is to
determine whether the atomic substance is attracted to the field of a strong
magnet:
1) A paramagnetic substance is a substance that is weakly attracted by a
magnetic field, and this attraction is generally the result of unpaired electrons.
Example: Boron atom is a paramagnetic substance and the explanation is
each containing an unpaired electron

2) A diamagnetic substance is a substance that is not attracted by a magnetic

field or is very slightly repelled by such a field. This property generally means
that the substance has only paired electrons.
Example: Beryllium atom is a diamagnetic substance and the explanation is
each containing only paired electrons.

Note:
All of these are diamagnetic:

1) Group 8 (nobal gases) → He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe

2) Group 2A & 2B → (Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba) & (Zn,Cd,Hg)

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 Periodicity of the Elements

8.5 Some Periodic Properties

Atomic Radius: usually the mean or typical distance from the center of the
nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding shells of electrons

1. Within each period (horizontal row), the atomic radius tends to decrease with
increasing atomic number (nuclear charge). Thus, the largest atom in a period
tends to be the Group 1A atom and the smallest the noble-gas atom.
2. Within each group (vertical column), the atomic radius tends to increase with
the period number.

Example (5):

Refer to a periodic table and use the trends noted for size of atomic radii
to arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius: Al, C, Si.
Answer:
According to the periodic table of radius for isolated atoms
C < Si < Al

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Ionization Energy:
The first ionization energy (or first ionization potential) of an atom is the
minimum energy needed to remove the highest-energy electron from the
neutral atom in the gaseous state.
Example:

‫ كما يوضح أن طاقة التأين تزداد عند االنتقال من يسار الجدول‬،‫الجدول السابق يوضح طاقات التأين األولى للعديد من الذرات‬
.‫ وتقل عند االنتقال من أعلى الجدول الى أسفله‬، ‫الدوري الي يمينه‬

Example (6):

Using a periodic table only, arrange the following elements in order of

increasing ionization energy: Ar, Se, S.
Answer:
According to the periodic table of ionization energy for isolated atoms
Se < S < Ar
Note: Ar is nobal gas and the nobal gases have the highest ionization energy.

Note: There are exceptions to the previous table in ionization energy,

which are five exceptions:
Be > B, Mg > Al, N > O, P > S, As > Se

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‫ويعود ذلك لتوزيعها االلكتروني حيث أن الذرات االعلى في طاقة التأين هي أكثر استقرارا في توزيعها االلكتروني وبالتالي فإنها‬
‫تشذ عن القاعدة االتية (عند االنتقال من يسار الجدول الدوري الى يمينه تزداد طاقة التأين)‪.‬‬

‫)‪Successive Ionization Energies of the First Ten Elements (kJ/mol‬‬

‫في البداية عند إزالة االلكترون االول لكل الذرات يتبين لنا أن الـ ‪ He‬له أعلى طاقة تأين أولى‪ ،‬ولكن عند إزالة االلكترون‬
‫الثاني لكل الذرات يتبين أن الـ ‪ Li‬له أعلى طاقة تأين ثانية ‪ ،‬وأعلى طاقة تأين ثالثة هي للـ ‪ Be‬وهكذا حسب الجدول السابق ‪،‬‬
‫ويعود ذلك لشدة استقرار الـ ‪ He‬عند إزالة إول الكترون وهو من الغازات النبيلة‪ ،‬ولكن عند إزالة االلكترون الثاني تكون الـ‬
‫‪ He‬اقل استقرار مما كانت عليه ‪ ،‬ومقارنة مع الـ ‪ Li‬فإنه عند إزالة االلكترون االول كانت ذرة الـ ‪ Li‬قليلة االستقرار لوجود‬
‫الكترون منفرد سهل اإلزالة ‪ ،‬ولكن عند إزالة االلكترون الثاني زادت طاقة التأين لل ‪ Li‬النها أصبحت تشبه الـ ‪ He‬في‬
‫توزيعها االلكتروني ولذلك فهي تمتلك طاقة أعلى من الـ ‪ He‬نفسه ‪ ،‬وهكذا مع الـ ‪ Be‬عند طاقة تأينه الثالثة ومع الـ ‪ B‬عند‬
‫طاقة تأينه الرابعة ‪...‬‬

‫‪Electron Affinity:‬‬
‫‪It is defined as the change in energy (in kJ/mole) of a neutral atom (in the‬‬
‫‪gaseous phase) when an electron is added to the atom to form a negative ion.‬‬
‫‪Example:‬‬

‫‪210‬‬
 Electron Affinities of the Main-Group Elements (kJ/mol)

Notes:
 Group 7A have highest electron affinities and the Cl is the highest atom
 Group 1A and 2A (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) have the lowest
electron affinities.
 Electron affinities of 2A are less than electron affinities of 1A.
 Electron affinities of 5A are less than electron affinities of 4A.

Question Bank
(1) The element that having the highest ionization energy is.
a) Al b) Mg c) Ca d) Na e) K

(2) Which of the following atoms is the easiest to ionize?

a) Cl b) S c) Ne d) Ar e) Si

(3) Which of the following atoms is largest in size?

a) O b) C c) B d) Be e) F
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(4) Which one of the following electron configurations is considered a pseudo-
Nobel gas configuration?
a) [Rn]7s1 b) [Xe]6s25d1
c) [Ar]3d104s24p3 d) [Kr]5s24d5
e) [Kr] 4d10

(5) Which of the following element has the highest second ionization energy?
a) Ar b) Li c) Na d) Be e) Ne

(6) Which of the following atoms would have the smallest 1st ionization
energy?
a) Al b) Si c) P d) Mg e)Cs

(7) The element that having the highest ionization energy is:
a) P b) N c) S d) O e) C

(8) The element that having the highest ionization energy is:
a) P b) N c) S d) Ne e) C

(9) The correct electronic configuration of an element that has atomic number
= 31 is:
Select one:
a) [Ar]4d10 5s2 5p1 b) [Ar]3d10 4p3 C) [Ar]3d10 4s2 4p1 d) [Kr]4s2 4p1
e) [kr]4d10 5s2 5p1

(10) An atom of which of the following elements is not paramagnetic in the

ground state.
Select one:
a) Te b) Hg c) Pt d) Al e) Cr

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(11) How can Cl acquire a noble gas electron configuration?
Select one:
a) By losing three electrons b) By gaining one electron
C) By losing one electron d) By gaining two electrons
e) By losing two electrons

(12) Which of the following has the greatest number of unpair in its ground
electronic state?
a) Ne
b) Li
c) Cl
d) Si
e) F

(13) Two elements that have the same ground-state valence shell configuration
of ns2np3 are:
Select one:
a) Ge and Pb.
b) N and Sb
c) O and Se.
d) Sr and Mg.
e) Al and Ga.

(14) Which of the follow electronic configurations of neutral atoms is incorrect?

Select one:
a) 6C: 1s2 2s22p2
b) 35Br: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 4p5
c) 15P: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
d) 13Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

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(15) The correct electronic configuration of an element that has atomic number
= 34 is:
Select one:
a) [Ar]3d10 4s2 4p4
b) [Ar]3d10 4p6
c) [kr]4s2 4p4
d) [kr]4d10 5s2 5p4
e) [Ar]4d10 5s2 5p4

(16) The number of electrons in the 4f orbitals are is equal to

Select one:
a) 10
b) 7
c) 0
d) 14

(17) An atom of which of the following elements is not diamagnetic in the

ground state.
Select one:
a) Sr
b) Ag
c) Cd
d) Kr
e) Be

214
(18) an element that has atomic number = 51 is
Select one:
a) [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3
b) [Kr] 4d10 5p5
c) [Ar] 4d10 5s2 5p3
d) [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3
e) [Kr] 5s2 5p3

19) Which of the following electron configurations represents an excited state

of the indicated atom?
a. He: 1s2
b. P: 1s2 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 4s1
c. Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
d. Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6
e. N: 1s2 2s2 2p3

20) Which of the following statements is true about the ionization energy of
Mg+?
a. It will be equal to the ionization energy of Li.
b. It will be equal to and opposite in sign to the electron affinity of Mg 2+.
c It will be equal to and opposite in sign to the electron affinity of Mg+.
d. none of the above.
e. It will be equal to and opposite in sign to the electron affinity of Mg.

215
21) Which ground-state electron configuration is incorrect?
a. K: [Ar]4s1
b. Na:1s2 2s² 2p6 3s1
c. Zn: [Ar]3d10 4s2
d. Fe: [Ar]3d5
e. Br: [Ar]3d10 4s² 4p5

22) In which of the series of elements listed below would the elements have
most nearly the same atomic radius?
a B, Si, As, Te
b. Na, Mg, AI, Si
C. F, CI, Br, I
d. Na, K, Rb, Cs
e. Sc, Ti, V, Cr

216
Answers:
1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (d) 4. (e) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9.(c) 10.(b)
11.(b) 12.(d) 13.(b) 14.(b) 15.(a)
16.(d) 17.(b) 18.(a) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (e)

217